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In a sport where victory is often determined by a fraction of a second, it’s obvious why one of the most sought-after secrets is how to swim faster. However, as the world’s most renowned coaches, athletes, trainers, and researchers know, there is no secret—just science.
Science of Swimming Faster is a remarkable achievement—one that embraces, explains, and applies the latest science and research that has and continues to set new performance benchmarks in the sport. It is a one-of-a-kind resource:
• An easily understood repository of swimming research
• Insights distilled from great sport and exercise scientists, coaches, and swimmers
• A do-it-right reference for a host of techniques and tactics
• The most credible and widely used training principles and programs
• An analysis identifying key factors contributing to elite and world-record swimming performance
• An insider’s access to the strategies for training, tapering, fueling, recovery, and mental preparation being used with some of the world’s most successful swimmers.
With editors Scott Riewald and Scott Rodeo and a who’s-who list of international experts on the sport, Science of Swimming Faster offers you an unprecedented wealth of advanced yet accessible information on excelling in the sport.
Part I Swimming Mechanics and Technique
Chapter 1 Fluid Dynamics, Propulsion, and Drag
Timothy Wei, Russell Mark, and Sean Hutchison
Chapter 2 Freestyle Technique
Ross H. Sanders and Carla B. McCabe
Chapter 3 Backstroke Technique
Russell Mark
Chapter 4 Breaststroke Technique
Russell Mark
Chapter 5 Butterfly Technique
Ross H. Sanders and Carla B. McCabe
Chapter 6 Techniques for Starts and Turns
Andrew Lyttle and Brian Blanksby
Chapter 7 Analyzing Strokes Using Computational Fluid Dynamics
Matt Keys, Andrew Lyttle, Brian Blanksby, Liang Cheng, and Koji Honda
Part II Physiological Aspects of Training and Competition
Chapter 8 Energy Systems and Physiology
J.M. Stager, Jonathon Stickford, and Kirk Grand
Chapter 9 Periodization and Planning
Scott Riewald
Chapter 10 The Impact of Tapering on Performance
Inigo Mujika and Andrew M. Stewart
Chapter 11 Competition Day Strategies
Scott Riewald
Chapter 12 Analyzing Elite Swimming Performances
Jodi Cossor
Chapter 13 Overtraining and Recovery
Randall L. Wilber
Part III Applied Sport Sciences
Chapter 14 Nutrition: Fueling for Performance
Charlene Boudreau
Chapter 15 Performance Enhancers and Doping Control
Jennifer L. Reed and Andrew L. Pipe
Chapter 16 Swimming Psychology: Merging Mind and Body
James Bauman
Chapter 17 Growth and Development
Rebecca Battista
Chapter 18 Sports Medicine: Swimming Injuries and Their Prevention
Courtney Dawson and Scott A. Rodeo
Chapter 19 Sports Medicine: Illnesses and General Health
Margo Mountjoy
Chapter 20 Strength and Conditioning for Performance Enhancement
Scott Riewald
Part IV Considerations for Special Groups
Chapter 21 Adolescent Swimmers
Morgan Anderson and Jordan D. Metzl
Chapter 22 Masters Swimmers
James W. Miller
Chapter 23 Female Swimmers
Jaci L. VanHeest
Chapter 24 Open Water Swimmers
Steve Munatones
Chapter 25 Adaptive Swimmers
Brendan Burkett
Scott Riewald, PhD, is the U.S. Olympic Committee’s winter sport high-performance director. He works closely with eight winter sport national governing bodies to coordinate sport science and medical services for their athletes. He has served as the biomechanics director for USA Swimming at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs. In this role, he was part of an international biomechanics research team at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games and provided education and services to many of the nation's top swimmers. He has given presentations to athletes and coaches about using science to positively affect performance. Riewald has also been involved in cutting-edge research in evaluating new technologies and swim performance, and he has worked as the biomechanics director for the United States Tennis Association in Key Biscayne, Florida.
