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- Dimensions of Leisure for Life
From both an individual and a societal perspective, Dimensions of Leisure for Life guides students through a study of leisure as a multidisciplinary field. The book uses social sciences methods and current research, with examples from psychology, geography, anthropology, and sociology, to study leisure behavior. With contributions from 23 leading professors, the book examines the following:
The concept of leisure, including the various ways in which it has been defined and described, the benefits associated with it, the scope of the leisure industry field, and the basis for studying leisure as a social science The impact of leisure on quality of life, health, physical activity and stress levels, and overall happiness and well-being The social significance of leisure, including the interaction of leisure with history, contemporary society, technology, the environment, economics, and politics and public policy The factors that influence each individual’s leisure choices and level of involvement in leisure activities, such as awareness of local options; barriers of age, gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, religion, or socioeconomic status; geographic distribution of leisure spaces; and maturity level and stage of development
Students will also consider the part that recreation and leisure play in their own lives. Dimensions of Leisure for Life will guide them on a search for new leisure experiences, starting with their campus and moving on to the wider community and beyond. They’ll search out the resources that are available to them, learn to recognize and challenge the obstacles to participation, and commit to a leisure plan that will meet their needs and enhance personal growth. They will also examine contemporary issues, such as active living, work-to-life balance, the environmental impact of leisure, and sustainability, and discuss how these issues could influence their leisure activity choices.
The text is complemented by ancillaries for instructors and an online resource for students. All of these resources can be found online at www.HumanKinetics.com/DimensionsofLeisureforLife.
Part I: Dimensions of Leisure
Chapter 1: The Importance of Leisure to Individuals and Society
Descriptions and Definitions
Why Are Leisure and Recreation Important?
The Ubiquitous Leisure Industry
The Value of Leisure
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 2: Leisure Through a Social Science Lens
We Are All Social Scientists
Social Science Perspectives
Theories to Practice
Social Science Benefits
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Part II: Leisure as Part of Your Lifestyle
Chapter 3: Leisure and Quality of Life
Defining Quality of Life
Individual Health and Illness Prevention
Leisure and Work
Social Support
Communities and Neighborhoods
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 4: Leisure, Health, and Physical Activity
Physical Activity Trends
What Is Health?
Parks and Recreation: Making a Difference
Leisure and Life Stress
Promoting Lifelong Recreation and Active Living
Examining Factors That Influence Behavior
Examples of Physical Activity Initiatives
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 5: Leisure and Well-Being
Understanding Well-Being
Stress and Well-Being: The Important Role of Coping
Managing Stress to Enhance Well-Being
Participating in Meaningful Leisure to Enhance Well-Being
Determinants of Happiness
Leisure Choices that Undermine Well-Being
Approaches and Strategies to Enhance the Value of Leisure for Well-Being
Savoring Leisure
Authentic Leisure
Leisure Gratifications
Mindful Leisure
Virtuous Leisure
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Part III: Dimensions of Leisure in Society
Chapter 6: Leisure History and Heritage
Understanding Leisure From a Historical Perspective
Evolution or Creation?
The Importance of Fire and Its Effect on the Division of Labor
Meanwhile, Back at the Cave . . . Agricultural Alternatives
The Rise of Civilization
Leisure in the Land of the Pharaohs
The Emergence of Greece
Caput Mundi: The Glory of Rome
The Medieval Period: Castles, Churches and the Peasant Culture
The Renaissance: A Resurgence of Classical Values
The Industrial Revolution
The Origins and Development of Recreational Services in the United States
The Heritage of the National Recreation and Park Association
Leisure, Recreation, and Quality of Life
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Readings
Glossary
References
Chapter 7: Contemporary Leisure
Do You Fit the Description of Generation Y?
Three Types of Constraints to Leisure
Trends in Contemporary Leisure
Service Learning and Volunteerism
What Have You Learned About Your Leisure and Yourself?
Summary
Learning Activities
Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 8: Leisure and Technology
Historical and Contemporary Technologies
Technology’s Affect on Leisure and Wellness
Potentially Harmful Uses of Technology
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 9: Leisure, the Environment, and Sustainability
An Advancing Civilization
Conquering Managerial Challenges
The Promise of Tourism
Moving Toward a Sustainable Future
Islands of Hope
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 10: Economics of Leisure
The Relationship of Economics and Leisure
Spending Money on Leisure
Commercial Recreation
Municipal Recreation
Not-for-Profit Recreation
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 11: Leisure, Politics, and Public Policy
The Government’s Role in Leisure
Federalism
Pluralism and Public Policy
Justification for Public Recreation and Leisure
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Part IV: Leisure in Your World
Chapter 12: Campus and Community
What Is a Microcosm?
