Developing Speed
Edited by Ian Jeffreys and NSCA -National Strength & Conditioning Association
Series: NSCA Sport Performance
224 Pages
Athletes in all sports rely on speed. Whether it involves sprinting down the court on a fast break or chasing a loose ball, speed often contributes to overall athletic ability. Developing Speed teaches you how to elevate your speed in a scientifically based manner that will have you blowing by the competition.
Written by eight of the top National Strength and Conditioning Association experts, Developing Speed is your guide to elite-level speed development, regardless of your sport. In addition to the scientific coverage of speed development, this guide helps you assess your current ability and identify your areas of greatest need. Using this information, along with the most effective drills and exercises, you’ll have the tools and information for creating your own speed development program.
If increasing your athletic speed is what you’re seeking, then look no further. With the cutting-edge information packed into this one resource, you’ll achieve new personal bests and reach your most aggressive goals. Developing Speed is the only tool you need to develop your personal program and take your speed to the highest level!
Earn continuing education credits/units! A continuing education course and exam that uses this book is also available. It may be purchased separately or as part of a package that includes all the course materials and exam.
Chapter 1. The Nature of Speed
Chapter 2. Technical Models of Speed
Chapter 3. Technical Development of Linear Speed
Chapter 4. Assessment of Speed
Chapter 5. Developing Sport-Specific Speed
Chapter 6. Sport-Specific Speed Training
The National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) is the world’s leading organization in the field of sport conditioning. Drawing on the resources and expertise of the most recognized professionals in strength training and conditioning, sport science, performance research, education, and sports medicine, the NSCA is the world’s trusted source of knowledge and training guidelines for coaches and athletes. The NSCA provides the crucial link between the lab and the field.
ABOUT THE EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys has established himself as one of the most respected strength and conditioning coaches in the UK. He has been the strength and conditioning coach for the Welsh Schools national rugby team and has worked with athletes, clubs, and sport organizations, from junior level to professional level, around the world.
Ian is currently a reader in strength and conditioning at the University of South Wales, and also is the Proprietor of All-Pro Performance, a performance enhancement company based in Brecon Wales. He has been a member of the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) since 1989. He is a certified strength and conditioning specialist (CSCS) and certified personal trainer (NSCA-CPT) with the NSCA, and he has been recertified with distinction (*D) in both categories. He is also a registered strength and conditioning coach – recertified with distinction. Ian currently sits on the NSCA High School Executive Committee and was the NSCA’s High School Professional of the Year in 2006, the first time the award was presented to a coach working outside the United States, and was made a fellow of the NSCA in 2009.
Ian is on the British Olympic Association register of strength and conditioning professionals. He is a director of the United Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association, where he is an accredited strength and conditioning coach (ASCC) and an assessor for the organization. He is also a lead tutor for the UKSCA education workshops.
Ian has authored numerous strength and conditioning articles that have been featured in leading international journals. He is the editor of the UKSCA journal Professional Strength and Conditioning and is on the editorial board for the NSCA’s Strength and Conditioning Journal and the Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning. Ian has authored three books and the warm-up and stretching chapter for the third edition of Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning.
Ian is a sought-after presenter and has given keynote presentations and hosted high-performance workshops at major conferences around the world. His specialty is speed and agility development.
“Developing Speed is an excellent book for any coach looking to develop sport-specific speed with athletes.”
Kevin Cronin-- Head Strength and Conditioning Coach Colorado College Athletics
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/4ph_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/4ph_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/4ph_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/4ph_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/4ph_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/4ph_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/4ph_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/4ph_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/4ph_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion.
Developing Speed.
Potential for and Limits of Speed Development
Although speed can be improved, it is inaccurate to suggest that everyone has the capacity to become a sprint champion. A genetic ceiling exists for the top speed an athlete can reach, therefore limiting the ability of the vast majority of people to become an Olympic 100-meter champion. However, while this ceiling exists, it is likely that few people actually reach their ceiling. This is clearly demonstrated by the improvements that elite sprinters make throughout their careers. If top sprinters, with their training aimed specifically at speed development, do not always reach their full genetic potential, then clearly, the likelihood of athletes involved in other sports reaching their speed ceiling is much lower. Therefore, a majority of athletes have a great potential for improving speed, and speed development programs are fundamental to any total performance enhancement program. It is hoped that as speed training methods improve and are used by more and more athletes, more people will approach their ceiling and reach their full speed potential.