As an undergraduate at Boston University, Riewald was a competitive swimmer and still holds several school and conference records. He was named a GTE Academic All-American his senior year and was later inducted into BU's Athletic Hall of Fame. After earning an undergraduate degree in biomedical engineering, he competed in triathlons and coached a masters swimming team. He earned his MS and PhD in biomedical engineering from Northwestern University. Riewald is a certified strength and conditioning specialist (CSCS) and a certified personal trainer. He is coauthor of Complete Conditioning for Swimming (Human Kinetics, 2008).
Riewald and his wife, Suzie, live in Colorado Springs, Colorado, with their two children, Maddox and Callie.
Scott Rodeo, MD, is a clinician-scientist at the Hospital for Special Surgery in New York City, where he also serves as co-chief of the Sports Medicine and Shoulder Service. His specialty includes treating sport injuries to the knee, shoulder, ankle, and elbow. He also is a professor of orthopedic surgery at Weill Cornell Medical College. Rodeo holds a board position at Asphalt Green in Manhattan, where he helps promote injury prevention and healthy living through exercise. He served as team physician for the 2004, 2008, and 2012 U.S. Olympic swimming teams and the New York Giants football team. He has been involved with USA Swimming, serving as a chair of their Sports Medicine and Science Committee. Rodeo is also a former competitive swimmer and provides medical support for local swimming programs.
Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
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Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
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Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
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(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
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Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
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Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
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Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
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Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
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Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
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(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
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Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
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Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
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Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
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(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
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Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
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Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
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Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
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Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
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(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
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Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
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Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
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Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
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Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
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Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
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Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
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Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
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(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
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Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
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Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
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(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
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Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
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Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
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Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
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Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
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(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
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Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
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Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
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Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Dive starts
The benefits of an effective start in competitive swimming cannot be underestimated. Evidence from race analyses conducted at major international competitions demonstrates significant correlations between faster start times and race times.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498981_ebook_Main.jpg
Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498983_ebook_Main.jpg
Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498986_ebook_Main.jpg
The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498987_ebook_Main.jpg
Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/141/E5192_498991_ebook_Main.jpg
(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
Learn more about Science of Swimming Faster.
Race day preparation
Competition day is the day that every swimmer trains for. Although many swimmers and coaches place a tremendous amount of focus on what happens on race day, the hay is largely already in the barn, so to speak, and the meet is just where everything comes together to produce the ultimate performance.
Ultimately, race-day preparation boils down to developing a series of checklists that, if followed, will set up a swimmer to achieve a peak performance. Let's go through the elements of a race day and discuss how to approach each one to enhance performance, starting with the warm-up and cool-down.
In-Water Warm-Up
Although there is no specific recipe for what makes an effective warm-up, most warm-ups incorporate some level of moderate swimming (maybe 400 to 800 meters) that can include stroke drills and kicking as well as swimming, several higher-intensity intervals (100 or 50 seconds) in which the swimmer integrates stroke work and prepares to race, and some all-out sprints or race-specific pace work. These higher-intensity efforts are followed by several hundred meters of a lower-intensity cool-down.
Competitions present additional challenges to swimmers and coaches because athletes often have to warm up multiple times during a day, once at the start of the session and again before each swim. When facing this scenario, swimmers should do their main warm-up before the first swim and then use shorter warm-ups before subsequent swims. The duration of these secondary warm-ups can be shorter but should still follow the same general principles: start with easy swimming and then use higher-intensity swims to elevate the heart rate and warm the body.
Swimmer should follow some general preevent warm-up guidelines:
- Finish the main warm-up at least 30 minutes before the race.
- If possible, get back in the water 10 to 15 minutes before the race.
- Use mostly moderate-intensity swimming at 50 to 65 percent effort.
- Gauge the intensity of effort while warming up before an event. Swim hard enough to warm the body but not so hard that fatigue sets in before stepping on the blocks.
- Finish the preevent warm-up as close to the start of the event as possible, ideally within 5 minutes of when the race is set to begin.
Dryland Warm-Up
Everything discussed so far has centered on performing an in-water warm-up. But when pool space at a competition is limited or no warm-up pool is available, coaches and swimmers may opt for a dryland warm-up. Although a dryland warm-up is not ideal, it can help swimmers prepare physically for a race. Like the in-water warm-up, the dryland warm-up should have two main components: a general warm-up and a dynamic warm-up (Jeffreys 2008; Salo and Riewald 2008).