Exploring your Campus and Campus Recreation
Discover Opportunities: Components of Campus Recreation
Have a Voice & Get Involved: Volunteer and Job Opportunities on Campus
Exploring Your Community
Discover Opportunities in Community Recreation
Get Involved Now and in the Future
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 13: Leisure for All
People with Disabilities
Veterans
Older Adults
Location and Income
Leisure and Segments of Society
Ethnicity and Race
Immigrants, Culture, and Religion
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 14: Leisure and Geography
Spatial Distribution of Leisure Places
Development of Leisure Places
Leisure Travel and Transportation
Impacts of Leisure on Places
Positive Impacts of Leisure Development
Negative Impacts of Leisure Development
Climate Change and Leisure
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 15: Leisure Through the Life Span
Life Span Concepts
Piaget’s Four Stages of Development
Social Development and Leisure Development
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
Chapter 16: Charting Your Course
Whose Life is This Anyway?
Changing Obstacles Into Opportunities
Finding Resources
Form an Action Plan
Monitor, Evaluate, and Modify Your Leisure Experience
Summary
Learning Activities
Review Questions
Leisure Reading
Glossary
References
This product was authored by Human Kinetics based on the contributions of:
Robert J. Barcelona, PhD, is an assistant professor in the youth development leadership program and the department of parks, recreation, and tourism management at Clemson University. Barcelona received his doctorate from Indiana University after working professionally in the field of athletics and campus recreation. He has also worked with numerous recreation and sport organizations in both programming and research efforts and is a member of the board of directors for the Society of Park and Recreation Educators. His research on sport and recreation management has been published in refereed journals, trade magazines, and textbook chapters. Barcelona is also a coauthor of the textbook Leisure Services Management.
Brent A. Beggs, PhD, is an associate professor and the program director for recreation and park administration at Illinois State University, where he teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in entrepreneurial recreation, facility design, the management of sport and recreation, research methods, and trends. Dr. Beggs coauthored the textbooks Recreation Facility Management and Mastering the Job Search Process in Recreation and Leisure Services and has published scholarly papers and presented research findings at international, national, and regional conferences. Before teaching at Illinois State, he served as a lecturer and internship coordinator for the department of recreation, park, and tourism studies at Indiana University and worked for recreation agencies in the states of Illinois and Missouri. He is an active member of NRPA, NASSM, and NIRSA and serves on multiple editorial boards. Dr. Beggs earned his BS and MS in recreation from Southern Illinois University and completed his PhD in leisure behavior at Indiana University.
Jason Bocarro, PhD, is an associate professor at North Carolina State University in the department of parks, recreation and tourism management. He received his PhD from Texas A&M University. He was an assistant professor at the University of New Hampshire from 2001 to 2005. Bocarro has published book chapters and articles in several research journals. He has also conducted trainings and workshops at state and national conferences focusing on youth and adolescent issues and physical activity. Before working in academia, Dr. Bocarro was involved with the development and supervision of youth adventure and sport programs in a variety of places and settings, including London, England; Nova Scotia, Canada; Texas; and New Hampshire.
Kelly S. Bricker, PhD, is an associate professor at the University of Utah and chair of the International Ecotourism Society. She completed her PhD research at Pennsylvania State University where she specialized in outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism within the program of recreation, park, and tourism management. She has research and teaching interest in sustainable tourism development, natural resource management, and sense of place relative to ecotourism and sustainable tourism. She has conducted research on heritage tourism, social impacts of tourism, natural resource tourism environments, visitor management on public lands, sustainable tourism, and tourism certification programs. She has presentedd papers on issues in heritage tourism, sense of place, natural resource management, ecotourism, and sustainable tourism. Dr. Bricker has written about sense of place relative to whitewater recreationists and community tourism development, heritage tourism, incentive travel, sustainable tourism, and ecotourism management and issues. She has been a faculty member at the University of the South Pacific and West Virginia University; from 1999 to 2001 she served as president of the Fiji Ecotourism Association. With her husband, Nathan, she developed an ecotourism whitewater and sea kayaking operation called Rivers Fiji, located on the main island of Viti Levu, which established the Upper Navua Conservation Area and Fiji’s first Ramsar site. Dr. Bricker also serves as chair of the Interim Advisory Committee of the Tourism Sustainability Council.
