Championship Tennis

Groundstroke Myths

Unfortunately, tennis is full of stock teaching methodology that should be banished—well-intentioned, catchy phrases that have become dated or, worse yet, were never even correct to begin with. Here are a few of the bigger culprits concerning groundstrokes.

Roll over the ball for topspin. This is a favorite among TV commentators. Sadly, countless teaching pros are still using this phrase, too. Players try to time the racket roll at contact, resulting in shots that spray all over the court.

Here are the facts: Depending on the type of shot, the ball is on the strings for about 2 to 4 milliseconds. It takes another 150 to 200 milliseconds for an electrical signal to travel from a player's hand back to the brain. The brain then sends a new motor program back to the muscle group to begin the wrist roll. This takes an additional 150 to 200 milliseconds, by which time the ball is now 8 to 10 feet off the racket face toward the opponent's side of the court. In other words, it's impossible to roll over the ball for topspin. The spin comes from the brushing motion of a low-to-high swing path.

Watch the ball hit the strings. As mentioned earlier, the human eye cannot register a two-millisecond event. No one has ever seen a ball hit the strings. It's simply a blur. Keeping the head down and still through contact is the best recipe for a steady racket path through the strike zone. Watch film of the best baseliners, and it's easy to see how quiet they keep their head during their groundstrokes.

Skim the net. On television, it appears that professionals barely clear the net on their groundstrokes. This is rarely the case. The deception occurs because the television cameras at pro tour events are often placed high in the stadium. This angle offers a clear view of match play, but it distorts the trajectory of the ball flight.

In actuality, players use a variety of heights, generally dictated by their court positioning. This is often the result of managing the time between hits. When players are on the defensive, they generally hit higher to buy more time for recovery. Conversely, they move forward and hit harder and lower to take time away from a vulnerable opponent.

At the club level, a ball that barely clears the net lands midcourt and bounces perfectly into an opponent's primary strike zone; this is not recommended unless losing is the main objective. The net skimmer only becomes a smart choice when the opponent is transitioning to or established at the net and a passing shot is in order, or when an opponent is well behind the baseline and the player wants to bring her in, specifically if the opponent is weak at the net.

Stay down on groundstrokes. A player's center of gravity plays an important role in generating power and depth on groundstrokes. Three critical elements lift up on world-class strokes: the knees, the backside, and the racket face. Even on slice backhands, all three critical elements rise at completion of the stroke. If not, the resulting shot will lack pace and penetration. Players who prematurely lift their head before contact do indeed need to “keep their head down” through the shot. But it's a fallacy to apply the principle to the entire body.

Keep your eye on the ball. This is correct . . . half the time. Vision control plays various functions over the course of a point that are critical for consistent ball striking and court coverage. Narrow vision is applied on an incoming ball: watching it leave the opponent's racket, cross the net, and bounce up and into the strike zone. In this regard, a player should absolutely be keeping an eye on the ball.

Broad vision, on the other hand, is used to spot the dozens of visual clues after the ball leaves the racket toward the opponent's side of the court. Such clues include an opponent's court position, body language, strike zones, swing speed, and swing length. Broad vision is a crucial component of anticipatory speed. The best movers know how to assimilate the information from their broad vision and instinctively adjust their positioning accordingly.

Overhead

The overhead smash is a shot that puts fear in the hearts of most amateurs. It can result in occasional brilliance, but it often ends in predictable embarrassment. This section uncovers a handful of secrets that will transform an overhead avoider into an overhead hunter.

The primary cause of a misfired overhead is employing a service motion. Although the overhead shares some basic components with the serve—stance, grip, forearm pronation, and keeping the nondominant hand and head up until contact—the overhead is a little trickier. In a typical service motion, the racket head travels approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) of distance from the ready position through the “down together-up together” backswing, up into the loop, and through the contact phase of the stroke. It's one thing to do all of this off a controlled toss, but trying to time a two- or three-millisecond hit off an 80-foot lob dropping at the rate of gravity—often while the player is completely unbalanced—is quite a different proposition. Wherever I travel around the world for tennis workshops, I see amateurs attempting this nearly impossible task. They will invariably shank the ball and say, “You know, I just don't feel my overhead today.”