The principal genetic limits to performance are the type of muscle fiber, their activation, and the athlete's body type and structure. Great sprinters have a preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch fibers have a higher force-producing capacity and a higher speed of contraction but are less resistant to fatigue than slow-twitch fibers. Clearly, the higher the percentage of fast-twitch fibers an athlete has, the greater the capacity for speed.
This is further emphasized by the fact that there are two major types of fast-twitch fibers: Type IIa and Type IIx. Type IIx fibers demonstrate the greatest force-production capacity and contraction speed but exhibit very limited endurance. Type IIa fibers still have a high force capacity and speed of contraction, although not as high as Type IIx fibers, but have a greater endurance capacity than Type IIx. Elite sprinters have a high overall percentage of Type II fibers and also a high percentage of Type IIx fibers.
While the proportion of an athlete's muscle fiber types is predominantly set at birth, training can affect their characteristics and how they are activated. Prolonged endurance training for example can lead to Type IIx fibers taking on the characteristics of Type IIa fibers and to Type IIa fibers taking on the characteristics of Type I. Both of these effects reduce the force capacity of the muscle, especially in relation to the rate at which force can be applied. Additionally, excessive periods of resistance training, especially where slow movements are stressed, can lead to a change in fiber characteristics between Type IIx and Type IIa.
Also important is how effective an athlete is at recruiting the Type II muscle fibers (especially Type IIx). Untrained athletes typically recruit only a limited proportion of Type IIx muscle fibers, and training with high loads or high speeds or both is required to develop the capacity to recruit a high proportion of Type IIx fibers. Therefore, a speed development program needs to include resistance training that uses high loads and explosive movement.
Another important genetic factor in speed development is each athlete's body structure. Lever lengths (length of arms and legs) greatly determine the capacity to move rapidly, and the length of these levers is determined by both bone length and the point at which the muscles insert into the bone. This means that some bodies are designed ideally to move rapidly while others are not. Again this factor is genetically limited.
Although genetic limits provide a theoretical ceiling for speed capacity, the focus of a speed development program is improvement of this capacity and especially how it relates to sport performance. It is important, therefore, to look at the aspects of speed that can be improved. This requires an examination of the nature of running speed and identifying the elements that can be enhanced through training. In this way, athletes and coaches can focus on the elements they can adapt, which then become the focus of a speed improvement program.
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Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility.
Developing Speed.
Sprinting in Field and Court Sports
While track sprinting is a closed skill, athletes in field and court sports require reactive agility. Athletes must accelerate, decelerate, and change direction in a constantly changing environment, performing skills within the context of the game. Furthermore, athletes in field and court sports need to scan a broader area and use different postures to aid in collisions, allow for deception against an opponent, or to prepare for likely direction changes (Sayers 2000). These requirements result in technical differences between sprinting in a field or court sport and sprinting the 100 meters (Sayers 2000, Gambetta 1996, Gambetta 2007).
Some coaches believe that because the technique between track sprinting and sprinting in field and court sports is different, field and court sport athletes should not be coached on sprinting technique and should just play their sport. This neglects the obvious fact that field and court sports are running sports and that speed is a major component of superior performance in a large number of these. To enhance their athletes' performance, coaches should aim to improve their ability to run at speed, or to sprint, and to develop this ability within the context of their sport.
Although certain technical variations may exist because of the different demands of track versus field and court sports, several of the fundamental principles of sprinting are common between them. Considering that field and court athletes sprint as part of their sport and that better performers in most field and court sports are faster sprinters (Baker 1999), improving the technical and physical components of sprinting is important within the context of their sport and can give the athletes an advantage over their opponents. Consequently, although many track drills are not suitable for field sport athletes, some common drills and techniques are useful to both the track sprint coach and the strength and conditioning coach working with field and court athletes.