Nathan Bricker, MS, is the co-coordinator of the natural resources learning program in the University of Utah’s department of parks, recreation, and tourism. Previously, he was the general manager for OARS Inc. Nathan completed his master’s of science degree in parks, recreation, and tourism at West Virginia University in 2003, where his educational pursuits focused on management and geography of protected areas. His master’s project focused on developing a lease for conservation, the Upper Navua Conservation Area (UNCA), and the Ramsar Wetland of International Importance designation in the Republic of Fiji. Together with George Wendt of OARS, Nathan and his wife, Kelly, started Rivers Fiji in 1998, and still run whitewater rafting and sea kayaking programs in the rural highlands. Nathan started his career in commercial guiding with OARS and Sobek Expeditions in 1984. From that time, he has guided extensively for World Heritage, Australian Himalayan Expeditions, and Sobek Expeditions, which provided firsthand experiences in the adventure and sustainable travel arenas as well as a solid background in the skills required for leading groups safely into a range of unique environments. Nathan has led groups in over 18 countries and holds instructor certifications with the Wilderness Education Association (WEA), Leave No Trace (LNT), Special Rescue Services (Swiftwater Rescue), Wilderness Medical Associates (WFR), and the American Canoe Association (ACA). Nathan has developed and led adventure travel programs to Tanzania, Kenya, Ecuador, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Thailand, Bali, Sumatra, Borneo, China Fiji, New Zealand, Australia, Nepal, Galapagos, India, and Tibet.
Cynthia Carruthers, PhD, is a professor in the department of recreation and sport management at the University of Nevada at Las Vegas. She received her bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in the areas of leisure behavior and therapeutic recreation. Her research interests include leisure and well-being, mindfulness, recovery from addiction, and youth development.
Lee J. deLisle, PhD, is the chair of the health, physical education, and recreation department at Western Michigan University. He teaches courses in recreational management theory, festival and event management, and sociology of leisure, as well as graduate courses in sport management. He is currently a member of the Society of Park and Recreeation Educators (SPRE) board of directors. He has served on the state board of directors for the Michigan Recreation and Parks Association, coordinates student activities for the Student Recreation Society on campus, and provides consultant services to municipal and private agencies. He previously worked as a recreation and parks director in Connecticut for 15 years. Dr. deLisle has contributed articles to World Leisure Journal, Annals of Leisure Research, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Tourism Analysis, SCHOLE, and Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly; he has also contributed to publications for the National Recreation and Parks Association and the Michigan Recreation and Parks Association. Dr. deLisle coauthored the text The Story of Leisure in 1998 with Jay Shivers. His most recent book, Designing Special Events,was published in the summer of 2009. Dr. deLisle enjoys spending a leisurely portion of the summer at his home in Roccantica, Italy, with his wife, Rhonda Larson.
Virginia “Ginni” Dilworth, PhD, is an assistant professor in the health, physical education, and recreation department at Utah State University. She has a BS in recreation administration from California State University at Sacramento, an MBA from Bentley College, and a PhD in recreation, park, and tourism sciences at Texas A&M University. She has been involved in research on a variety of topics, including nature tourism, transportation in national parks, and the experience of flow. Her current research focuses on active aging in outdoor recreation.
Minsun Doh, PhD, works in the department of recreation, park, and tourism administration at Western Illinois University. She received a BA degree in geography education from Korea University in Seoul. Her master’s and PhD degrees are from Texas A&M University in the field of tourism planning and development. Her academic interests are in community-based tourism development, geography of tourism, and special events management. She is interested in the balanced development of tourism in communities that involve all stakeholders, including the visitors, business owners, and the host community. She's also interested in how various geographical factors affect tourism destinations and how these places are shaped in regard to tourism-related changes. She teaches courses on concepts of leisure, introduction to tourism, international tourism, resort management, and special events planning and management.
Daniel L. Dustin, PhD,is chair of the department of parks, recreation, and tourism at the University of Utah. His main academic interests center on environmental stewardship and the moral and ethical bases for leisure and recreation activity preferences and behaviors. A past president of the Society of Park and Recreation Educators and a recipient of the National Recreation and Park Association's National Literary Award, he was named an honorary lifetime member of the California Park Rangers Association in 1994 for his contributions to the literature of outdoor recreation resource management and planning. Wilderness in America, Beyond Promotion and Tenure, For the Good of the Order, The Wilderness Within, Stewards of Access/Custodians of Choice, Nature and the Human Spirit (coedited with B.L. Driver and George Peterson), Making a Difference in Accademic Life (coedited with Tom Goodale), and Service Living (coauthored with Doug Wellman, Karla Henderson, and Roger Moore) are among his recent works as a contributing author and editor.
