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Athletic Movement Skills
Training for Sports Performance
by Clive Brewer
Foreword by Loren Seagrave
416 Pages
The unifying theme of every elite athlete and every spectacular performance is movement. It’s the basis for what we recognize as athleticism. It’s the foundation for athletic skill and the essential ingredient to excellence.
Athletic Movement Skills: Training for Sports Performance sets a new standard for athletic assessment and development. This authoritative work presents proven protocols for evaluating, correcting, training and translating athletic movement to athletic dominance.
Combining the latest science and research with cutting-edge techniques and strategies, Athletic Movement Skills will show you how to
• develop multidirectional speed and power for any sport and any position,
• improve jumping and agility with effective plyometric progressions,
• harness and apply power in critical game or match situations,
• evaluate and correct posture and body position,
• reduce injuries and expedite rehabilitation and
• create functional strength progressions that will directly translate to on-field performance.
Hundreds of photo sequences and illustrations plus 10 detailed exercise progressions depict how to refine and perfect speed, agility, strength and power-related movements and skills.
Whether you are working with young or experienced, novice or elite athletes, Athletic Movement Skills is a must-have. It is the definitive development guide for anyone serious about sport performance.
Earn continuing education credits/units! A continuing education course and exam that uses this book is also available. It may be purchased separately or as part of a package that includes all the course materials and exam.
Chapter 1 Movement Skill Development
Chapter 2 Understanding Biomotor Abilities
Chapter 3 Patterns of Motor System Development
Chapter 4 Efficiently Controlling Forces: Mechanical Functions of Movement
Chapter 5 Importance of Posture in Athletic Movement
Chapter 6 Evaluating Posture
Chapter 7 Designing a Progressive Curriculum: Considerations for Movement Skill Learning and Physio-Mechanical Training
Chapter 8 Developing Running Speed and Agility Skills
Chapter 9 Developing Jumping and Plyometric Skills
Chapter 10 Developing Functional Strength Progressions
Chapter 11 Applying Principles in Practice
Clive Brewer is a world-recognized expert in high-performance sports conditioning, athlete development and applied sports science. He is the assistant director of high performance for the Toronto Blue Jays and has consulted with several other organizations around the globe, such as Manchester United FC, USA Football, Wimbledon tennis championships, the UK Strength and Conditioning Association, Scotland National Rugby League, Liverpool Ladies FC, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) and IMG Academy. As head of strength and conditioning with Widnes Vikings Rugby League Club (2011-2014), he helped them achieve their highest Super League finish while reducing injuries by more than 18% each year. Brewer has also consulted with Sports Med global performance systems, supporting sports performance development for clients worldwide. He has held lead roles as the head of human performance (strength and conditioning, science and medicine) with the Rugby Football League and SportScotland's national program manager for athlete development.
Brewer is accredited by the UK Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA), the National Strength and Conditioning Association and the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences as a support scientist. He is a chartered scientist with the Science Council in the UK and an original member of the British Olympic Association register of strength and conditioning coaches. In August 2015, he was awarded the fellowship of the UKSCA in recognition of his contribution to the industry.
As the IAAF strength and conditioning expert editor, Brewer was Scotland's first national strength and conditioning coach for track and field. He has worked in sports as diverse as tennis, soccer, rugby union, and bobsleigh at professional and international levels.
From 2007, Brewer worked with other specialists to research the best practice in designing an athlete development framework to underpin the UK coaching model. He has authored several papers and book chapters on applied sport science, training methods, and athletic development coaching and has written two books on training methods for coaches. He has presented at many international conferences, including the pre-Olympic Sports Science Congress, the U.S. Olympic Committee National Coaches Congress, the International Science in Rugby Coaching conference, the National Strength and Conditioning Association national conference and the European Strength and Conditioning conference.
A native of the UK, Brewer lives in the Tampa metropolitan area while working across Canada and the United States with the Toronto Blue Jays baseball organization.