The general warm-up should be a moderate-intensity activity that uses many of the large-muscle groups in the body to elevate body temperature. Examples include light jogging, riding a stationary bicycle, and jumping rope. The general warm-up should last 5 to 10 minutes or until the athlete breaks into a light sweat.
Dynamic warm-up exercises involve movement and are designed to improve dynamic flexibility while keeping body temperature elevated. Exercises should target the specific muscle groups used in swimming. Each exercise should be performed for 15 to 30 seconds. The total dynamic warm-up should take 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Elastic tubing can be used to help with dynamic exercises, which can be tweaked into swimming-specific drills that enhance the entire dryland warm-up process. These drills should be planned and practiced.
This approach will help accomplish all warm-up goals and prepare the body for swimming fast. The only difference between this and a traditional swimming warm-up is that it is not done in the pool.
Mental Preparation and the Prerace Routine
Competition provides athletes the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities and to challenge themselves as to how fast and how well they can swim. The opportunity to compete is one of the reasons that swimmers train hard every day. When standing on the blocks waiting for the gun to go off, it all boils down to what the swimmer's body can do, right?
Although physical ability is one factor that contributes to performance, mental strength and conditioning are important as well. How athletes train mentally and what they do to prepare for the specific race has a lot to do with the eventual outcome. Swimmers need to be purposeful about preparing both their minds and their bodies for competition.
Just as scientists have identified physical, physiological, and technical profiles of elite athletes, similar work has been done to identify psychological profiles and characteristics. This research has identified a number of psychological attributes related to success. One of the key characteristics of top performers is having a well-developed precompetition routine. Combined with high levels of motivation and commitment, coping skills, self-confidence, and arousal management skills, having a precompetition routine helps athletes achieve higher levels of performance.
After the 1996 Olympics, researchers identified factors that had positive and negative effects on performance at the Games. One of the findings that distinguished athletes who performed well from those who didn't was the development of and adherence to physical and mental preparation plans. Successful athletes had a precompetition routine that they developed, practiced, and stuck to even at the biggest competitions (Gould and Dieffenbach 2002).
In 1998, 10 athletes from the U.S. World Championships swim team were interviewed to uncover how they approached and dealt with the mental aspect of swimming. In particular, the athletes were asked to describe how they got ready to race. Although they prepared for their races differently, all the athletes had a routine or plan to get mentally ready to race (Riewald 2002).
Although the benefits of mental training and the development of a toolbox of mental skills is discussed in detail in chapter 16, it is helpful here to highlight the reasons why and how a prerace routine can influence performance. Following a consistent and practiced routine will help athletes achieve the following goals.
Attain an Ideal State or Zone
The primary benefit or purpose of a mental preparation plan is to get the athlete in a mental state that seems to relate to successful performance. The process that the swimmer goes through to get there will be unique to the individual.
Achieve Greater Self-Confidence
Success breeds confidence. When athletes are able to see and feel past and future successes as part of their mental preparation, confidence is not far behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the dress rehearsal to the real deal. Visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete's belief that he can really do it.
Gain Greater Control of Mental Energy
Swimmers need to manage mental energy so that they are neither too flat nor too amped up before racing. The goal is to get into that ideal state. During preparation, athletes may listen to certain songs to increase energy and put them into the proper racing state. Alternatively, they may visualize a relaxing scene to slow their hurrying thoughts. Such strategies can be a purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Give More Effective Focus
A mental preparation routine can help swimmers focus on important aspects of their performance. Technical cues ("explode off the blocks" or "hold your streamline") or images ("torpedo") can be integrated into preparation to direct attention where it needs to be as opposed to having the focus on unproductive or negative things.
Provide Comfort in Structure
A mental routine can be a security blanket, something to turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. Swimmers can use their mental routine to bring consistency to their preparation and performance, whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials. To some degree, a mental preparation routine can take the environment out of the performance.
