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EuropeActive’s Essentials for Personal Trainers provides personal trainers with the most thorough information and best practices to help their clients achieve their health and fitness goals. Endorsed by EuropeActive, the fitness and health industry’s standard-setting authority in Europe, this manual is essential for all aspiring and qualified personal trainers and aims towards EuropeActive’s objective: “More people, more active, more often.”
The information contained in EuropeActive’s Essentials for Personal Trainers provides aspiring personal trainers with the basic competencies, skills and knowledge necessary for achieving level 4 status in the European Qualifications Framework (EQF), the baseline standards for registered personal trainers in Europe. The content builds on foundational concepts to provide practical knowledge and on-the-job examples to personal trainers so that they can deliver enjoyable and effective services to their clients.
Authored by fitness experts throughout Europe, EuropeActive’s Essentials for Personal Trainers provides a standard reference to inform this growing field. The first three chapters describe the role of the personal trainer, with topics covering professionalism and presentation, planning a personal training session and delivering a personal training session. Readers will then learn functional anatomy with chapters on skeletal articulations and joint movement, injury prevention and the muscular system. To understand the science behind exercise prescription, readers will learn about energy systems, the cardiorespiratory system, the nervous system and hormonal responses to exercise. Chapters focusing on lifestyle assessment, including health and fitness assessment, psychological aspects of personal training and nutrition, allow personal trainers to understand the unique needs of the various clients they serve. The book concludes with chapters on training adaptations as well as exercise planning and programming.
With more and more people turning to professionals for assistance in their quest for better health and fitness, the demand for qualified personal trainers in Europe has never been greater. EuropeActive’s Essentials for Personal Trainers is an ideal resource for those aspiring to become personal trainers in Europe and equips current professionals in the fitness industry with the tools they need in effectively serving their clients. Personal trainers who achieve EQF level 4 status demonstrate to both clients and employers that they have all of the pertinent knowledge and skills to be successful anywhere in Europe.
Chapter 1. Professionalism and Presentation
Jan Middelkamp
Personal Training
Examining the Sector of Personal Training
Professionalism of Personal Trainers in Business
Presentation and Qualifications in Personal Training
Marketing and Sales
Conclusion
Chapter 2. Planning a Personal Training Session
Davide Filingeri and Thomas Rieger
Principles and Characteristics of Personal Training
Planning Activities
Conclusion
Chapter 3. Delivering a Personal Training Session
Nuno Pimenta
Monitoring and Adjusting Exercise
Maintaining Good Communication and Motivation
Different Personal Training Environments
Extending Frequent and Good Communication to Clients
Conclusion
Chapter 4. Skeletal Articulations and Joint Movement
Daniel Robbins and Mark Goss-Sampson
Connective Tissue
Joint Structure
Lever Systems
Effects of Resistance Training on Joints
Conclusion
Chapter 5. Injury Prevention
Pauline Jacobs and John van Heel
Osteoporosis
Spinal Injury Prevention
Shoulder Stabilisation
Ligamentous Damage
Conclusion
Chapter 6. Muscular System
Anders Nedergaard
Contraction Types and Their Characteristics
Acute Muscle Adaptations to Different Training Types
Chronic Muscle Adaptation to Training
Muscle Functions of the Hip and Thoracolumbar Fascia
Conclusion
Chapter 7. Energy Systems
Francesco Bertiato and Simonetta Senni
Three Energy Systems
Acute Variables and Energy Systems
Effects of EPOC and Interval Training on Metabolism
Fat Burning
METs and Calories
Methods for Monitoring Exercise
Use of Energy from Nutrients
Conclusion
Chapter 8. Cardiorespiratory System
Christoffer Andersen
Cardiovascular System
Respiratory System
Conclusion
Chapter 9. Nervous System
Alexis Batrakoulis
Organisation of the Nervous System
Function of the Nervous System
Nervous System and Exercise
Conclusion
Chapter 10. Hormonal Responses to Exercise
Sabrena Merrill and Cedric X. Bryant
Structural Overview of the Endocrine System
Classification of Hormones
Hormone Interactions with Target Cells
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Hormonal Adaptations to Chronic Exercise Training
Conclusion
Chapter 11. Health and Fitness Assessment
Nuno Pimenta, Samantha Jones and Ben Jones
Defining Health and Fitness
Preliminary Health Assessment
Fitness Assessments
Conclusion
Chapter 12. Psychological Aspects of Personal Training
Chris Beedie
Role of Psychology in Personal Training
Goals and Goal Setting
