NSCA's Guide to Program Design

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.

Workout Structure and Exercise Order

The number of muscle groups trained per workout needs to be considered when designing the resistance training program. There are three basic workout structures to choose from: (1) total body workouts, (2) upper and lower body split workouts, and (3) muscle group split routines. Total body workouts involve exercises that work all major muscle groups (i.e., 1 or 2 exercises for each major muscle group). They are very common among athletes and Olympic weightlifters. In Olympic weightlifting, the primary lifts and variations are total body exercises. Usually, the first few exercises in the workout sequence are the Olympic lifts (plus variations). The remainder of the workout may be dedicated to basic strength exercises. Upper and lower body split workouts involve performance of only upper body exercises during one workout and only lower body exercises during the next workout. These types of workouts are common among athletes, power lifters, and bodybuilders. Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during a workout (e.g., a back and biceps workout in which all exercises for the back are performed, then all exercises for the biceps are performed). These are characteristic of bodybuilding programs.

All of these program designs can be effective for improving athletic performance. Individual goals, time and frequency, and personal preferences determine which structures are selected by the strength and conditioning professional or athlete. The major differences among these structures are the magnitude of specialization present during each workout (related to the number of exercises performed per muscle group) and the amount of recovery time between workouts. Individual needs determine which structure will be used (in addition to the exercises performed) prior to exercise sequencing.

The order of exercises within a workout significantly affects acute lifting performance and subsequent changes in strength during resistance training. The primary training goals should dictate the exercise order. Exercises performed early in the workout are completed with less fatigue, yielding greater rates of force development, higher repetition number, and greater amount of weights lifted. Studies show that performance of multiple-joint exercises (bench press, squat, leg press, shoulder press) declines significantly when done later in a workout (following several exercises that stress similar muscle groups) (35, 36). Considering that these multiple-joint exercises are effective for increasing strength and power, prioritization is typically given to these core structural exercises (i.e., those extremely important to targeting program goals) early in a workout.

For example, Olympic lifts require explosive force production, and creating fatigue reduces the desired effects. These exercises need to be performed early in the workout, especially since they are technically demanding. Sequencing strategies for strength and power training have been recommended (21, 25, 31). It is important to note these can also apply to muscular endurance and hypertrophy training. These recommendations and guidelines are listed in the sidebar.

For hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, some exceptions may exist to these guidelines. Although training to maximize muscle size should include strength training, muscle growth is predicated on factors related to mechanics (force) and blood flow. In contrast, strength training maximizes the mechanical factors. When the goal of training is hypertrophy, training in a fatigued state does have a potent effect on the metabolic factors that induce muscle growth. In this case, the exercise order may vary to stress the metabolic factors involved in muscle hypertrophy.

For example, some bodybuilders have used a technique known as pre-exhaustion. Here, a single-joint exercise is performed first (to fatigue a specific muscle group), followed by a multiple-joint exercise. One example is to perform the dumbbell fly exercise first to fatigue the pectoral and deltoid muscles, and then perform the bench press. When the bench press is examined, many times the triceps brachii muscle group is the site of failure. This theoretically suggests that the pectorals may not be optimally stimulated. With pre-exhaustion, the pectoral group is prefatigued. As a result, when the lifter performs the bench press after the dumbbell fly, it is likely that the pectoral muscles (i.e., the targeted muscles) will fatigue first. Because a higher number of repetitions are performed when training for hypertrophy, less weight is used. This technique improves hypertrophy and muscle endurance to a greater extent than maximal strength.

For muscle endurance training, fatigue needs to be present for adaptations to take place. Thus, the order can vary in infinite ways. For example, during a preseason conditioning phase, a basketball coach may choose to place the squat exercise later in the workout. This will force the athlete to perform the exercise in a fatigued state, which could replicate a scenario encountered during the sport (e.g., being able to perform a squatting movement similar to jumping in the second half of a game).

Exercise selection can also vary when warm-up exercises are used. For example, some athletes choose to perform a single-joint exercise (leg extension) before the squat exercise as a warm-up. The key distinction here is that the leg extension is performed with light weights and does not fatigue the lifter. Thus, warm-up exceptions can be used effectively to prepare for higher-intensity training.

General Principles of Periodization

When exploring the classic literature, it is clear that periodization is a method for employing sequential or phasic alterations in the workload, training focus, and training tasks contained within the microcycle, mesocycle, and annual training plan. The approach depends on the goals established for the specified training period (38, 52, 58). A periodized training plan that is properly designed provides a framework for appropriately sequencing training so that training tasks, content, and workloads are varied at a multitude of levels in a logical, phasic pattern in order to ensure the development of specific physiological and performance outcomes at predetermined time points.