Engage the Mind
The mind is a valuable commodity. When purposefully recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions, feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their disposal as they prepare for competition.
Coaches can do certain things to help their swimmers develop and strengthen effective prerace routines. Coaches should talk to their swimmers about what mental preparation is and why they should have a mental plan. Coaches need to define some of the key components that make up a mental plan, such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, concentration, and energy management, and explain that there is no right or wrong way to create a mental plan. Each swimmer will have a personal, unique mental plan.
Next, the coach should have the swimmers reflect on past performances to begin to understand how they feel when they perform well and what they need to do to ensure good performances. Additionally, they should examine how they feel when they do not perform well and identify what they need to do to get out of that state.
Coaches should have the athletes create a mental plan, write the plan down, and refer to it throughout the season. Coaches must provide opportunities and encouragement to practice the plans. For example, a coach might set up a swim practice before a big meet and have the swimmers run through their prerace routines, giving them a chance to do their own premeet warm-up. This approach allows the athletes to take ownership of their prerace readiness routines and make changes if needed.
Although these things may seem insignificant when taken individually, consider what it is that distinguishes the gold medal winner from the athlete who won the silver, the third-place finisher from those who did not win a medal. It often boils down to how the athletes prepared for the competition. The best athletes in the world have strategies that help them perform to their utmost ability, and they think about those points as they prepare for competition. Swimmers who do the same will see their athletic performances improve.
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Mental toughness or mental pliability?
To begin this section, let’s first challenge some of the terminology that has been used in the field of sport psychology and offer a different perspective on the much-overused concept of mental toughness.
Nearly every sport psychology book either addresses or refers to the concept of mental toughness and explains its necessity to elite sport performance. But is it mental toughness or some other attribute that is truly important for a swimmer? Being tough has long been a mainstay in the good-old-boy way of thinking about the mental side of sport performance. But mental toughness does not clearly describe that evasive characteristic commonly associated with elite athletes who consistently perform at higher levels. Vince Lombardi, the legendary coach of the Green Bay Packers, once said, "The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength or lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will." The "will" that Coach Lombardi was referring to may have been what others over the years have called mental toughness. Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what Lombardi was thinking when he fashioned that famous quotation. But I believe that within the field of sport psychology and possibly in the spirit of Coach Lombardi, we are overdue in developing more descriptive terms that clearly articulate the characteristics we see in athletes who just don't quit. We need a clearer mental picture of "will." Instead of mental toughness, I propose the term mental pliability to describe that special, necessary, and core ingredient seen in most elite performers - those who can perform on demand, under all circumstances, and with consistent high-end results. I see a difference between mental toughness and mental pliability. It's more than just semantics; the difference between the two concepts is the flexibility, adaptability, and "stick-to-it-ness" that mental pliabilitysuggests.
Imagine a solid piece of wood with the same dimensions as a thick telephone book. Let's equate those objects to the concepts of mentaltoughness (wood) and mentalpliability (telephone book). Being mentally tough generates images of someone who is thick-skinned, solid, hard, unshakeable, and seemingly unbreakable, like that solid piece of wood. Yet if one were to take that piece of wood and throw it against something harder, hit it on a sharp edge, or hit it with a hammer, the wood likely would crack, splinter, or break apart. Although, on the outside, the piece of wood appears rigid, solid, and strong, under the right conditions it is not so tough and not so unbreakable.
Now consider a phone book and envision how it would perform if thrown against something hard, hit against a sharp edge, or struck with a hammer. It wouldn't crack, splinter, or break apart like the wood. Instead, it would bend and temporarily change shape to absorb the shock and then return to its original shape. The phone book is malleable; it can change its shape, absorb or deflect force, handle repeated physical contact, and retain its original shape. In short, it demonstrates adaptability and resilience. The only way to break a phone book would be to methodically tear it apart a few pages at a time. Great athletes, like a phone book, can bend or adapt to many situations; they are resilient and do not break under pressure or contact. The ability to adapt to the situation and environment results in the development of resilient durability over time. More than mental toughness, this ingredient is necessary in competitive athletes. This is what I think Coach Lombardi was describing.