Consistent overheads are a result of a two-part swing. The first part begins with the ready position (figure 8.4a). From there, the player executes a quick pivot, pointing the feet, knees, belly button, and shoulders toward the side fence. Simultaneously, the player moves the racket handle directly up to the dominant-side ear (figure 8.4b). (Imagine quickly picking up a phone and directly placing it up to your ear to talk.) The role of the nondominant arm is to aid in the coiling process by pointing to the ball with the elbow first (figure 8.4c), then extending the arm to point with the finger (figure 8.4d). This completes part 1 of the swing.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/100ph_Main.jpg

The second phase begins when the lob moves from ascending to the apex into the descent. This is the strike zone phase of the swing. The abbreviated backswing is restarted and moves into its remaining 3-foot (91 cm) swing. Approaching contact, the forearm should pronate (figure 8.5a) as the nondominant hand abruptly tucks into the belly to aid in blocking the shoulders and chest—also known as the third link of the kinetic chain—from rotating (figure 8.5b). After contact, a relaxed deceleration begins down through the follow-through phase (figure 8.5c).

By using this two-part overhead technique, a player can turn a defective liability into a picturesque thing of beauty.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/101ph_Main.jpg

Reducing Errors

As everybody knows, tennis is a game of errors. Deciphering the actual cause of the error is the initial step in error reduction. A study that I conducted with nationally ranked juniors in Southern California found that in match play, there are four main causes of errors:

1. Poor shot selection (46 percent)
2. Below-par movement and spacing (32 percent)
3. Inadequate emotional control or rituals (12 percent)
4. Inferior stroke mechanics (10 percent)

What do most intermediate players focus on? You've got it: strokes! Up to the elite levels of the game, retrievers tend to have all the trophies, and it's not because of their elegant strokes. They win by developing their shot selection skills. Following are some practical tips for improving shot selection:

Offense

• Position inside the court to reduce the opponent's recovery time.
• Apply proper movement and spacing to contact the ball at the desired waist-level strike zone.
• Change the angle of the ball or attack the opponent's weakness relentlessly.

Neutral

• Simply match the ball speed.
• Apply secondary “building” shots to compromise the opponent's position.
• Use proper heights above the net to maintain proper depth.

Defense

• Position farther back behind the baseline.
• Elevate shots with heavy topspin to buy recovery time.
• Simply get the point back to neutral instead of going for an offensive shot.

How do players determine whether their next shot should be offensive, neutral, or defensive? One way is to make the decision based on their position on the court, or zonal tennis. As a general rule, the farther inside the baseline a player can play the ball, the more offensive options become available to him. Obviously, if a player is scrambling up to the service line to retrieve a tough drop shot, the return becomes more defensive. So in addition to positioning, a player's balance, the ball height, and preparation time will all affect the type of shot that can be produced.

Zonal Tennis

Zonal tennis has been applied successfully for decades. In the 1970s, zones were described as defensive, neutral, and offensive. In the 1980s, the popular terms were defend, attack, and kill. Recent catch phrases include “control, hurt, and finish.” In the spirit of evolution, let's coin our own descriptions: the grind, torment, and obliterate zones. But before getting into the dynamics of these court zones, let's first cover air zones.

Air Zones

Air zones refer to the height at which the ball travels above the net. A player's court position dictates the height that the shot should travel above the net. Unforced errors and short balls multiply dramatically when players choose to ignore the laws of the air zones.

The rules are simple. When inside the court, a player should aim 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91 cm) above the net. On the baseline, a player should aim 3 to 5 feet (91 to 152 cm) above the net; and when 10 feet behind the baseline, the player should aim 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the net (figure 9.3).

The higher a player hits the ball over the net, the deeper it will generally go into the opponent's court. The farther back a player is, the higher he needs to hit the ball to achieve the depth required to keep the opponent pinned to the baseline. Therefore, as the player moves up, less net clearance is needed.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art1_Main.jpg

Court Zones

Now that we have discussed air zones, let's move on to court zones. To determine the court zones, divide both halves of the court (39 feet [11.9 m] each) into three even zones (figure 9.4). The zone (location) in which the ball lands dictates the highest-percentage options for shot selection. Smart tacticians simply match their intentions with the landing zones.