Beliefs and Expectations
Emotions, Stress and Coping
Conclusion
Chapter 13. Nutrition
Fernando Naclerio and Robert Cooper
Energy Requirement
Estimating Energy Expenditure
Calculating Energy Needs
Recommended Dietary Intakes
Healthy Eating Patterns
How Dietary Intake Influences Health
Micronutrient Deficiency and Health
Fads and Popular Diets
Food Pyramid and MyPlate Dietary Plan
Developing a Healthy, Balanced Way of Eating
Tobacco, Alcohol and Caffeine
Fat and Lipoprotein
Safe and Effective Weight Loss and Gain
Conclusion
Chapter 14. Training Adaptations
Rafael Oliveira, João Brito and Ben Jones
Adaptations to Training Principles
Adaptations to Resistance Training
Adaptations to Aerobic Training
Adaptations to Range of Motion Training
Conclusion
Chapter 15. Exercise Planning and Programming
Christoffer Andersen, Thomas Rieger and Lars L. Andersen
Planning for Resistance Training
Planning for Aerobic Endurance Training
Applied Training Programming
Examples of Exercise Programming
Conclusion
The European Register of Exercise Professionals (EREPS) uses the EuropeActive standards to ensure that exercise professionals are qualified to offer safe and effective fitness programmes to their clients across Europe. EREPS provides consumers, employers and partners in medical professions with the confidence that registered trainers are both competent and able to work to support its Code of Ethical Practice, which defines the rights and principles of exercise professionals. Referencing the EuropeActive standards and being registered mean that trainers have met the minimum standards of good practice and that they are committed to enhancing their skills and professional status through a process of lifelong learning.
EREPS is regulated by the EuropeActive Professional Standards Committee using the official European Qualifications Framework (EQF), which describes the knowledge, skills and competencies exercise professionals need for registration.
About the Editors
Thomas Rieger, DrRerSoc, has been the chairman of the standards council of EuropeActive since 2012. He holds a doctoral degree in social sciences with a specialization in sport science (German PhD equivalent) from the University of Tübingen and a master’s degree in public health. In 2007, he was appointed as a professor of sport management at the Business and Information Technology School (BiTS) in Iserlohn, Germany. At BiTS, he is the vice dean of the bachelor’s programme of sport and event management and the master's programme of international sport and event management. Previously, Dr. Rieger served as visiting professor at the Real Madrid Graduate School and the European University Cyprus in Nicosia. Before entering academia in 2006, he gained more than six years of experience in the fitness industry, especially in the fields of fitness marketing and quality management.
Ben Jones, BSc (Hons), is a founder and director of BlueSkies Fitness Ltd., a company that provides workplace wellness solutions to small- and medium-sized employers, offers learning and development consultancy, and manages the process of provider accreditation for EuropeActive. Mr. Jones has extensive experience in developing standards, qualifications, assessments and learning resources in the UK, Europe and UAE and has written for EuropeActive, Active IQ, VTCT, Lifetime Awarding and other organization. He is a master trainer for MEND, Momenta and TechnoGym and was one of the first PTA global faculty in the UK. Previously, he held the role of teaching and curriculum manager at Lifetime Training. Before entering the fitness sector in 1999 and going on to build a successful personal training practice and hold multiple fitness management roles, Mr. Jones studied physiology at Leeds University.
Alfonso Jiménez, PhD, CSCS, NSCA-CPT, FLF, is a professor of exercise science and health and the executive director of the Centre for Applied Biological and Exercise Sciences at Coventry University (UK) and a member of the scientific advisory board of UKActive Research Institute. Previous roles include professor and dean of the faculty of health, exercise and sports science at European University of Madrid (Spain) and main academic leader of the Real Madrid Graduate School; professor, deputy dean and head of school of sport and exercise science at Victoria University in Melbourne (Australia); professor and headd of the centre for sport science and human performance at the University of Greenwich in London (UK); and chairman of the standards council at EuropeActive. He was awarded honorary membership of EuropeActive in recognition of his outstanding service. He is currently a visiting professor and international research associate at ISEAL at Victoria University, visiting professor at the University of Greenwich and chair of the research and dissemination commission at the Healthy & Active Living Foundation in Spain. Before entering academia, Dr. Jiménez focused on management, research and sales in the fitness industry.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.