Noted performance enhancement coach Vern Gambetta suggests that the primary coaching points to consider in sprinting are posture, arm action, and leg action (2007). These three considerations are the foundation of effective technique and are discussed in reference to the distinct characteristics of the athlete's posture and arm and leg action in the phases of acceleration, maximal-speed running, and deceleration. In coaching terms, the action of sprinting can also be discussed in terms of back-side and front-side mechanics. Back-side mechanics are the actions occurring behind the body, and front-side mechanics occur in front of the body. Each has different aims, and coaches should focus on the key aims of each.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/20ph_Main.jpg
Maximum Speed in Field and Court Sports
Coaches of field and court sports must determine how important the development of maximum speed is. A common perception is that because most maximum sprints in field and court sports are relatively short, maximum speed is relatively unimportant. However, this viewpoint neglects several issues that make the development of maximum speed important to the majority of athletes.
First, elite sprinters achieve very high maximum speeds; therefore, it takes a longer distance for them to reach maximum speed. In the case of male sprinters, this may not occur until 50 to 60 meters. This can be misleading on a number of fronts.
- Because elite sprinters are faster, they accelerate farther into the race before decelerating; whereas, field and court athletes reach their top speed much sooner, perhaps at 30 to 45 meters.
- Regardless of whether athletes reach their greatest maximum speed as late as 60 meters or as early as 30 meters into a sprint, athletes are likely running within 10 percent of their maximum speed for half the distance already covered. Therefore, in a 30-meter effort, 15 meters are covered at near maximum velocity.
- Many sprint efforts in field sports are not initiated from a stationary start. Therefore, when athletes initiate the sprint effort from a jogging or running start, the time and distance needed to reach maximum running velocity is greatly reduced, and so they may run at maximal speeds more often than the recorded distances would suggest.
Second, athletes with higher maximum speeds tend to have a higher rate of change in velocity, which is acceleration. Put simply, the athlete with the highest maximum speed accelerates faster; thereby, sprinting faster at 10 or 20 meters than an athlete with a lower maximum speed.
Finally, higher maximum speed can allow for more effective speed endurance levels during competitions. This is because the relative sprint demands of a field sport are lower for athletes with greater maximum speed because they may not be required to run as many efforts at or even near their own maximum speed. For example, if a rugby player has a maximum speed of 9 meters per second and typically reaches a speed approximately 9 meters per second four to eight times during a game, this presents as a significant stressor. However, if the athlete has a maximum speed of 10 meters per second, efforts involving 9 meters per second are much less stressful because this represents only 90 percent of that athlete's maximum running speed (compared with multiple efforts at 100 percent).
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Acceleration Drills from Specific Starting Conditions
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete’s technique for sport-specific situations.
Developing Speed.
Performing acceleration drills from specific starting conditions allows evaluation of the athlete's technique for sport-specific situations. In team sports, practicing starts from the relevant start position, in addition to normal skills training, even when athletes may already perform this action in conjunction with skill training, focuses attention on technique and execution. The quality of the athlete's acceleration is affected by the quality of the preceding movement; therefore, a total speed program should address all elements of the athlete's movement. As noted by Gambetta (1996), we must supplement sport training with relevant work on the fundamentals (such as running techniques) in order to advance the athleticism of athletes.
Lateral Shuffle to Forward Sprint
Aim To develop the ability to transition from lateral movement to a forward sprint, a movement required in many sports, particularly American football, rugby, Australian rules football, and similar sports.
Action The athlete shuffles laterally for 5 to 10 meters and then sprint forward for 10 to 20 meters (photos a and b). Athletes maintain an athletic position while shuffling, with feet facing forward and arms held relaxed in the position of choice for the given sport. Athletes can initiate the forward sprint at a predetermined location or when they have developed effective technique. Athletes can also initiate the forward sprint in reaction to a stimulus.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph1_Main.jpg
Walk-and-Jog Start to Sprint-Out
(Pick-Up Sprint)
Aim To develop the ability to accelerate from a linear rolling start.
Action Set up two cones about 10 to 20 meters apart. The athlete starts at the first cone and begins walking, eases into a jog, and then shifts to a sprint before reaching the other cone. The athlete focuses on the changes in mechanics associated with changing pace. (Instead of using cones, the coach could cue the transition with relevant commands.)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/46ph2_Main.jpg
Ins and Outs
Aim To develop the ability to relax at speed.