Zone 1, or the grind zone, is located from the baseline inward about 13 feet (3.9 m). When a ball is about to land in the grind zone, the high-percentage shot would be a safe, deep return. Mature players avoid the temptation of going for an offensive shot from this zone.

Zone 2, or the torment zone, is the middle zone. It is located approximately 13 feet inside the court to approximately 13 feet from the net. When a ball lands inside this center zone, a player should apply building shots as well as attacking shots.

Zone 3 is the obliterate zone; it includes the 13 feet closest to the net. Groundstroke kills, approach-volley patterns, and deadly droppers should be applied in this zone. Finishing the point with an offensive play is the correct tactical move here.

Advanced players are keenly aware that the same zonal warfare applies on both sides. In other words, the location where a shot lands on the opponent's side dictates his options for a high-percentage shot. If a player dumps a short ball in the opponent's obliterate zone, it's time to defend. Playing zonal tennis greatly increases a player's anticipatory speed, court coverage, and shot variations. By shifting the focus to this mental strategy, players can dramatically improve their win-loss record.

Be aware that the zones are still “gray” areas depending on the incoming ball's spin, speed, and trajectory. Exceptions shadow every rule, so players must use their court sense and abilities in match play.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art2_Main.jpg

Groundstroke Myths

Unfortunately, tennis is full of stock teaching methodology that should be banished—well-intentioned, catchy phrases that have become dated or, worse yet, were never even correct to begin with. Here are a few of the bigger culprits concerning groundstrokes.

Roll over the ball for topspin. This is a favorite among TV commentators. Sadly, countless teaching pros are still using this phrase, too. Players try to time the racket roll at contact, resulting in shots that spray all over the court.

Here are the facts: Depending on the type of shot, the ball is on the strings for about 2 to 4 milliseconds. It takes another 150 to 200 milliseconds for an electrical signal to travel from a player's hand back to the brain. The brain then sends a new motor program back to the muscle group to begin the wrist roll. This takes an additional 150 to 200 milliseconds, by which time the ball is now 8 to 10 feet off the racket face toward the opponent's side of the court. In other words, it's impossible to roll over the ball for topspin. The spin comes from the brushing motion of a low-to-high swing path.

Watch the ball hit the strings. As mentioned earlier, the human eye cannot register a two-millisecond event. No one has ever seen a ball hit the strings. It's simply a blur. Keeping the head down and still through contact is the best recipe for a steady racket path through the strike zone. Watch film of the best baseliners, and it's easy to see how quiet they keep their head during their groundstrokes.

Skim the net. On television, it appears that professionals barely clear the net on their groundstrokes. This is rarely the case. The deception occurs because the television cameras at pro tour events are often placed high in the stadium. This angle offers a clear view of match play, but it distorts the trajectory of the ball flight.

In actuality, players use a variety of heights, generally dictated by their court positioning. This is often the result of managing the time between hits. When players are on the defensive, they generally hit higher to buy more time for recovery. Conversely, they move forward and hit harder and lower to take time away from a vulnerable opponent.

At the club level, a ball that barely clears the net lands midcourt and bounces perfectly into an opponent's primary strike zone; this is not recommended unless losing is the main objective. The net skimmer only becomes a smart choice when the opponent is transitioning to or established at the net and a passing shot is in order, or when an opponent is well behind the baseline and the player wants to bring her in, specifically if the opponent is weak at the net.

Stay down on groundstrokes. A player's center of gravity plays an important role in generating power and depth on groundstrokes. Three critical elements lift up on world-class strokes: the knees, the backside, and the racket face. Even on slice backhands, all three critical elements rise at completion of the stroke. If not, the resulting shot will lack pace and penetration. Players who prematurely lift their head before contact do indeed need to “keep their head down” through the shot. But it's a fallacy to apply the principle to the entire body.

Keep your eye on the ball. This is correct . . . half the time. Vision control plays various functions over the course of a point that are critical for consistent ball striking and court coverage. Narrow vision is applied on an incoming ball: watching it leave the opponent's racket, cross the net, and bounce up and into the strike zone. In this regard, a player should absolutely be keeping an eye on the ball.

Broad vision, on the other hand, is used to spot the dozens of visual clues after the ball leaves the racket toward the opponent's side of the court. Such clues include an opponent's court position, body language, strike zones, swing speed, and swing length. Broad vision is a crucial component of anticipatory speed. The best movers know how to assimilate the information from their broad vision and instinctively adjust their positioning accordingly.