Dovie J. Gamble, PhD, is an assistant professor in tourism, recreation, and sport management at the University of Florida. She is a certified therapeutic recreation specialist and holds a BS degree in recreation from Grambling State University and master’s and PhD degrees from New York University. Her teaching focuses on history and philosophy of recreation, leadership, and recreation programs. She has been a longtime member of NRPA, serving on numerous committees. At the University of Florida she has directed the Office of Graduate Minority Programs and served as chair and coordinator of the University Minority Mentor Program (UMMP). In these roles she addressed social functioning and quality of life issues related to the transition of graduate and undergraduate minority students into the university. She continues to address quality of life issues of minority graduate students in her work with the Florida Education Fund’s McKnight doctoral fellows. Her research interests include quality for life issues of survivors of catastrophic health problems, with a focus of the role that leisure and social functioning play in long-term survivorship. As a longtime advocate and volunteer for the American Cancer Society, her involvement in efforts to develop and provide programs and services to address quality of life is ongoing.
H. Joey Gray, PhD, is an assistant professor and program manager of recreation and leisure studies at Middle Tennessee State University in Murfreesboro. She has worked and taught in the field of recreation and leisure since 1999 and has designed courses in youth development and programming, campus recreation, and marketing in recreation. Her research focuses on community recreation, youth development, and health and leisure. In addition to her teaching experience, Gray has several years of professional experience in recreation management and special event planning both in the public and private sectors. She has also served as the athletic director of the National Youth Sports Program. Gray has received the Future Leader Award from the Society of Park and Recreation Education (SPRE); the Recreation Professional of the Year Award from the Tennessee Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (TAHPERD); and the Trustee’s Teaching Award from Indiana University.
Karla Henderson, PhD, is a professor in the department of parks, recreation, and tourism management at North Carolina State University. She has been on the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, University of Wisconsin at Madison, and Texas Woman's University. She received her PhD from the University of Minnesota. She has given numerous presentations throughout North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. Henderson publishes regularly in a variety of journals in the field and has authored or coauthored several books: Both Gains and Gaps (with Bialeschki, Shaw, and Freysinger), Dimensions of Choice, Volunteers in Leisure (with Tedrick), Introduction to Leisure Services (with Sessoms), and Evaluation of Leisure Services (with Bialeschki). She is currently coeditor of Leisure Sciences. Henderson has contributed to the profession in seveeral ways by serving as president of SPRE, the AAHPERD Research Consortium, and the Academy of Leisure Sciences and on numerous state, national, and international boards and committees. She has received the J.B. Nash Scholar Award, the Julian Smith Award, the NCRPS Special Citation, the ACA Honor Award, the SPRE Distinguished Colleague Award, the North Carolina Recreation and Park Society Honor Award, and the NRPA Roosevelt Excellence in Research Award. When not working, Karla enjoys hiking in the Rocky Mountains, running, playing her trumpet, and reading and writing wherever she goes.
Colleen Hood, PhD, is a professor in the department of recreation and leisure studies at Brock University in St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. She received her bachelor’s degree in physical education from the University of Calgary and her master’s and doctoral degrees in leisure behavior and therapeutic recreation from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her research interests include leisure and well-being, positive psychology and leisure, recovery from addiction, and professional practice in therapeutic recreation. She and Cynthia Carruthers recently developed the leisure and well-being service model for therapeutic recreation practice.
Joy James, PhD, is an assistant professor in recreation management at Appalachian State University. She received her doctorate in parks, recreation, and tourism management at Clemson University. She was a corecipient of the 2009 Society of Parks and Recreation Educators Innovation in Teaching Award. As a lifelong learner, Joy has a passion for innovation, best teaching practices, and scholarship in formal and nonformal learning environments.
Michael Kanters, PhD, is an associate professor at North Carolina State University. He received his PhD from Indiana University. Dr. Kanters has taught at Brock University in Canada and the University of Western Illinois. Dr. Kanters’ research seeks to understand the roll that sports play in the lives of children and adolescents. He is particularly interested in the impact of parental involvement and the association of sport participation with physical activity. His current sport and physical activity research is funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.
Linda "Rainbow" Levine is an award-winning educator and facilitator. She has guided over 50,000 San Jose State University students and international workshop participants who rave about their experiences and personal successes. Linda’s enthusiasm and engaging leadership style turn a learning experience into an exciting and enjoyable event. Professionally and personally, Linda lives creatively and abundantly. Her current pursuits include SJSU professor, professional clown, life coach, grief counselor, girls’ empowerment camp director, and workshop presenter through her business Surprise Enterprise. Her areas of expertise include leadership, teamwork, life balance, diversity, grief and loss, and play and creativity. Linda received her bachelor’s degree in recreation from Indiana University and a master’s in education from the University of Cincinnati. For over 20 years Linda, her husband, and pet tortoises have lived in California, where she gets to teach courses with wonderful titles like Creating a Meaningful Life.