“Athletic Movement Skills is the definitive work on the subject. Clive Brewer has created a blueprint for excelling in any sport. Athletes, coaches, and trainers, if you’re serious about performance and injury prevention, I can think of no better investment.”
Mike Favre, M.Ed., CSCS, RSCC*D-- Director of Olympic Sports Strength & Conditioning, University of Michigan
“Athletic movement skills underpin performance in the majority of sports. Developing these capacities appropriately gives athletes a significant advantage. No one knows more about this topic than Clive Brewer. The wisdom in this book will give coaches and athletes the ability to stay a step ahead of their opposition. “
Ian Jeffreys, Ph.D., ASCC, CSCS,*D, RSCC*E, FNSCA, FUKSC-- Professor of Strength and Conditioning, University of South Wales
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
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Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
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Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
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Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
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Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
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Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
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Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
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Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
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Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
Save
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
Learn more about Athletic Movement Skills.
Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement. Collectively, they are referred to as the musculoskeletal system.
As its name suggests, skeletal muscle anchors to bones and is responsible for movement and control of the skeleton. In mechanics, form dictates function. Therefore, studying the form (structure and shape) of the muscle leads to a greater understanding of how it functions and how training can influence it.
Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at either end of the muscle. Connective tissue runs throughout the collection of individual muscle fibres that come together to make a muscle. This connective tissue forms the tendons, which join muscle to bone. The myotendinous junction enables a pulling force to be created between the bones (i.e., if a muscle attaches to different bones at each of its ends, the muscle can exert a pull between bones, creating movement of one bone relative to the other).
This concept is simple when viewed in isolation. To illustrate this point, let's look at the biceps brachii, which attaches to the scapula and the humerus (upper arm bone) at one end and the ulna and radius bones of the forearm at the other end (figure 2.2a). With the shoulder fixed, contraction in the biceps brachii moves the hand towards the shoulder, and the elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna and radius are moved relative to the humerus. If the hands are fixed (for example, when hanging from a bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are contracted, the humerus is moved closer to the ulna and radius, again through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
Muscles exert forces that enable bones to move relative to each other.
Although this explanation is designed to illustrate how bones move relative to each other, the example is oversimplified. Movement doesn't really occur as an isolated action; for example, executing a chin-up requires the work of many muscles. Completely understanding movement means accepting that muscle actions rarely occur in isolation. A complex interaction between muscles exerting differential forces on bones produces the phenomenon that we observe as movement.
For example, to flex (bend) the arm at the elbow from a normal carrying position (assuming a relatively heavy mass) to a position in which the palm of the hand faces the shoulder joint at full flexion, the primary force is created by contracting the biceps brachii and the brachialis, with assistance from the brachioradialis as resistance increases. In this action, the primary stabilizer of the elbow joint is the anconeus. The position of the shoulder - the humeral head is in position against the glenoid fossa of the clavicle - is fixed by contraction of the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis and supraspinatus). The triceps brachii (the primary extensor muscle of the elbow) also acts as a synergist to fix the position of the humerus relative to the shoulder (figure 2.3).3
Muscle arrangement around the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
Another example of how antagonistic muscle groups work in synchronization to bring about coordinated movement can be seen in the vertical jump. The practical considerations for developing and programming this activity are explored in detail in chapter 9.
The vertical jump involves the near simultaneous extension of the hip, knee and ankle joints from the flexed starting position at the beginning of the vertical component of the action (figure 2.4a). The prime extensor group for the knee is the quadriceps muscle group: vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Within this group, the rectus femoris crosses both the hip and knee joint and is responsible for flexion of the hip in standing (i.e., raising the femur until it is perpendicular to the floor) as well as extension of the knee. The conjoined muscles of the iliopsoas are also powerful hip flexors that bring the upper body forward when the feet are on the floor.
Therefore, if the desired hip extension is to occur, the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and the gluteus maximus must concentrically contract to extend the hip joint from the leg to counter the hip-flexing actions of the rectus femoris and iliopsoas. This action brings the trunk into an upright position as the hip extends forcibly at the same time as the knee and ankle (figure 2.4b). The resultant force enables the body to leave the floor (figure 2.4c). The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus stabilize the hip joint in this action.