So should a swimmer be mentally tough or mentally pliable? Athletes who choose to be pliable will find strategies in this chapter to equip them to move in that direction. Athletes who want to be tough must be prepared to face the consequences of potentially breaking into pieces under those special circumstances that will challenge toughness and try to break them apart - competition! Mental pliability (or plyability), not mental toughness, will connect swimmers' software with their hardware in ways that get them to the wall faster than ever before.
Mental Plyability
Another way to describe the psychological flexibility required to succeed in swimming is as mental plyability, bringing to mind the flexible strength of plywood as opposed to the rigid but breakable structure of a hardwood.
Self-Talk
Most of our waking moments are consumed with what we call self-talk. Self-talk is the internal monologue we carry on with ourselves, whenever we are not actually talking aloud with others. The body of knowledge associating self-talk with performance outcomes in athletics and achievement is growing (Weinberg et al. 1984; Goodhart 1986; Gould, Eklund, and Jackson 1992; Van Raalte et al. 1994; Hardy, Gammage, and Hall 2001). In the cited research, self-talk generally has been used to self-calm or relax, self-educate, self-motivate, focus, self-reward, self-criticize, and pass time. Self-talk can be directed inward or at others. It can be constructive, destructive, positive, negative, and move us to or away from action. Self-talk can be neutral or, in some cases, so quiet that we are not consciously aware of the conversation being held. Lastly, self-talk can be believable or not to the person carrying on the internal dialogue.
We often hear coaches or teammates encourage athletes to think positive, focus, see themselves being champions, and more. But the extent to which athletes truly believe what they are being encouraged to say to themselves has a direct effect on whether the self-talk will have any bearing on their performances. Self-talk that is positive and constructive in nature, when channeled in the right direction, can result in improved performance. Unfortunately, self-talk that is negative and destructive in nature will have a detrimental effect on performance. As illustrated earlier in the gravity discussion, nonproductive self-talk tends to be about the past or future, whereas constructive self-talk is aligned with the present ("My job is to swim fast"). The objective of most sports is really pretty simple; in the case of swimming, it's to swim fast.
Most swimmers, thinking back to when they were younger, remember that swimming fast was fun, even though they may not have recognized that they were swimming in the moment or not really caring about the past or what might lie ahead. Swimming for fun was as important as swimming fast. In fact, fun and fast were often synonymous in the minds of great athletes. Unfortunately, the business of sport has a way of systematically driving the fun out of sport and replacing it with a prime focus of swimming fast, swimming faster, working hard, making money, and always setting personal bests. These seeds have been planted, and they often grow into a full crop of negative self-talk that we deal with in sport and in life. It is as if fun, hard work, and progressive improvement cannot occur at the same time as swimmers become more seasoned and move toward higher levels of competition. I wholeheartedly disagree with that assumption. If fun is left out of the equation to swim fast, attempts to swim fast will feel gravitational resistance. It's like swimming against a current rather than swimming with the current or being pulled through the water. The fast suits have been taken out of the pool. If you want swimmers to swim fast, help them put on fun suits. You will be amazed at the progress they make! Swimming fast means teaching and learning the fundamentals of swimming. Sometimes the key ingredients are obvious, but we forget to include them. Fun and the mental part of swimming need to be included.
Swimming fast means reverting to the way of thinking we had when we were younger, when we focused on the feeling of swimming fast rather than the absolute and driven objective of swimming faster than everyone else in the pool. The key is to swim faster than you did before. Own your lane! When a swimmer can begin to do that, swimming faster will begin to take on an impressive life of its own.
In the meantime, we have to contend with and remedy the culture associated with competitive sport that has evolved over the years. Unfortunately, a less-than-positive atmosphere that often encourages the development and use of negative self-dialogue has been unintentionally created for swimmers. The following are some of the more common self-talk errors, as well as suggestions to help swimmers convert negative self-talk statements to positive, constructive, and productive self-talk statements.