In order for specific physiological responses and performance outcomes to develop, an appropriately sequenced and structured periodized training plan allows for the management of the recovery and adaptation processes (12, 18, 52, 64, 80). Since peak performance can only be maintained for brief periods of time (8-14 days) (9, 45, 55), the actual sequential structure of the periodized training plan is an essential consideration (64, 80, 85). Generally, the average intensity of the factors addressed by the training plan is inversely related to the average time that peak performance can be maintained and the overall magnitude of the performance peak (17, 38, 80).

For example, if the average intensity of all the training factors is high, the performance will elevate rapidly, but it will only be maintained for very brief periods. If, however, a more logical sequential modulation of training intensity is used, the period of peak performance can be extended. The magnitude of performance gain can also be significantly greater. Three basic mechanistic theories provide a foundational understanding for how periodization manages the recovery and adaptive responses: the general adaptive syndrome (GAS) (80, 88), stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (68, 80), and the fitness-fatigue theory (80, 88).

General Adaptive Syndrome

The general adaptive syndrome (GAS) is one of the foundational theories from which the concept of periodization of training was developed (78, 85). First conceptualized in 1956 by Hans Selye, the GAS describes the body's specific response to stress, either physical or emotional (68). These physiological responses appear to be similar regardless of what stimulates the stress. While the GAS does not explain all the responses to stress, it does offer a potential model that explains the adaptive responses to a training stimulus (figure 11.1) (27, 78).

When a training stress is introduced, the initial response, or alarm phase, reduces performance capacity as a result of accumulated fatigue, soreness, stiffness, and a reduction in energy stores (78). The alarm phase initiates the adaptive responses that are central to the resistance phase of the GAS. If the training stressors are not excessive and are planned appropriately, the adaptive responses will occur during the resistance phase. Performance will be either returned to baseline or elevated to new higher levels (supercompensation). Conversely, if the training stress is excessive, performance will be further reduced in response to the athlete's inability to adapt to the training stress, resulting in what is considered to be an overtraining response (20). From the standpoint of training response, it is important to realize that all stressors are additive and that factors external to the training program (e.g., interpersonal relationships, nutrition, and career stress) can affect the athlete's ability to adapt to the stressors introduced by the training program.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory

Whenever a training stimulus is applied, there is a general response that has been termed the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory (figure 11.2) (80). The initial response to a training stressor is an accumulation of fatigue, which results in a reduction in both preparedness and performance. The amount of accumulated fatigue and the corresponding reduction in preparedness and performance is proportional to the magnitude and duration of the workload encountered. As fatigue is dissipated and the recovery process is initiated, both preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus is encountered after recovery and adaptation are completed, then preparedness and performance capacity will eventually decline. This is generally considered to be a state of involution.

When closely examining the general response to a training stimulus, it appears that the magnitude of the stimulus plays an integral role in determining the time course of the recovery-adaptation portion of the process. For example, if the magnitude of the training load is substantial, a larger amount of fatigue will be generated, lengthening the time frame necessary for recovery and adaptation (66, 80). Conversely, if the training load is reduced, less fatigue will accumulate and the recovery-adaptation process will occur at a more rapid rate. This phenomenon is often referred to as the delayed training effect, in which the magnitude and duration of loading dictate the length of time necessary for recovery and adaptation. The modulation of the time course of the recovery-adaptation process through the appropriate variation and sequencing of workloads is a central theme of periodization.

In order to effectively develop periodized training plans, it is important to realize that the general pattern of response to a training stimulus can occur as a result of a single exercise, training session, training day, microcycle, mesocycle, or macrocycle. It is important to note that it is not necessary to have complete recovery prior to initiating a subsequent training stimulus (58). In fact, it may be more prudent to modulate training intensities or workloads with the use of heavy or light days of training in order to facilitate recovery (19) while attempting to continue to develop fitness. Ultimately, the ability to appropriately sequence training stimuli is based on the manipulation of training factors in order to take advantage of the recovery-adaptation process. In fact, this process serves as a foundation for several sequential models of training presented in the periodization literature (64, 83, 84).

One sequential model that is largely based on the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is the concentrated loading or conjugated sequencing model presented by several authors in the literature (figure 11.3) (64, 80, 83, 84). In this scenario, a concentrated training load (64, 80), or accumulation
load (43, 44, 88), is applied for a specific period of time (80). After this application of intentionally high training loads, there is a significant reduction in the training load, and training is returned to normal levels. This is often referred to as the transmutation phase, where preparedness and performance are elevated (69, 83-85). The final phase of this loading paradigm involves a further reduction in training load. This is sometimes referred to as a peak, taper, or realization phase (43, 44, 55, 84, 85, 88). During this phase, preparedness and performance generally supercompensate in response to the further reduction in fatigue that is stimulated by the reduction in training load (55). If, however, this phase is extended for too long (>14 days), involution, or a reduction in preparedness or performance, will occur.