Nancy Nisbett,EdD, is an associate professor in the department of recreation administration at California State University at Fresno. She coordinates the community recreation and youth services specialization as well as the Serving At-Risk Youth certificate. Dr. Nisbett is certified at both the state and national levels as a recreation therapist and has been practicing for more than 15 years. Her past experiences include working at youth ranches, camps, and hospitals and as the inclusion director for a municipal recreation agency.
Erik Rabinowitz, PhD, is an assistant professor of recreation management at Appalachian State University. He taught previously at Oklahoma State University and Southern Illinois University. Erik received a PhD in educational psychology and an MS in recreation from Southern Illinois University and a bachelor’s degree in social science from Colorado State University. Erik previously worked as assistant to the director of university assessment at SIUC and as manager of WDBX 91.1, a community radio station with over 100 volunteers. He also worked for Project Achieve and Brehm Preparatory School, both centers that assist individuals with learning disabilities. He is interested in research on the benefits of recreation, psychological constructs of leisure participation, and extreme sports. He spends his leisure time chasing around his two little girls. He enjoys skiing, soccer, canoeing, playing chess, playing his mandolin like David Grisman (he wishes), and going to a Dead show.
Ariel Rodríguez, PhD, is an assistant professor in the school of community resources and development at Arizona State University in Phoenix. His responsibilities include teaching undergraduate courses, conducting research, and generating externally funded projects. His teaching focuses on the management and evaluation of park, recreation, and leisure services with an emphasis on community and municipal services. His research focuses on safety behavior, obesity prevention, well-being, and life satisfaction primarily in younger populations. Moreover, he has been involved in numerous evaluation projects assessing the effectiveness of programs aimed at improving safety behavioral patterns, physical activity, and overall well-being of younger populations.
Paul Schlag, PhD, is an assistant professor at Western Illinois University in the recreation, parks, and tourism administration department. He has a bachelor’s degree in recreation management and youth leadership from Brigham Young University, a master’s of public administration from the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, a master’s of education in instructional technology from the University of Georgia, and a doctorate in recreation and leisure studies from the University of Georgia. He teaches courses in the philosophy of leisure, leadership in leisure services, youth and leisure services, leisure services for the elderly, and recreation facility management. His main interest is examining ways in which leisure may contribute to wellness through providing opportunities for dealing with developmental tasks throughout the life span. Paul and his family live in Macomb, Illinois.
Stephanie West, PhD, received a bachelor’s degree from Auburn University and a masster’s degree from Georgia Southern University, both in recreation management. Her PhD is from Texas A&M University, where she worked with Dr. John Crompton. Before completing her PhD, Stephanie worked full-time in campus recreation for three years at the University of North Florida and for five years at Texas A&M University. Other noteworthy experiences include running a summer day camp in Blackville, South Carolina, as part of the Rural Recreation Development Project and completing an internship as a transportation hostess at Walt Disney World. She is currently an assistant professor at Appalachian State University, where she teaches in the recreation management program. She most enjoys teaching leisure promotions, program planning, and a course on the cruise line industry, in which she takes students aboard cruise ships for a behind-the-scenes look at their operations. Her research focuses on leisure-time physical activity. When she is not at work, she enjoys traveling, road cycling, running (very slowly), reading, watching television shows recorded on TiVo, and spending time with her cats.
Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
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Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
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Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
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Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
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Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
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Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
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Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
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Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
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Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
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Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
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Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
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Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
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Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
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Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
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Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
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Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
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Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
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Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
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Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
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Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
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Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
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Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
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Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
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Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
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Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
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Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
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Role of psychology in leisure studies
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior.
Psychological Theories and Leisure Application
One of the major fields of study that influence social science is psychology. Psychology is the study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior. We all use the principles of psychology daily without realizing it. When we reward ourselves with a night at the movies for doing something good, we are using psychology's learning principle of positive reinforcement. When we get nervous right before we drop in from the top of a skateboard ramp, we are activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling ourselves to calm down, work harder, or give up, we are using psychological cognitive approaches. These examples illustrate psychology as the study of humans' thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
If you examine the definition of psychology closely, you can see that it is heavily entrenched in leisure and leisure behaviors. For example, why does one person choose to jump out of a plane whereas another person says, “Look at that idiot jumping out of a perfectly good plane.” One of the psychological theories at play in these scenarios is the theory of sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and the willingness to take physical
and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1983, p. 10). According to the theory of sensation seeking, four subcomponents make up how much a person desires sensation-seeking attributes and opportunities:
- Thrill and adventure seeking, which relate to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high-risk sports
- Experience seeking, which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences
- Disinhibition, which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviors (e.g., binge drinking or having unprotected sex)
- Boredom susceptibility, which relates to intolerance for monotony and repetitive activities
Have you ever participated in a leisure activity such as snowboarding, playing the guitar, or meditating, where you lost all sense of time; your ability and the challenge were perfectly matched; you became totally unaware of your surroundings; or you just seemed to get into the rhythm of things, on the ball, in the zone, or in the groove? This is called the flow theory. The nine factors of flow are these:
1. The challenge level and skill level are matched.
2. A high degree of concentration is present.
3. Self-consciousness is lost.
4. Sense of time is distorted.
5. Successes and failures are apparent.
6. Clear and obtainable goals are present.
7. The person has a sense of personal control.
8. The experience is intrinsically rewarding.
9. The person becomes absorbed in the activity.
Not all of these factors are needed for flow to be experienced. When an expert skier skis on a bunny hill she is likely to be bored; when a beginner is on a black diamond hill, she is likely to feel anxiety. The optimal situation for flow is when the person is in the middle, matching her skill level with the challenge. The borrowing and merging of psychological theories and leisure are too expansive to discuss in this text; however, you can almost take any major theory of psychology and use the theory to better understand leisure behaviors.
The psychological perspective of leisure shows us that leisure is a time for building purpose in our lives, is individually determined, and should have beneficial results. Some of the psychological benefits of leisure might include, but are not limited to, increases in self-actualization, self-identity, self-esteem, or self-concept; personal enjoyment and growth; reduction of anxiety and depression; enhanced feelings of spirituality; and improvements in overall psychological well-being. Additionally, it is well documented that as a result of leisure engagement, people make significant gains in informational knowledge, visual learning, problem solving, creativity, and recognition memory. Interestingly, much of the research to support these statements comes not only from human trials but also from psychological studies on animals.
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Managing stress enhances well-being
The stressors in one’s life can be managed in three ways.
The stressors in one's life can be managed in three ways (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). First, people can target the thoughts or perceptions of threat that trigger the flight or fight response and the related feelings. Second, people can take action to address directly the environmental challenges. Third, people can pursue activities that reduce the physiological stress response. People cannot be simultaneously physiologically stressed and relaxed.
Emotion-Focused Coping
One's perceptions or thoughts are the primary source of distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). People who experience chronic distress may have distorted and irrational thoughts (Burns, 1999). Some people are genetically predisposed to overreact to stress (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Emotion-focused coping strategies target the thoughts and feelings associated with distress (Smith & Carlson, 1997). When people use emotion-focused coping strategies, they might examine the ways in which their irrational thoughts contribute to their negative emotions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a young woman who is anxious about going to college parties may be afraid that she will make a social blunder and others will judge her harshly. She can recognize and challenge that negative self-talk and replace it with rational, constructive thoughts or just realize that her distorted thoughts are not reality and let them go. She can learn to keep situations in perspective and not overreact emotionally to life events.
Another example of emotion-focused coping is distraction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Distraction is the process of diverting attention away from one issue and focusing attention on another. If a person is not thinking about a potential threat, the physiological stress response will be turned off, resulting in the relaxation response. When people believe there is nothing that they can do to change the situation, it does little good to think about it. In fact, the distress created by thinking about it can result in physical and emotional harm (Davis et al., 2008). Under these circumstances, it may be helpful to turn one's mind to an enjoyable, engaging leisure activity (Kleiber et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2008). Leisure experiences that are personally meaningful, challenging, and enjoyable are optimal experiences for disengaging from everyday routines and worries (Hood & Carruthers, 2002). To reap the reward of this coping response and turn off the physiological stress response, it is important to immerse oneself in the leisure experience as completely as possible.
A final example of emotion-focused coping is acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Like distraction, this coping strategy is used when people believe that there is little that they can do or should do to change a situation. Many things in life are out of our control; it is simply not within our power to change them. Worrying and fretting about them will just create chronic stress and undermine our physical and mental health. Acceptance of a situation is experiencing it for what it really is, without defense or distortion, and letting it be (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation is a leisure activity through which acceptance can be cultivated. The focus of mindfulness meditation is to see and accept things as they are, moment by moment.
Problem-Focused Coping
A second strategy for coping is problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking action to directly address the challenges of life. For example, problem-focused coping strategies for the stress associated with writing a final exam might include joining a study group, setting aside 2 hours a day to study, and getting a good night's sleep before the exam. Problem-based coping requires a realistic assessment of actions that can be taken to improve a situation and the willingness to act. The development of one's personal strengths and resources contributes to one's ability to cope with life's demands (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood & Carruthers, 2002). Enhancing or developing resources can be seen as a proactive approach to coping. The cultivation of physical resources, such as health, fitness, and energy, can contribute to one's coping capacity. The development of emotional resources, such as a belief in one's own competence, worth, and purpose, can contribute to one's coping capacity: Engagement in optimally challenging, meaningful leisure can enhance these emotional resources (Iwasaki, 2008). The creation and maintenance of social resources, such as social connections and support, can also contribute to one's coping repertoire. Leisure is an important area for the cultivation of these social networks (Iwasaki, 2008).