Overhead

The overhead smash is a shot that puts fear in the hearts of most amateurs. It can result in occasional brilliance, but it often ends in predictable embarrassment. This section uncovers a handful of secrets that will transform an overhead avoider into an overhead hunter.

The primary cause of a misfired overhead is employing a service motion. Although the overhead shares some basic components with the serve—stance, grip, forearm pronation, and keeping the nondominant hand and head up until contact—the overhead is a little trickier. In a typical service motion, the racket head travels approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) of distance from the ready position through the “down together-up together” backswing, up into the loop, and through the contact phase of the stroke. It's one thing to do all of this off a controlled toss, but trying to time a two- or three-millisecond hit off an 80-foot lob dropping at the rate of gravity—often while the player is completely unbalanced—is quite a different proposition. Wherever I travel around the world for tennis workshops, I see amateurs attempting this nearly impossible task. They will invariably shank the ball and say, “You know, I just don't feel my overhead today.”

Consistent overheads are a result of a two-part swing. The first part begins with the ready position (figure 8.4a). From there, the player executes a quick pivot, pointing the feet, knees, belly button, and shoulders toward the side fence. Simultaneously, the player moves the racket handle directly up to the dominant-side ear (figure 8.4b). (Imagine quickly picking up a phone and directly placing it up to your ear to talk.) The role of the nondominant arm is to aid in the coiling process by pointing to the ball with the elbow first (figure 8.4c), then extending the arm to point with the finger (figure 8.4d). This completes part 1 of the swing.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/100ph_Main.jpg

The second phase begins when the lob moves from ascending to the apex into the descent. This is the strike zone phase of the swing. The abbreviated backswing is restarted and moves into its remaining 3-foot (91 cm) swing. Approaching contact, the forearm should pronate (figure 8.5a) as the nondominant hand abruptly tucks into the belly to aid in blocking the shoulders and chest—also known as the third link of the kinetic chain—from rotating (figure 8.5b). After contact, a relaxed deceleration begins down through the follow-through phase (figure 8.5c).

By using this two-part overhead technique, a player can turn a defective liability into a picturesque thing of beauty.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/101ph_Main.jpg

Reducing Errors

As everybody knows, tennis is a game of errors. Deciphering the actual cause of the error is the initial step in error reduction. A study that I conducted with nationally ranked juniors in Southern California found that in match play, there are four main causes of errors:

1. Poor shot selection (46 percent)
2. Below-par movement and spacing (32 percent)
3. Inadequate emotional control or rituals (12 percent)
4. Inferior stroke mechanics (10 percent)

What do most intermediate players focus on? You've got it: strokes! Up to the elite levels of the game, retrievers tend to have all the trophies, and it's not because of their elegant strokes. They win by developing their shot selection skills. Following are some practical tips for improving shot selection:

Offense

• Position inside the court to reduce the opponent's recovery time.
• Apply proper movement and spacing to contact the ball at the desired waist-level strike zone.
• Change the angle of the ball or attack the opponent's weakness relentlessly.

Neutral

• Simply match the ball speed.
• Apply secondary “building” shots to compromise the opponent's position.
• Use proper heights above the net to maintain proper depth.

Defense

• Position farther back behind the baseline.
• Elevate shots with heavy topspin to buy recovery time.
• Simply get the point back to neutral instead of going for an offensive shot.

How do players determine whether their next shot should be offensive, neutral, or defensive? One way is to make the decision based on their position on the court, or zonal tennis. As a general rule, the farther inside the baseline a player can play the ball, the more offensive options become available to him. Obviously, if a player is scrambling up to the service line to retrieve a tough drop shot, the return becomes more defensive. So in addition to positioning, a player's balance, the ball height, and preparation time will all affect the type of shot that can be produced.

Zonal Tennis

Zonal tennis has been applied successfully for decades. In the 1970s, zones were described as defensive, neutral, and offensive. In the 1980s, the popular terms were defend, attack, and kill. Recent catch phrases include “control, hurt, and finish.” In the spirit of evolution, let's coin our own descriptions: the grind, torment, and obliterate zones. But before getting into the dynamics of these court zones, let's first cover air zones.