Focusing on the Past or the Future
"I can't believe I swam so terribly in my first event" (past) or "Now, every stroke and turn of this next event has to be perfect to make up for my earlier bad swim" (future). Not letting go of a mistake or poor performance takes the thoughts and focus away from where they need to be - on the present moment and in the present event! Continuing to carry on these past and future self-conversations clutters up the connection between the body and the mind - physiologically, biomechanically, and psychologically. This kind of self-talk often evolves into a series of errors that contribute to unsuccessful performances. Instead, swimmers should strive to let the past performance go before even heading to the pool for the next event. They need to focus on competing right here, right now, and in this event.
Focusing on Real or Perceived Weaknesses During the Competition
"I am the most inexperienced athlete here," "I've never beaten her before," or "I should have trained harder." Any of these statements might be true, but all are irrelevant at the time of competition. During competition, swimmers who dwell on what they don't have may as well be tying weights to their ankles. Competition is a time when self-talk and mental focus should be fully directed to areas such as being technically and tactically proficient and sticking to the race plan. Swimmers who think that they are at 80 percent of where they should be as swimmers need to give the full 100 percent of that 80 percent (John Wooden and Paul "Bear" Bryant). Thinking about or focusing on what they don't have (skills, absolute feel for the water, and so on) will simply take their swim times to the slow side of the curve. The most logical way to increase performance percentage is through additional deliberate training. Swimmers will not magically create more without investing the time required to improve the requisite skills or fitness level. Simply trying harder is not the answer. The key to swimming faster is to work harder and smarter in training and then replicate that in competition. Self-talk is most productive if swimmers think more about what they are bringing to the pool rather than what they aren't, or think they aren't, bringing to the pool. They will reach a point in their swimming careers where what they have is enough to be successful. The trick is for them to focus on what they have and then give that in the pool with an unwavering commitment.
Focusing on Ultimatum Outcome or Profit Only
"I must win," "I have to finish in the top two," or "I have to beat him." Make no mistake, in sport, as in any business, something is at stake! But the relationship between what is at stake and how important that really is to a swimmer is most clearly found in how healthy the swimmer's perspective is about why she competes. No doubt, every business must be profitable to stay afloat. But if profit (winning) is the bottom-line reason that an athlete competes in sport, profits will be lean and hard to come by in many of the years of competition. Swimmers need to understand, know, and revisit the real reasons that they compete. If it is only about winning, they will regularly be one stroke, one turn, or one hand short of touching the wall behind those who understand the deeper levels of this relationship. Focusing on the result (future) will take them out of the moment and negatively affect their performance. When swimmers stay in the moment and the process (swimming right now), then the probability of an outcome (profit or success) will occur more frequently. If the focus is on the outcome (future), the water just seems to get more difficult to move through as the event unfolds. In the end, swimmers need to create a clear definition of how they define success, in and out of the pool. Success isn't always defined as winning. Swimmers have all won races with a performance that they weren't satisfied with. They have all had races that they didn't win but that felt great. And they might have had a great time as well. The best race occurs when the swimmer has a great swim, feels great, and wins! Success comes in a variety of forms. To stay in the game and be profitable, swimmers need to focus on the process and in that moment.
Focusing on Uncontrollable Factors
"I don't like this pool," or "I don't like this lane," or "I don't like this suit." Thoughts such as these are a waste of precious emotional energy because they focus on elements that are sometimes just out of the swimmer's control. Uncontrollable factors are just that - out of the swimmer's control. No matter how much a swimmer complains about the pool, lane, water temperature, equipment, and so on, it doesn't change anything except that person's attitude and energy level. A good rule when planning is to expect things not to be perfect. That is the business of performance and life. If something is not quite right, the message should be "It is what it is" (Navy SEAL mantra). Get over it and get back in the moment. Be solution oriented in responding to adversity. When encountering an obstacle or challenge, a true competitor sees only two choices - ignore it or fix it, but always move on!