Action The athlete accelerates maximally over 20 meters and then maintains that pace for 20 meters, focusing on relaxing rather than on driving. At 40 meters the athlete accelerates again, trying to reach near top speed as soon as possible after the 40-meter mark and maintains that pace to the 60 meter mark. Finally, the athlete reduces intensity and floats for 10 to 20 meters more, keeping the stride cadence high while focusing on relaxation. The second acceleration gives athletes the opportunity to focus on acceleration mechanics from a relatively fast lead-in speed, improving their transition from a fast run to sprinting and teaching rhythm. The distances of each phase can vary depending on the requirements of the sport and the athlete.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/096/47art_Main.jpg
Read more from Developing Speed by National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and Ian Jeffreys.
Three Drills for Developing Starts and Initial-Acceleration for Running
Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete’s limbs to increase the speed at which they move.
Developing Speed.
Starts and Initial-Acceleration Drills
As outlined in chapter 1, acceleration is the rate of change in velocity (speed) with respect to time. Whole-body acceleration involves the subtle coordination of the acts of accelerating and decelerating the athlete's limbs to increase the speed at which they move. Although acceleration technique may vary from athlete to athlete because of size and other physical characteristics, there are coachable technical factors that all athletes can develop.
Because acceleration is critical to most sports, understanding and developing acceleration technique is important. One of the primary principles involved in acceleration technique is the forward lean. This forward lean allows the pushing action and other technical considerations outlined in chapter 2. As discussed, during full extension of the leg, a straight line can be drawn from head to foot through the hip and knee (refer to figure 2.4). The stronger and more powerful an athlete, the more forward lean the athlete is able to use, bearing in mind that the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the forward lean. Therefore, it is important for coaches to increase the strength and power of their athletes, in particular the leg and back muscles, in order to achieve the desired forward lean and full triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle.
As with any speed session, the importance of high-quality repetitions means that relatively long recovery periods be used between repetitions and sets of drills. When using acceleration-oriented drills that involve running, use distances of 10 to 30 meters. When using explosive drills and those that involve significant sprint movement, perform only a few repetitions in each set. This allows enough rest between sets to maintain high-quality training. A sample session for incline sprints on a five-degree slope would include one or two sets of three or four repetitions of 10 to 30 meters. Rest after each rep would be 3 minutes and rest after each set 5 minutes.
Wall Drive
Aim To teach or reinforce the posture and leg action in the lean position.
Action The athlete leans into a wall assuming an acceleration posture, a forward lean with both feet on the ground with weight distributed on the balls of the feet. The athlete alternates bringing the left and right legs forward and up as in a running action. Initially this should be slow and controlled, but as competence increases, the athlete can increase the speed. Athletes who pop up soon after beginning a sprint, thereby using very little forward lean, can benefit greatly from this drill and the associated coaching cues that promote better technique.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph1_Main.png
Incline Sprint
Aim To develop general leg extensor power and to promote the forward lean.
Action The athlete sprints up a low incline (5-10 degrees), emphasizing effective acceleration action. The added resistance of the incline provides a safe and effective way to stress the strength and power demands of acceleration drills. The upward slope of the surface may also promote an increased awareness of knee drive and full extension while in the forward-lean position. The athlete should walk slowly back to the start to ensure full recovery between efforts.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/36ph2_Main.png
Sprint Starting From the Ground
Aim To teach effective forward lean in accelerating.
Action The athlete begins lying facedown on the ground with palms on the ground near the shoulders (photo a). On the coach's command, the athlete gets up and sprints as fast as possible to a set point straight ahead (photos b and c). This distance to the point can vary depending on the aim of the drill, but the distance is normally relatively short, about 5 to 30 meters). Because the athletes begin on the ground, as they raise their body from the facedown position, they will begin striding while the body is low to the ground, pushing back and assuming a forward lean.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph2_Main.png
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/097/37ph3_Main.png
Read more from Developing Speed by NSCA and Ian Jeffreys.
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