Air Zones

Air zones refer to the height at which the ball travels above the net. A player's court position dictates the height that the shot should travel above the net. Unforced errors and short balls multiply dramatically when players choose to ignore the laws of the air zones.

The rules are simple. When inside the court, a player should aim 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91 cm) above the net. On the baseline, a player should aim 3 to 5 feet (91 to 152 cm) above the net; and when 10 feet behind the baseline, the player should aim 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the net (figure 9.3).

The higher a player hits the ball over the net, the deeper it will generally go into the opponent's court. The farther back a player is, the higher he needs to hit the ball to achieve the depth required to keep the opponent pinned to the baseline. Therefore, as the player moves up, less net clearance is needed.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art1_Main.jpg

Court Zones

Now that we have discussed air zones, let's move on to court zones. To determine the court zones, divide both halves of the court (39 feet [11.9 m] each) into three even zones (figure 9.4). The zone (location) in which the ball lands dictates the highest-percentage options for shot selection. Smart tacticians simply match their intentions with the landing zones.

Zone 1, or the grind zone, is located from the baseline inward about 13 feet (3.9 m). When a ball is about to land in the grind zone, the high-percentage shot would be a safe, deep return. Mature players avoid the temptation of going for an offensive shot from this zone.

Zone 2, or the torment zone, is the middle zone. It is located approximately 13 feet inside the court to approximately 13 feet from the net. When a ball lands inside this center zone, a player should apply building shots as well as attacking shots.

Zone 3 is the obliterate zone; it includes the 13 feet closest to the net. Groundstroke kills, approach-volley patterns, and deadly droppers should be applied in this zone. Finishing the point with an offensive play is the correct tactical move here.

Advanced players are keenly aware that the same zonal warfare applies on both sides. In other words, the location where a shot lands on the opponent's side dictates his options for a high-percentage shot. If a player dumps a short ball in the opponent's obliterate zone, it's time to defend. Playing zonal tennis greatly increases a player's anticipatory speed, court coverage, and shot variations. By shifting the focus to this mental strategy, players can dramatically improve their win-loss record.

Be aware that the zones are still “gray” areas depending on the incoming ball's spin, speed, and trajectory. Exceptions shadow every rule, so players must use their court sense and abilities in match play.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art2_Main.jpg

Groundstroke Myths

Unfortunately, tennis is full of stock teaching methodology that should be banished—well-intentioned, catchy phrases that have become dated or, worse yet, were never even correct to begin with. Here are a few of the bigger culprits concerning groundstrokes.

Roll over the ball for topspin. This is a favorite among TV commentators. Sadly, countless teaching pros are still using this phrase, too. Players try to time the racket roll at contact, resulting in shots that spray all over the court.

Here are the facts: Depending on the type of shot, the ball is on the strings for about 2 to 4 milliseconds. It takes another 150 to 200 milliseconds for an electrical signal to travel from a player's hand back to the brain. The brain then sends a new motor program back to the muscle group to begin the wrist roll. This takes an additional 150 to 200 milliseconds, by which time the ball is now 8 to 10 feet off the racket face toward the opponent's side of the court. In other words, it's impossible to roll over the ball for topspin. The spin comes from the brushing motion of a low-to-high swing path.

Watch the ball hit the strings. As mentioned earlier, the human eye cannot register a two-millisecond event. No one has ever seen a ball hit the strings. It's simply a blur. Keeping the head down and still through contact is the best recipe for a steady racket path through the strike zone. Watch film of the best baseliners, and it's easy to see how quiet they keep their head during their groundstrokes.

Skim the net. On television, it appears that professionals barely clear the net on their groundstrokes. This is rarely the case. The deception occurs because the television cameras at pro tour events are often placed high in the stadium. This angle offers a clear view of match play, but it distorts the trajectory of the ball flight.

In actuality, players use a variety of heights, generally dictated by their court positioning. This is often the result of managing the time between hits. When players are on the defensive, they generally hit higher to buy more time for recovery. Conversely, they move forward and hit harder and lower to take time away from a vulnerable opponent.