Demanding Perfection
"I have to have a perfect race," "I have to hit exactly the right splits," or "I have to look perfect." Sport is about pursuing perfection, and that is all we really do - pursue it. We can only approximate perfection. That is why every sport has the built-in flexibility of not requiring participants to be perfect. The size of a basketball hoop is larger than the basketball; a golf cup is bigger than the golf ball. Except for the 25- and 50-meter events, swimmers have multiple pool lengths to make up for a slightly missed turn or stroke. Striving for perfection is a great attitude; demanding it is not. We just need to make a personal demand to strive for it!
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Competitive racing ' open water
Many open water swimmers train individually, but they race in competitions where they’ll be in the water with dozens, if not hundreds, of other athletes.
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Swim starts as a percentage of the race distance (start distance is 15 meters).
Consider these examples of how start performance can affect performance:
- A review of Olympic swimming results from 1972 to 2004 showed that a 0.1 second improvement in time, a difference that realistically can be achieved with a better start, would have resulted in 65 medals changing hands in sprint events (Hoof 2007). More recently at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the top two competitors in the female sprint events (50 meters and 100 meters) were typically separated by less than 1 percent (Slawson 2010), again an amount that can be affected by a start.
- An analysis of the 100-meter men's butterfly final at the 1996 Olympics showed that the eventual silver medalist was 0.4 seconds slower to 15 meters than the winner, but his final time was only 0.28 seconds slower (Schnabel and Kuchler 1998); the faster swimmer placed second and essentially lost the gold medal in the first 15 meters.
The bottom line is that although less time is spent on the start than is spent swimming, starting is still a crucial skill to master at the elite level (Miller, Allen, and Pein 2003; Hay 1988).
Types of Dive Starts
The grab start and the track start, with variations in which body weight is positioned forward or backward, are the most commonly used start techniques. The major differences between the grab start and track start are how the feet are placed on the block and how the athlete's body weight is distributed with regard to the base of support. The technique employed by a given swimmer is selected in part based on personal preference, but the design of the starting block can also have an influence (Pearson et al. 1998). FINA, the international governing body of swimming, requires that starting blocks be constructed with a 0- to 10-degreeslope and a height between 0.5 and 0.75 meters above the water (www.fina.org/rules/rules_index.htm). Thus, the swimmer can encounter considerable variability at a competition. Additionally, FINA recently approved the Omega OSB11 starting block for use in international competitions, which has the potential to alter optimal start technique considerably. This block has an inclined kick plate at the rear and side handles, which will further affect the type of start that athletes use. The addition of the FINA-approved backstroke feet wedges is likely to see further modifications in the backstroke starting technique and times.
The basic techniques for the block starts are presented in the sections that follow. The backstroke start will be addressed separately, later in the chapter.
Grab Start
The grab start is similar to a two-legged jump. To begin, the swimmer places the feet about 0.15 to 0.30 meters apart and curls the toes over the front edge of the block (figure 6.2). The hands grasp the front edge of the block, either inside or outside the feet. In this position, the swimmer's center of gravity (CG) is in a position of dynamic stability, positioned as far forward as possible within the base of support to allow for rapid movement forward. The arms are crucial in developing the initial forward momentum as they pull down and back against the block. Both arms then swing straight out toward the far end of the pool as both legs drive powerfully and simultaneously off the block (Houel et al. 2010). Kruger et al. (2003) showed that the knee and hip extensors are the main contributors to the takeoff forces generated by the legs, and the back muscles are preactivated to enable a more powerful extension of the body at the starting signal.
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Stop-action image of the grab start.
Courtesy of the Western Australian Institute of Sport.
Implications of the Recently Approved Starting Block Configurations
The recent decision by FINA to allow starting block configurations that have an adjustable slanted rear footrest or the addition of side handles has the potential to have a substantial influence on the start performance of swimmers. The adjustable footrest (commonly termed kick plate) on the Omega blocks can be moved forward and backward at set positions along the block to allow swimmers to use a crouch start and have the rear-positioned leg achieve a 90-degree knee angle (figure 6.5). The kick plate conceivably allows the rear leg to produce more force and generate higher horizontal velocities than can be developed with a track start on a traditional block. Further research is required to determine whether the swimmer's dominant leg would be better positioned at the front or rear of the block with this new configuration.