Coordinated muscle actions in a vertical countermovement jump: (a) starting position; (b) hip, knee and ankle extend; (c) jump.
Note that the respective movements of the joints and the relative positioning of the bones to each other throughout the actions bring about the muscle activation patterns. This observation reinforces a fundamental training philosophy emphasized throughout this book: When athletic development programmes emphasize that technique is based on placing the joints in the right positions by developing the correct movements, muscles are trained functionally. In other words, train movements, not muscles!
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Jumps
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context.
Many types of jumping movements can be readily arranged into a progressive curriculum by the imaginative coach who is able to link the principles of sound technique to the jumping context. As long as the athlete is able to generate the required level of concentric force through a countermovement, jumping upwards onto an object is often less demanding than jumping onto the same level, perhaps because many jumps onto an object are singular efforts interspersed with recovery as the athlete steps down from the box. This jump is in contrast to many other jumps that involve multiple and successive repetitions with no recovery between reps because ground contact needs to be minimized.
Some of the exercises introduced in the ground contact context are obviously jumps. The key differential between these and some of the exercises described in this section is the objective of the exercise. Figure 9.11 introduced exercises in which the key deliverable was an efficient and effective ground contact technique that is transferrable to all jumping situations. Contrastingly, other jumps require this technique as a foundation to build on, because the objective of the jump moves to developing horizontal or vertical forces to maximize the height or distance of the jump.
Progressive approach to developing jumping skills that are transferable to a multisport context: countermovement jumps in place.
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Assessments Help Develop Superior Athletic Performance
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Squat Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and feet facing forward. Initially, place hands to the sides of the head with elbows pointing laterally. Then progress to arms overhead with elbows extended.
Technique
Lower into a squat position as far as possible while under control.
Checkpoints
- Heels must stay in contact with the floor at all times.
- The athlete maintains lumbar lordosis through the full range. Watch for pivoting at the lumbosacral and lumbothoracic junction.
- Knees are aligned over second toes. Watch for overpronation, knee moving medially and hip rotating medially.
- Ascent and descent should be fluid and continuous.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion)
- Full squat (hips below the level of the knee)
- Squat to parallel (90-degree knee flexion) with arms overhead
- Full squat with arms overhead
In-Line Lunge Assessment
Start Position
Stand.
Technique
Place the hands beside the head with elbows flexed and pointing laterally. Step forward with the lead thigh parallel to the floor. Keeping the head and chest up, place the lead foot on the floor with the front knee over the front foot. The back knee touches the ground immediately behind the heel of the front foot. Hold for 2 seconds and then push back to standing. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- Knee remains in line with second toe, and hips are square. The trunk retains lumbar and thoracic integrity.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Front leg to 90 degrees and back knee to ground
- Front leg to 90 degrees, back knee to ground and return to standing
- Level 2 plus rotation over front leg
Linear and Lateral Jump or Hop Over Small Hurdle Assessment
Start position
Stand with feet hip-width apart and arms relaxed by sides.
Technique
Jump or hop in the prescribed direction over four minihurdles and stick the landings.
Checkpoints
- The athlete maintains hip, knee and ankle alignment on landing. Hips are square, and trunk is stable with no loss of lumbar or thoracic integrity. The landing is quiet on a flat foot.
- Player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Two-foot jump, two-foot land
- Two-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot jump, one-foot land
- One-foot hop with hip drive to 90 degrees, one-foot land
Single-Leg Dip Assessment
Start Position
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart before going into a single-leg stand. Arms are relaxed by sides.
Technique
Maintaining flat-foot contact, perform three single-leg dips under control. Repeat on the other leg.
Checkpoints
- The athlete's knee remains in line with the second toe, and the hips are square.
- Spinal alignment is maintained. No drop into anterior pelvic tilt or lumbar spine extension occurs.
- Foot position is maintained. No overpronation or early eversion occurs.