At the club level, a ball that barely clears the net lands midcourt and bounces perfectly into an opponent's primary strike zone; this is not recommended unless losing is the main objective. The net skimmer only becomes a smart choice when the opponent is transitioning to or established at the net and a passing shot is in order, or when an opponent is well behind the baseline and the player wants to bring her in, specifically if the opponent is weak at the net.

Stay down on groundstrokes. A player's center of gravity plays an important role in generating power and depth on groundstrokes. Three critical elements lift up on world-class strokes: the knees, the backside, and the racket face. Even on slice backhands, all three critical elements rise at completion of the stroke. If not, the resulting shot will lack pace and penetration. Players who prematurely lift their head before contact do indeed need to “keep their head down” through the shot. But it's a fallacy to apply the principle to the entire body.

Keep your eye on the ball. This is correct . . . half the time. Vision control plays various functions over the course of a point that are critical for consistent ball striking and court coverage. Narrow vision is applied on an incoming ball: watching it leave the opponent's racket, cross the net, and bounce up and into the strike zone. In this regard, a player should absolutely be keeping an eye on the ball.

Broad vision, on the other hand, is used to spot the dozens of visual clues after the ball leaves the racket toward the opponent's side of the court. Such clues include an opponent's court position, body language, strike zones, swing speed, and swing length. Broad vision is a crucial component of anticipatory speed. The best movers know how to assimilate the information from their broad vision and instinctively adjust their positioning accordingly.

Overhead

The overhead smash is a shot that puts fear in the hearts of most amateurs. It can result in occasional brilliance, but it often ends in predictable embarrassment. This section uncovers a handful of secrets that will transform an overhead avoider into an overhead hunter.

The primary cause of a misfired overhead is employing a service motion. Although the overhead shares some basic components with the serve—stance, grip, forearm pronation, and keeping the nondominant hand and head up until contact—the overhead is a little trickier. In a typical service motion, the racket head travels approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) of distance from the ready position through the “down together-up together” backswing, up into the loop, and through the contact phase of the stroke. It's one thing to do all of this off a controlled toss, but trying to time a two- or three-millisecond hit off an 80-foot lob dropping at the rate of gravity—often while the player is completely unbalanced—is quite a different proposition. Wherever I travel around the world for tennis workshops, I see amateurs attempting this nearly impossible task. They will invariably shank the ball and say, “You know, I just don't feel my overhead today.”

Consistent overheads are a result of a two-part swing. The first part begins with the ready position (figure 8.4a). From there, the player executes a quick pivot, pointing the feet, knees, belly button, and shoulders toward the side fence. Simultaneously, the player moves the racket handle directly up to the dominant-side ear (figure 8.4b). (Imagine quickly picking up a phone and directly placing it up to your ear to talk.) The role of the nondominant arm is to aid in the coiling process by pointing to the ball with the elbow first (figure 8.4c), then extending the arm to point with the finger (figure 8.4d). This completes part 1 of the swing.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/100ph_Main.jpg

The second phase begins when the lob moves from ascending to the apex into the descent. This is the strike zone phase of the swing. The abbreviated backswing is restarted and moves into its remaining 3-foot (91 cm) swing. Approaching contact, the forearm should pronate (figure 8.5a) as the nondominant hand abruptly tucks into the belly to aid in blocking the shoulders and chest—also known as the third link of the kinetic chain—from rotating (figure 8.5b). After contact, a relaxed deceleration begins down through the follow-through phase (figure 8.5c).

By using this two-part overhead technique, a player can turn a defective liability into a picturesque thing of beauty.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/101ph_Main.jpg

Reducing Errors

As everybody knows, tennis is a game of errors. Deciphering the actual cause of the error is the initial step in error reduction. A study that I conducted with nationally ranked juniors in Southern California found that in match play, there are four main causes of errors:

1. Poor shot selection (46 percent)
2. Below-par movement and spacing (32 percent)
3. Inadequate emotional control or rituals (12 percent)
4. Inferior stroke mechanics (10 percent)

What do most intermediate players focus on? You've got it: strokes! Up to the elite levels of the game, retrievers tend to have all the trophies, and it's not because of their elegant strokes. They win by developing their shot selection skills. Following are some practical tips for improving shot selection:

Offense

• Position inside the court to reduce the opponent's recovery time.
• Apply proper movement and spacing to contact the ball at the desired waist-level strike zone.
• Change the angle of the ball or attack the opponent's weakness relentlessly.