Relaxation
A third strategy for coping is to pursue activities that facilitate the relaxation response. Relaxation allows for physiological and emotional recuperation from stress (Fredrickson, 2000), and leisure is an important path to attaining a relaxed state. Leisure can serve as a context for engaging in personal reflection, gaining a sense of perspective and appreciation, and living in the moment (Kleiber, 1999). Engaging in physical leisure activities decreases anxiety and depression (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Experiencing nature through activities such as walking in nature preserves and hiking in the wilderness has a restorative effect (Hartig et al., 2003). Involvement in leisure activities that are nontaxing and enjoyable, such as watching television or listening to music, also induces the relaxation response. After immersing ourselves in optimally challenging activities that require our full concentration, we often feel refreshed. The full attention required to engage in the activity helps us disengage from our ruminations and distress (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Finally, activities such as meditation, yoga, and tai chi can directly reduce the physiological stress response (Olson, 2006).
Leisure-Based Coping
A fourth strategy for coping includes three specific forms of coping that are leisure based: leisure palliative coping, leisure mood enhancement, and leisure companionship (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Leisure palliative coping might include activities like running, cycling, or hiking that give us temporary relief from stress and an opportunity to regroup and gain perspective. Leisure mood enhancement activities might include watching a funny movie or playing a game with friends. Leisure companionship would include any activities that involve social interaction that facilitates a supportive social network of friends. With each of these leisure coping strategies, the activities we select to cope with stress will likely reduce stress but may not necessarily improve our health and well-being. Leisure mood enhancement activities could include excessive alcohol consumption or drug use. Leisure companionship might include promiscuous sexual activity, and leisure palliative coping might include engaging in reckless or dangerous activities.
Leisure involvement clearly can support a person's ability to cope with stress (Hutchinson et al., 2008). Certain qualities of the leisure experience are particularly important for supporting well-being and building a life of meaning and purpose. These qualities support both the experience of happiness and positive emotion and the development and expression of one's full potential (Carruthers & Hood, 2007).
Learn more about Dimensions of Leisure for Life.
Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions
Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty.
With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.
Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today's communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.
A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.
The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.
However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person's professional standing.
Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one's appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.
Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.
While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.
Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.
Gaming and Social Development
Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).
However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.
Television and Social Development
Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people's social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.
Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people's social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals' lives would be destroyed.
It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.
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Discover opportunities: Components of campus recreation
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff.
The purpose of campus recreation is to provide a wide variety of recreational experiences and opportunities for students‚ faculty‚ and staff. According to Dr. Ray Wiley, the most popular activities offered by the campus recreation centers he directs are (1) intramurals; (2) fitness programs (weight room, fitness classes); (3) club sports; (4) outdoor trips, often referred to as outdoor pursuits; and (5) aquatics, similar to results at other universities. With all of these activities, one might think that all college students would use their campus recreation centers several times per week. However, research shows that not all students are aware of activity choices, and students participate at differing rates. One study found that males tend participate in campus recreation activities more than do females (Zizzi et al., 2004). Another study revealed that freshmen were less aware of recreational offerings on campus and that men and women had different understandings of their campus choices (Reed, 2007). These results suggest that students participate more in campus recreation activities as they learn about their options.
Campus recreation's primary goal is to serve students; thus, a great deal of the activities and programming revolves around student interests. Students, faculty, and staff participate in campus recreation activates to have fun, maintain healthy lifestyles, and socialize. Leisure activities assist with life stress, enhancing both mental and physical health (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000). Now a major marketing and recruiting tool for many universities, campus recreation has become a vital component to universities and their students, faculty, and staff. In fact, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) provides several awards to campus recreation programs and professionals for outstanding programs and innovations. Among the most prestigious are the Creative Excellence Award for innovation and creativity in marketing programs and the Outstanding Sports Facilities Award.
The benefits associated with participation in campus recreation activities are endless and range from stress management to social engagement. Areas that many campus recreation centers address are recreational sport, fitness and aquatics, outdoor opportunities, and student program opportunities.
Recreational Sport
The term recreational sport was coined because of the popularity of informal sports programs: It is an umbrella term that refers to intramurals, extramurals, club sports, informal sports, and instructional sports (Mull et al., 2005). Numerous benefits are associated with recreational sports involvement, including decreased stress, improved social integration, enhancement of self-esteem, improved grades, and student development (Belch et al., 2001; Bryant et al., 1994; Haines, 2001; Kanters, 2000; Nesbitt, 1998). The most popular of all recreation sports activities are intramurals (Artinger et al., 2006). Intramurals are structured sports programs within the campus. They offer a wide range of sport opportunities with various levels of competition (beginner, intermediate, advanced). Typical examples of intramurals include softball, basketball, rugby, disc golf, hockey, badminton, volleyball, Wiffle ball, and flag football.