- Pelvis stays level. No dropping occurs to the left or right.
- Shoulders and trunk are in line with the lower body. Control is constant and consistent throughout the movement.
- The player achieves the following:
- Dip to 60 degrees
- Dip to 90 degrees
- Dip to 120 degrees
- Full pistol squat
Press-Up Assessment
Start Position
See description for each level.
Technique
Maintain a straight-line position through a full press-up - elbows fully extended to elbows fully flexed, chest to 7.5 centimetres from the floor.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders stay in neutral. No hitching occurs with trapezius.
- Scapulae stay in neutral. No winging occurs.
- Thoracic and lumbar spine stays in correct alignment.
- Pelvis is maintained in neutral throughout the movement. No anterior tilt and no dropping to one side occur.
- The player is observed through the following continuum unless competency compromised:
- Wall press with feet placed away from the wall 1.5 times the distance of the tibial tuberosity to the floor, hands shoulder-width apart, forehead dipped to wall
- Inclined press-up on plinth or table
- Inclined push-up on 20-centimetre block
- Floor push-up
- Decline floor push-up (feet on 20-centimetre block)
Four-Point Kneeling
Start Position
Begin on all fours with feet hip-width apart and knees under hips. Hands should be shoulder-width apart and aligned under shoulders. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the four points of contact.
Technique
Perform the following sequence. The aim is to maintain a level shoulder and hip position, with no change in lumbar - pelvic orientation and no obvious weight redistribution during the movement.
- Level 1: Lift one arm until it points forwards and is aligned with the trunk. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other arm.
- Level 2: Lift one leg until it is extended behind the body and the shoulders, hips, knees and ankles are aligned. Hold and return to the start position. Repeat with the other leg.
- Level 3: Lift one arm and one leg on opposite sides.
- Level 4: Lift one arm and one leg on the same side.
Checkpoints
- Shoulders and hips stay level and in alignment.
- No rotation occurs through the trunk.
- No extension of the trunk occurs; the athlete does not drop in lumbar or thoracic extension as the limb is lifted.
- Pelvis stays level and neutral; no dropping occurs to either side or into anterior tilt.
- No hitching or winging of the scapula occurs.
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Guided Discovery
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique.
A coaching method that goes somewhat towards combining aspects of both the drill and the games approaches is the guided discovery technique. Using this method, practitioners establish a drill or practice pattern and then use questions to guide or shape the athletes' learning and thus influence subsequent performance attempts. Effective questions are those that direct the athletes' focus to a particular aspect of the skilled performance, either the decision-making process or the technical aspects of a particular movement or skill execution.
Asking Effective Questions
Ask questions that raise awareness and promote responsibility. Use what questions first:
- What did you do differently this time?
- Tell me what you felt in that movement.
Follow with questions that explore the following aspects:
- Where were you looking to help you decide where to move?
- When did you feel your heels coming off the floor as you descended?
- How much force do you think you used to push into the floor to jump upwards?
Or progress to asking for further explanation:
- Tell me more about how you felt the weight distribution change through your foot in the clean pull.
- Describe in more detail exactly where the bar was when you felt the weight shift forwards from your heels.
For less-experienced performers, you may direct their attention towards a specific focus. Relate feedback specifically to the coaching points on which you instructed the athlete to focus.
For experienced performers, you may want to focus on and follow the athlete's interest. Sometimes an experienced athlete will make you aware of something you could not see or had not focussed on; for example, the athlete may say, ‘That didn't feel as powerful' or ‘When I land on my left leg, I feel more unbalanced than on my right.'
Try a rating scale using the athlete's anchor words or images to keep the athlete from judging him- or herself. For example, ask, ‘If 1 is no push at all and 10 is the most explosive push you can give, rate your push into the floor on that repetition.'
Really listen. Use your eyes as well as your ears. Listen to intent as well as content.
Give the athlete time to answer, especially when he or she is getting used to answering questions. Think about giving the athlete another skill attempt in which to come up with the answer to your question rather than providing the answer.
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