Through the manipulation of training variables, an appropriately sequenced and integrated periodized training plan allows for the management of the accumulated fatigue and the process of recovery and adaptation. It also directs the training responses toward the targeted outcomes. If training loads are haphazardly applied and inappropriately sequenced, achieving performance goals becomes less likely as a result of the mismanagement of fatigue and or recovery.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory

The fitness-fatigue paradigm partially explains the relationships among fitness, fatigue, and preparedness (80, 88). It also gives a more complete picture of the physiological responses to a training stimulus (11). In this paradigm, the two aftereffects of training, fatigue and fitness, summate and exert an influence on the preparedness of the athlete (11, 88). The classic depiction of the fitness-fatigue theory presents the cumulative effects of training as one fatigue and one fitness curve (figure 11.4) (11, 80). In reality, multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects likely exist in response to training that are interdependent and exert a cumulative effect (figure 11.5) (11).

The possibility of multiple fitness and fatigue aftereffects offers a partial explanation as to why there are individual response differences to variations in training (11, 80). Conceptually, the aftereffects of training are considered as residual training effects. They serve as the basis for sequential training (43, 44, 82, 85). Sequential training suggests that the rate of decay for a residual training effect can be modulated with either minimal training stimulus or through the periodic dosing of the specified training factor. Additionally, the residual effects of one training period can phase, potentiate, or elevate the level of preparedness of the subsequent periods, depending on the loading paradigms employed.

When the GAS, stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory, and the fitness-fatigue theory are examined collectively, it is very clear that the ability to balance the development of various levels of fitness while facilitating the decay of fatigue is essential in modulating the adaptive responses to a training plan. An essential concept that allows for the appropriate modulation of training factors relates to sequencing training interventions to facilitate the management of fatigue and fitness while controlling the athlete's preparedness (64). Therefore, it is crucial when designing training interventions that the actual sequential pattern be considered in the context of how the training intervention is structured. This allows for the management of fatigue while maximizing the recovery adaptation process.
Ultimately, it results in the optimization of specific fitness parameters at key points so that preparedness and performance are elevated at the appropriate times.

Biomechanical Analysis in Practice

For the purpose of understanding the movement being analyzed, strength and conditioning professionals should use the following four questions. First, what are the patterns of movement (i.e., concentric, eccentric, or isometric), and in which planes do they take place? Second, what joints are involved during the activity? Third, what muscles are recruited, and what are the muscle actions? Finally, what is the duration of time that the athlete will be actively engaged in the athletic event? With these key questions, strength and conditioning professionals can determine the demands placed on the body during the sport (6, 33, 34). The ultimate goal of analysis is to manipulate and match the acute variables that govern the program's design to match the metabolism and movements involved in the sport.

Typically, biomechanical evaluations require strength and conditioning professionals to analyze videos of athletes performing their sports. Those without access to advanced video equipment can accomplish this type of analysis by watching simple video of athletes during practices or games. The following are some very basic procedures for video analysis that strength and conditioning professionals can follow (9).

1. View a video of an athletic performance or activity.
2. Select a specific movement in the sport (e.g., a jump shot in basketball or a takedown in wrestling). To completely analyze the sport, several movements or skills may need to be examined. Look at the entire sequence of competition to get a feel for the demands of the sport.
3. Identify the joints around which the most intense muscular actions occur. Running and jumping, for example, involve intense muscle actions at the knee, hip, and ankle. Intense exertion doesn't necessarily involve movement. Considerable isometric force may have to be applied to keep a joint from flexing or extending under external stress.
4. Determine whether the movement is concentric, isometric, or eccentric.
5. For each joint identified above, determine the range of angular motion. Observe how the joint angle changes throughout the movement and which plane it occurs in.
6. Try to determine where the most intense effort occurs within the range of motion around each particular joint. Sometimes facial grimaces or tense muscles seen on video can help identify points of peak intensity.
7. Estimate the velocity of movement in the early, middle, and late phases in the range of motion. If using video, determine the time between frames to examine the movement over the time of the activity.
8. Select exercises to match the limb's ranges of motion and angular velocities, making sure that the exercises are appropriately concentric, isometric, or eccentric.

Through this type of biomechanical analysis, strength and conditioning professionals can make sure that training programs reflect these demands (see table 1.2).

It is important to remember that although analyzing sporting movements and matching the proper exercises in the weight room are vital to the sport-specific nature of resistance training programs, many exercises might be considered universal in that all athletes need them. These exercises include squats, pulling motions (e.g., hang cleans), and presses, such as the bench press. Such exercises provide the core around which a program is built. Integration of whole-body, multijoint exercise movements is vital because single-joint exercises alone cannot improve neurological coordination between joints.