Personal Training Business Expansion
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly.
From One-Person Business to a Steady Company
An important prosperity scenario is expanding a personal training business by employing multiple personal trainers. This is possible by hiring them as employees or by connecting them to the business as self-employed contractors. Naturally the consequences differ greatly. The risk is significantly higher if an entrepreneur hires one or more personal trainers. However the income is also higher. The relationship between base salary and commission can be managed. Little specific information is present on the criteria for hiring someone or expanding the team. A good principle is to not grow and mature too soon. It is better to first build on the strategies mentioned previously before switching to having a lot of employees. So, an entrepreneur should first increase turnover per hour and then try to build up continuity with subscriptions for personal training. When working with a team, usually a small team of two to six people, the entrepreneur should make sure to divide the core tasks efficiently, making sure that not everyone does the same thing, namely delivering sessions. Specialise the team in terms of two issues. The first concerns content: Make sure that every member has their own specialty, or better yet assemble a team of personal trainers with complementary specialties. The second concerns the commercial dimension. Hire a few trainers who continuously recruit new clients in addition to delivering sessions. In this way the entrepreneur will work intensively on the growth of new clients.
An entrepreneur should preferably work on the business instead of just in the business. Ideally a personal trainer who starts their own business should be working on this process from the very beginning. They should strive to make the business saleable, whether or not that is the ultimate intention. This approach has not been applied often in personal training. Why should personal trainers strive to make their business saleable when they have not yet envisioned this goal? They are just getting started. The crux is in the long-term view. Personal trainers are just getting started when they're only 25 or 35 years old, but what about when they are 55 or 65 years old? Since the profession is also very physical, personal trainers need to think ahead about age from the beginning of their careers. But long-term planning is not just about the physical aspects of the profession. The business perspectives might even be more important. A successful personal trainer has added value and made profit in the first years. That is step one. Step two concerns ensuring continuity. When a personal trainer grows value in the first year (e.g., more sessions, more turnover per session), it is a shame when that value stays at the same level for decades afterwards. In all business, an important goal is to continuously raise the economic value of the company. Of course an individual personal trainer could decide explicitly to not strive for this, but it is advised from a long-term business perspective. When personal trainers embrace this growth strategy, they must set up management systematically. They will need a customer relationship management (CRM) system to ensure mutual tuning, to build up a database and to obtain reports. They should also ensure matching between methods so that clients do not experience large differences between personal trainers.
These processes are crucial when personal trainers strive to make their business saleable. No one will buy a business when its turnover completely depends on one or two people. A business as an entity has value only when there is continuity. This is true for turnover, profit and all other matters; some are mentioned in the following list:
- Build a brand. This should not be linked to one person. It has to be an entity that is presented everywhere.
- Work with a CRM system to record processes and register matters such as client information and make financial data clear.
- Keep tight control of all financial processes. Never work in undeclared employment. This creates a wrong image towards the team, and it also keeps the formal value of the personal training business low.
- Build a strong and person-independent team. Because personal training is highly person-dependent, the head of the company must continuously search for good colleagues and then train and coach them.
The exit strategy mostly means that personal training is approached professionally. A personal trainer deals with the same principles that every other business does.
Execution of Exercises
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique.
One of the most important interventions is related to how an exercise is performed. The personal trainer must be able to intervene to help the client demonstrate safe and effective exercise technique. Interventions include good instruction, demonstration and explanation of the critical components of each exercise, and proficiency in identifying the client's execution errors, correcting those mistakes in execution and adjusting exercises when needed.
A good instruction is usually a short communication where the personal trainer focuses on the most important aspects of the exercise that will guarantee that the client can start the exercise without serious errors, particularly those that could threaten their safety. Many times this includes a demonstration of the exercise by the personal trainer so that the client will have a visual image of what is intended. The content (information) of the instruction and the way of saying it (rehearsal effect) can be practised so that the personal trainer will come across as secure, experienced and proficient and will effectively convey the message.
The personal trainer must be able to identify and correct any exercise execution errors, bad posture or mistakes that the client may engage in right when they occur. Both capacities are crucial. Identifying errors is probably the hardest skill, especially for novice personal trainers, but it becomes easier with experience. Correcting errors properly, giving appropriate feedback and using the right correction techniques to solve the problem are also very important.