Fitness
Although sports are a large part of campus recreation, there are numerous recreational opportunities in addition to recreational sports. Most universities offer fitness programs, often in state-of-the-art fitness centers. Universities began incorporating fitness programs around the 1970s, although at the time such programs were considered a passing fad. Fitness programs are one of the top recreational activities on college campuses today, and it is predicted that fitness programming will remain essential as our country continues to struggle with obesity. Programs of interest tend to be group fitness classes such as tai chi, swim classes, water aerobics, Spinning classes, yoga, kick boxing, Pilates, and zumba (a type of dance fitness). Research has revealed a significant decrease in depression and anxiety in those who exercise regularly (Goodwin, 2003). Fitness activities also offer a stress-free way to meet people who share the common interest of fitness. The benefits from fitness opportunities, such as regular exercise and stress management, are key components to a healthy life.
Outdoor Trips
Outdoor trips are another unique opportunity offered by campus recreation programs. The trips range from short day hikes to longer international trips. Students can also learn skills such as canoeing, rock climbing, and scuba, and campus recreation often incorporates these skills into outdoor trips. One such example might be a spring break trip to Hawaii for scuba diving. Equipment for personal or major-related camping or kayaking trips is often available for rent through the campus recreation center. You are unlikely to ever find equipment rental as inexpensive as that offered by the campus recreation center: Rental can be as little as $5 a day! Whether students are skilled outdoor enthusiasts or simply would like to learn to kayak, the campus recreation center offers a variety of outdoor recreation opportunities.
Student Programs
Recreational opportunities also exist outside of campus recreation facilities. Some are called student programs or student activities, and some are sponsored by the office of student affairs. Regardless of the name, universities are filled with various microcosms outside of campus recreation. Perhaps somewhat unique from campus recreation, most outside activities are created, programmed, and delivered by students. Examples include inexpensive movies, concerts, comedians, lectures, variety shows, and fine arts. Student fees usually cover the majority of the expenses for these events, and therefore they are provided for students either free of charge or a minimal cost. A variety of leisure pursuits have been classified as casual leisure, intrinsically rewarding activities requiring little skill or training to enjoy (Stebbins, 1997). Some believe that casual leisure activities are just as important as serious leisure because people highly value casual leisure opportunities. Everyone participates in casual leisure, and most appreciate the opportunity to relax and emotionally recharge (Stebbins, 1997). Examples of casual leisure within campus recreation include going to movies or hanging out with friends. Campus recreation activities can also require specialized skills and time commitment, considered as serious leisure. Student programs for serious leisure activities include concert or theater productions or active participation in committee work. More than just an opportunity to participate in inexpensive, fun social activities, student programs offer great leadership and experiential opportunities.
Clubs and Student Organizations
Your campus offers a host of other student program opportunities such as student organizations and clubs, Greek life, religious organizations, and cultural opportunities. Additionally, student unions and other venues on campus are filled with social learning environments such as cyber cafes, study spaces, and open green spaces. One can never overlook the importance of informal collegiate experiences that occur as people gather to study or simply to hang out.
Clubs and student organizations are a major part of campus recreation and can range from the Rock Paper Scissors Club, like the one at The University of Florida, to the Young Republicans club, such as that at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. The Rock Paper Scissors Club has grown nationally and even has a college tournament, which is broadcast on ESPN. Of course, there are the typical clubs; for example, each major on campus usually has a club (math club, theater club, Spanish club). Notably, the recreation major's club should be having the most fun! Special interest clubs and organizations are plentiful on campus. Every collegiate campus has student government organizations and most have Greek organizations. Other clubs or organizations may range from the 24-hour movie club to a gardening club. If you are not in at least two clubs, it may be fair to say you are missing out. There are collegiate clubs for just about every leisure interest one could imagine. And if one does not exist on your campus, you could start one tomorrow. On second thought, why wait until tomorrow? You could start a Mustache Club just like the one at Carlton College in Minnesota. (This Carlton College club does include women, as long as they agree to shave everything except their upper lip!) Club and student organizations are derived from common leisure interests and frequently include philanthropic pursuits: The Carlton College Mustache Club raises money for a domestic abuse shelter. However, some clubs are purely for casual leisure experiences, like the Harvard Tiddlywinks Society or the University of Minnesota Campus People Watchers. According to the People Watchers' Web site, it is a “noncreepy organization” of people who enjoy the “social, psychological, and analytical aspects of people watching.” Do not wait: Join or start a club or student organization today!
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