Neutral

• Simply match the ball speed.
• Apply secondary “building” shots to compromise the opponent's position.
• Use proper heights above the net to maintain proper depth.

Defense

• Position farther back behind the baseline.
• Elevate shots with heavy topspin to buy recovery time.
• Simply get the point back to neutral instead of going for an offensive shot.

How do players determine whether their next shot should be offensive, neutral, or defensive? One way is to make the decision based on their position on the court, or zonal tennis. As a general rule, the farther inside the baseline a player can play the ball, the more offensive options become available to him. Obviously, if a player is scrambling up to the service line to retrieve a tough drop shot, the return becomes more defensive. So in addition to positioning, a player's balance, the ball height, and preparation time will all affect the type of shot that can be produced.

Zonal Tennis

Zonal tennis has been applied successfully for decades. In the 1970s, zones were described as defensive, neutral, and offensive. In the 1980s, the popular terms were defend, attack, and kill. Recent catch phrases include “control, hurt, and finish.” In the spirit of evolution, let's coin our own descriptions: the grind, torment, and obliterate zones. But before getting into the dynamics of these court zones, let's first cover air zones.

Air Zones

Air zones refer to the height at which the ball travels above the net. A player's court position dictates the height that the shot should travel above the net. Unforced errors and short balls multiply dramatically when players choose to ignore the laws of the air zones.

The rules are simple. When inside the court, a player should aim 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91 cm) above the net. On the baseline, a player should aim 3 to 5 feet (91 to 152 cm) above the net; and when 10 feet behind the baseline, the player should aim 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the net (figure 9.3).

The higher a player hits the ball over the net, the deeper it will generally go into the opponent's court. The farther back a player is, the higher he needs to hit the ball to achieve the depth required to keep the opponent pinned to the baseline. Therefore, as the player moves up, less net clearance is needed.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art1_Main.jpg

Court Zones

Now that we have discussed air zones, let's move on to court zones. To determine the court zones, divide both halves of the court (39 feet [11.9 m] each) into three even zones (figure 9.4). The zone (location) in which the ball lands dictates the highest-percentage options for shot selection. Smart tacticians simply match their intentions with the landing zones.

Zone 1, or the grind zone, is located from the baseline inward about 13 feet (3.9 m). When a ball is about to land in the grind zone, the high-percentage shot would be a safe, deep return. Mature players avoid the temptation of going for an offensive shot from this zone.

Zone 2, or the torment zone, is the middle zone. It is located approximately 13 feet inside the court to approximately 13 feet from the net. When a ball lands inside this center zone, a player should apply building shots as well as attacking shots.

Zone 3 is the obliterate zone; it includes the 13 feet closest to the net. Groundstroke kills, approach-volley patterns, and deadly droppers should be applied in this zone. Finishing the point with an offensive play is the correct tactical move here.

Advanced players are keenly aware that the same zonal warfare applies on both sides. In other words, the location where a shot lands on the opponent's side dictates his options for a high-percentage shot. If a player dumps a short ball in the opponent's obliterate zone, it's time to defend. Playing zonal tennis greatly increases a player's anticipatory speed, court coverage, and shot variations. By shifting the focus to this mental strategy, players can dramatically improve their win-loss record.

Be aware that the zones are still “gray” areas depending on the incoming ball's spin, speed, and trajectory. Exceptions shadow every rule, so players must use their court sense and abilities in match play.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art2_Main.jpg

Groundstroke Myths

Unfortunately, tennis is full of stock teaching methodology that should be banished—well-intentioned, catchy phrases that have become dated or, worse yet, were never even correct to begin with. Here are a few of the bigger culprits concerning groundstrokes.

Roll over the ball for topspin. This is a favorite among TV commentators. Sadly, countless teaching pros are still using this phrase, too. Players try to time the racket roll at contact, resulting in shots that spray all over the court.

Here are the facts: Depending on the type of shot, the ball is on the strings for about 2 to 4 milliseconds. It takes another 150 to 200 milliseconds for an electrical signal to travel from a player's hand back to the brain. The brain then sends a new motor program back to the muscle group to begin the wrist roll. This takes an additional 150 to 200 milliseconds, by which time the ball is now 8 to 10 feet off the racket face toward the opponent's side of the court. In other words, it's impossible to roll over the ball for topspin. The spin comes from the brushing motion of a low-to-high swing path.