Sometimes to make an exercise appropriate for a particular client the personal trainer must adjust the exercise. This includes changing exercise prescription components, modifying exercises and sometimes substituting one exercise for another.
Table 3.2 describes different types of interventions. These may include simple feedback or more intensive interventions, such as asking the client to stop the exercise so that the personal trainer can give a demonstration or additional explanation. Personal trainers should carefully consider the type of intervention needed for a given situation before making it. If the personal trainer gives only feedback, the client may receive this as a normal intervention. But if the personal trainer asks the client to stop the exercise, they may perceive this as failure, which will probably make them feel bad about the training session. It is the personal trainer's job to counteract such feelings by using good communication, assuming a pedagogic attitude, explaining to the client what is happening at all times and paying special attention to the motivational aspects of the communication with the client. As a rule personal trainers should interrupt an exercise only when the identified errors relate to safety issues. If the physical integrity of the client is not at stake, most of the times there is no reason to interrupt the exercise.
Safety
Another main task of the personal trainer is to promote the highest safety standards during the preparation of the exercise programme (based on a sound assessment of the client's medical history, lifestyle and fitness) and throughout all training sessions. Exercise does involve some risks, particularly in clients with chronic conditions and when appropriate assessment is not considered and proper exercise prescription guidelines are not followed (CSEP 2010; Thompson 2013). However as a general rule moderate exercise is very safe, and provides health benefits even for sedentary, higher risk populations (Clark et al. 2005).
Clients may encounter two main types of risks related to exercise: orthopaedic risk and metabolic risk. Orthopaedic risk is mainly related to the technical execution of the exercises and postures, and may result in joint and muscle injuries. It can be prevented with a good selection of exercises and effective correction of execution errors and bad posture. Metabolic risk is mainly related to exercise intensity and to the client's particular characteristics, including undiagnosed health problems that may lead to abnormal responses to exercise such as sudden drops in blood pressure, myocardial infarction or stroke. Sound guidelines for assessing the client and defining the specific dimension of the metabolic challenge to be imposed can be easily found in publications in the field (ACSM 2013; CSEP 2010).
Metabolic risk can be decreased by assessing the client's response to exercise using available strategies. For example during continuous cardiorespiratory exercise, the personal trainer can use a heart rate monitor to verify if the client is in the predetermined target zone. They can also use the talk test (Persinger et al. 2004), asking the client to speak a few words in a row. If the client has a hard time speaking more than a few words without getting out of breath, the exercise intensity may be too high. In other forms of exercise the personal trainer should maintain good communication with the client to assess whether they feel well and comfortable; for example the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale - also called the Borg scale - can be used (Irving et al. 2006; von Leupoldt et al. 2006).
The bottom line is that the personal trainer is responsible for assuring a healthy and safe exercise during all training sessions and workouts, following clients, identifying dangerous situations and intervening accordingly.
Hormonal Responses to Acute Exercise
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs.
Up to this point, the discussion has focused primarily on the general structure and function of the endocrine system. Normal bodily function depends on the timely release and inhibition of a variety of hormones as they work together to bring about important actions at their target organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in controlling physiological functions during exercise as well. The significant hormonal actions that are most responsive to an acute bout of exercise are presented in this section.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin, which are transported from the hypothalamus. Little information is available about the effects of exercise on oxytocin. However evidence supports the idea that exercise is a potent stimulus for ADH secretion.
During periods of heavy sweating and intense exercise, ADH works to minimise the extent of water loss from the kidneys, thereby decreasing the risk of severe dehydration. This response helps the body conserve fluids, especially during exercise in the heat, when a person is most at risk for dehydration. By increasing the water permeability of the kidneys' collecting ducts, ADH facilitates the conservation of water, allowing less water to be excreted in the urine.
With intense muscular work and heavy perspiration, the electrolytes become more concentrated in the blood plasma, which increases the plasma osmolality (the ionic concentration of dissolved substances, such as electrolytes, in the plasma). Additionally, sweating causes water to be drawn out of the blood, resulting in a lower plasma volume. The hypothalamus can sense increased plasma osmolality and lowered plasma volume, and responds by stimulating the posterior pituitary lobe to secrete ADH (see figure 10.6). In contrast, ADH secretion is minimised when fluid intake increases and the blood volume expands, resulting in more dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone's influence on the conservation of body water during exercise.