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The track start with kick plate.
Courtesy of AIS Movement Science, Australian Institute of Sport.
Several studies suggest that the new block configuration can have an effect on start performance. Honda et al. 2010 indicated that when compared with starts performed on a traditional block, starts that use the kick plate can significantly decrease block time and time to five meters, increase the force output of the rear foot, and increase horizontal takeoff velocity. In a separate study researchers found that on a custom-built instrumented block, a rear incline (at 36 degrees to horizontal) led to a less than 2 percent increase in horizontal velocity and a 3 percent decrease in the time to six meters when compared with the traditional start platform (Vint et al. 2009). This same study reported more significant benefits from the use of handles at the side of the block compared with the kick plate. These block modifications appear to favor the track start more than the grab start, so we may see a gradual phasing out of the grab start in international competition as these new block designs are used.
Force Development Characteristics
As a swimmer pushesoff the block, force is generated and applied against the starting block, which in turn pushes back against the swimmer according to Newton's third law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The applied force can be broken down into vertical, horizontal (antero-posterior), and lateral (side-to-side) components and produce the swimmer's takeoff velocity. Downward force application into the blocks accelerates the body vertically (increased height), and the component of the force directly backward generates propulsion in the forward direction. Any lateral force is essentially wasted and should be minimized. In the track start, however, some lateral force is unavoidable because the legs contribute to force generation at different times (Benjanuvatra et al. 2004).
The way that the three components of force are generated dictates the takeoff velocity of the swimmer and the resultant momentum that the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer's CG leaves the block. Generating more vertical force makes the angle of takeoff steeper; if a swimmer generates more horizontal force, the angle of takeoff will be flatter. Other information that can be derived from the force profiles includes the swimmer's reaction time, defined as the time from the starting signal to the first movement. Note that electronic displays of swimmers' reaction times at various competitions actually display the swimmers' block times - the combination of both reaction time and movement time on the starting block - which can vary considerably depending on the start used.
Force Development Profiles
A number of researchers have examined how force is developed for the different start types (Arellano et al. 2000; Kruger et al. 2003; Vilas-Boas et al. 2003; Benjanuvatra et al. 2004; Honda et al. 2010). Sample force profiles for the grab and standard (forward-weighted) track starts are shown in figures 6.6 and 6.7.
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Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a and b) and track start (c and d). For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with rear-foot propulsion and F marks the peak corresponding with front-foot propulsion.
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(a) Vertical and (b) horizontal force profiles of the rear and front foot for the front-weighted track start.
Although the initial movement of swimmers pulling against the starting block with the arms is similar for both grab and track starts, subtle differences can be identified from the force-time curves. In the grab start, this effort is applied mainly in the vertical direction, reflecting the action of the arms pulling the body toward the starting block (represented by first elevation of the vertical force curves, region 1 on figure 6.6a and b). Conversely, the arm action in the track start appears to generate impulse in both the horizontal and vertical directions (region 1 on figure 6.6c and d).
In the horizontal direction, the grab start is characterized by the gradual development of force, reaching a peak just before the swimmer leaves the block. In contrast, the horizontal force for the track start develops earlier and is followed by two separate peaks. The first peak corresponds to the push-off from the rear foot, and the second peak corresponds to the push-off from the front foot (figure 6.6). Aggressive arm action and a strong rear-leg drive are used to generate force and forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the front leg typically generates the major propulsive force on a traditional starting block (figure 6.7). The greater contribution of the front leg is likely because of the forward position of the swimmer's CG at takeoff. Greater vertical force is developed by the front leg at the beginning of the start, and both legs contribute considerably during the middle and later parts of the front-weighted track start. Although Honda et al. (2010) and Vint et al. (2009) have measured the total horizontal force using a back kick plate compared with traditional starting blocks, neither group of researchers has reported on the relative contribution of the front and rear feet.
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