Developing Anaerobic Conditioning Programs

An appropriate conditioning program should be based on a needs analysis of the athletes and their specific sport demands (see chapter 1). The primary movement patterns, duration of these movements, the number of movements, and the work-to-rest ratio are all critical variables that must be identified to prescribe appropriate exercises. Each sport may be quite different. Even within a sport, variability of movements may exist among different positions. Differences in the requirements for each position (e.g., goalie versus forward in ice hockey, lineman versus wide receiver in American football) result in varying physiological demands that require different training programs. With a thorough understanding of the activity demands of the sport, a greater specificity in the types of exercises and in the work-to-rest ratio can be employed to maximize the effectiveness of the training program.

Timing and Duration of the Program

The most frequently asked question concerning anaerobic conditioning programs is when to begin. This question is not simple to answer, primarily due to the fact that there is no uniquely correct answer. Much of this question is related to the concepts of periodization and program implementation, which are discussed in great detail in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. However, nothing in the exercise prescription should ever be based on happenstance. Implementation of the anaerobic conditioning program should be based on scientific evidence and best practices. When considering the time course of physiological adaptations that occur through training, strength and conditioning professionals can calculate the approximate time needed to begin preparing their athletes to reach peak anaerobic conditioning. It is also imperative for strength and conditioning professionals to understand what their players have been doing in the off-season. They must take this information into consideration when determining the onset of training, proper intensity and volume of training, and manipulation of work-to-rest ratios.

Team Sports

Matching the work and rest intervals of the sport is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of an anaerobic conditioning program. For example, American football can be separated into a series of plays. These are numbers of series and plays observed in a season of NCAA Division III football (5):

Total number of plays observed: 1,193

Total number of series observed: 259

Average number of series per game: 14.4

Average number of plays per series: 4.6

Percentage of series of 6 plays or greater: 31.2%

Percentage of series of 10 plays or greater: 8.1%

During each game, each team had an average of 14.4 offensive series and 4.6 plays per series. Each play has been reported to last for an average of 5.49 seconds (ranging from 1.87 to 12.88 s) in college football (11). Between plays, each team has a maximum of 25 seconds to begin the next play. However, this play clock does not begin until the referee has set the ball. Thus, the rest interval between plays generally exceeds 25 seconds. In limited reports, the average time between plays in a college football game is 32.7 seconds (11). The average time per play and rest time between plays allows for a more precise development of the work-to-rest ratio needed for anaerobic exercise prescription. According to the preceding data regarding time for each play and the rest interval between plays, it appears that a work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 could be used in off-season conditioning programs for football. Players could perform short-duration sprints that simulate the movement patterns of an actual football game.

This conditioning program for football will begin between 6 and 10 weeks prior to training camp. The football program is longer than the one for basketball, since basketball players often have pick-up (summer league) games. In contrast, football is not a sport that can be played in the off-season. The type of drills and progression of volume and intensity are similar to those displayed in table 12.13 (p. 280). However, specific adaptations can be made for American football players. For example, it appears that college football players get between four and five plays per series and that plays last approximately 5 seconds. Considering that there are about three or four series per quarter, a conditioning program can be developed that simulates a football game, with realistic work-to-rest ratios. In addition, a range of sprinting distances can be incorporated that simulate the varied runs frequently seen in a game.

Individual Sports

The development of a conditioning program for team sports, such as basketball, American football, or hockey, is quite different than the exercise prescription for athletes participating in an individual event, such as sprinting. Unlike team-sport athletes, who perform various types of movements at variable intensities, sprinters are often required to run a single sprint at maximum ability during a competition. Although they may compete in several different races, the requirements will be similar for each one. The training program for sprinters is primarily focused on developing power, improving running technique and speed, and increasing speed endurance. This latter goal is the focus in their anaerobic conditioning program.

The importance of this is seen in the splits for a 100 m sprinter. The goal of the sprinter is to reach peak running velocity as quickly as possible and to maintain running velocity throughout the length of the sprint. This is known as speed-endurance. Table 6.1 shows the splits for Usain Bolt, the Olympic record holder in the 100 m sprint. These results clearly show his ability to maintain his velocity until the final 10 m of the race. However, those who recall that great sprint will remember that he appeared to let up toward the end since he was so far ahead in the field. These splits clearly demonstrate his peak conditioning level in preparation for these games.

The training program for the sprinter is different from that of the basketball or American football player. The anaerobic conditioning program for team-sport athletes is primarily concerned with preparing them for repeated bouts of high-intensity activity with limited rest intervals. In contrast, the sprinter's training program is more concerned with the quality of each sprint than with improved fatigue rate.