Reprinted, by permission, from W.L. Kenney, J.W. Wilmore, and D.L. Costill, 2015, Physiology of sport and exercise, 6th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 112.
Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 (general metabolic hormones) and calcitonin, which facilitates calcium metabolism. T3 and T4 are involved in the following important functions:
- Regulation of basal metabolic rate
- Protein and enzyme synthesis
- Increasing the size and number of mitochondria in most cells
- Rapid cellular uptake of glucose
- Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Lipid mobilisation, increasing FFAs for use in aerobic metabolism
TSH stimulates the thyroid and controls the release of T3 and T4. During exercise plasma T4 concentrations do increase, but a delay occurs between T4 elevations and TSH concentrations, so it is unclear whether there is a direct causal relationship between these two hormones during exercise. During submaximal aerobic endurance exercise there is a sharp initial increase in T4 concentrations, but then T4 remains relatively constant at a lower level throughout the rest of the bout. During prolonged submaximal exercise, T3 concentrations tend to decrease.
Periodisation
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The roots of periodisation come from Hans Selye's model, known as the general adaptation syndrome, which has been used by the athletic community since the late 1950s (Selye 1950). Selye identified a source of biological stress referred to as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, as well as a distress state, which is stress that can lead to tissue damage, disease and death.
The principle of periodisation refers to the systematic process of changing one or more programme variables over time to allow the training stimulus to stay demanding and efficient (Ratamess et al. 2009). Periodisation can involve, for example, systematically alternating high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g., maximal strength, hypertrophy and muscular endurance). Personal trainers recommend various periodisation programmes for the continuing development of their clients. Periodisation protocols are thought to optimise the continuing development of physical performance for the following reasons: Cumulative fatigue is dispersed, thereby reducing the risk for overtraining; the varying training stimuli associated with periodisation yield greater and faster gains than training at the constant intensity; and the programme remains interesting and challenging for the client, thereby improving long-term commitment.
Periodisation programmes for athletes are typically divided into three cycles of different duration: microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle. The microcycle generally lasts up to 7 days. The mesocycle may last anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months. It can be further classified into preparation, competition, peaking and transition phases. The macrocycle refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year. It is useful to shorten this period down to 3 months, which seems to be a more realistic time frame for the client. It moreover facilitates promotion and marketing activities.
Numerous research studies have investigated physiological effects of different training volumes (total repetitions per workout) and intensities. Most research studies have demonstrated superior changes in muscle mass, strength, muscular endurance and performance of periodised over non-periodised programmes. Even over a short period of time (weeks to months), systematic variation in training volume and intensity results in greater gains compared with non-periodised programs using constant sets and repetitions (e.g., 4 sets of 10 repetitions; Fleck and Kraemer 2014; Ratamess et al. 2009).
As stated previously volume and intensity are important components of periodisation. However numerous other variables should be considered for optimal periodisation for each client: choice of exercises, order of exercises, number of muscle groups per training session, number of sets per exercise, number of exercises per muscle group, repetition range, speed of lifting and lowering the weight, rest period between sets and rest days between training the same muscle groups again.
Linear and undulating periodisation are two common systems of planned variation (see figures 15.1 and 15.2). In the linear model a training cycle begins with a high-volume, low-intensity programme, then progresses to a low-volume, high-intensity one over the coming months. Thus the linear model typically describes a progression from high-volume and low-intensity work towards decreasing volume and increasing intensity during the different cycles. A variant of linear periodisation is the stepwise periodisation in which intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period, but volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion (e.g., repetitions are reduced from 10 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 2 and so on at specific time intervals; Kraemer and Fleck 2007).
The model of linear periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
In undulating periodisation training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis rather than following the linear pattern. Intensity and volume are typically shifted up and down on a weekly basis. This type of periodised loading is thought to optimise strength gains by regularly inducing training stimuli and to favour both muscle growth (high-volume training) and neural adaptations (high-intensity training).
The model of undulating periodisation.
Reprinted, by permission, from NSCA, 2008, Periodization, by D. Wathen et al. Essentials of strength training and conditioning, 3rd ed., edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 50.
Numerous periodisation programmes exist. Two popular and effective programmes are hypertrophy-specific training (HST) and Smolov Jr. training.