Watch the ball hit the strings. As mentioned earlier, the human eye cannot register a two-millisecond event. No one has ever seen a ball hit the strings. It's simply a blur. Keeping the head down and still through contact is the best recipe for a steady racket path through the strike zone. Watch film of the best baseliners, and it's easy to see how quiet they keep their head during their groundstrokes.

Skim the net. On television, it appears that professionals barely clear the net on their groundstrokes. This is rarely the case. The deception occurs because the television cameras at pro tour events are often placed high in the stadium. This angle offers a clear view of match play, but it distorts the trajectory of the ball flight.

In actuality, players use a variety of heights, generally dictated by their court positioning. This is often the result of managing the time between hits. When players are on the defensive, they generally hit higher to buy more time for recovery. Conversely, they move forward and hit harder and lower to take time away from a vulnerable opponent.

At the club level, a ball that barely clears the net lands midcourt and bounces perfectly into an opponent's primary strike zone; this is not recommended unless losing is the main objective. The net skimmer only becomes a smart choice when the opponent is transitioning to or established at the net and a passing shot is in order, or when an opponent is well behind the baseline and the player wants to bring her in, specifically if the opponent is weak at the net.

Stay down on groundstrokes. A player's center of gravity plays an important role in generating power and depth on groundstrokes. Three critical elements lift up on world-class strokes: the knees, the backside, and the racket face. Even on slice backhands, all three critical elements rise at completion of the stroke. If not, the resulting shot will lack pace and penetration. Players who prematurely lift their head before contact do indeed need to “keep their head down” through the shot. But it's a fallacy to apply the principle to the entire body.

Keep your eye on the ball. This is correct . . . half the time. Vision control plays various functions over the course of a point that are critical for consistent ball striking and court coverage. Narrow vision is applied on an incoming ball: watching it leave the opponent's racket, cross the net, and bounce up and into the strike zone. In this regard, a player should absolutely be keeping an eye on the ball.

Broad vision, on the other hand, is used to spot the dozens of visual clues after the ball leaves the racket toward the opponent's side of the court. Such clues include an opponent's court position, body language, strike zones, swing speed, and swing length. Broad vision is a crucial component of anticipatory speed. The best movers know how to assimilate the information from their broad vision and instinctively adjust their positioning accordingly.

Overhead

The overhead smash is a shot that puts fear in the hearts of most amateurs. It can result in occasional brilliance, but it often ends in predictable embarrassment. This section uncovers a handful of secrets that will transform an overhead avoider into an overhead hunter.

The primary cause of a misfired overhead is employing a service motion. Although the overhead shares some basic components with the serve—stance, grip, forearm pronation, and keeping the nondominant hand and head up until contact—the overhead is a little trickier. In a typical service motion, the racket head travels approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) of distance from the ready position through the “down together-up together” backswing, up into the loop, and through the contact phase of the stroke. It's one thing to do all of this off a controlled toss, but trying to time a two- or three-millisecond hit off an 80-foot lob dropping at the rate of gravity—often while the player is completely unbalanced—is quite a different proposition. Wherever I travel around the world for tennis workshops, I see amateurs attempting this nearly impossible task. They will invariably shank the ball and say, “You know, I just don't feel my overhead today.”

Consistent overheads are a result of a two-part swing. The first part begins with the ready position (figure 8.4a). From there, the player executes a quick pivot, pointing the feet, knees, belly button, and shoulders toward the side fence. Simultaneously, the player moves the racket handle directly up to the dominant-side ear (figure 8.4b). (Imagine quickly picking up a phone and directly placing it up to your ear to talk.) The role of the nondominant arm is to aid in the coiling process by pointing to the ball with the elbow first (figure 8.4c), then extending the arm to point with the finger (figure 8.4d). This completes part 1 of the swing.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/100ph_Main.jpg

The second phase begins when the lob moves from ascending to the apex into the descent. This is the strike zone phase of the swing. The abbreviated backswing is restarted and moves into its remaining 3-foot (91 cm) swing. Approaching contact, the forearm should pronate (figure 8.5a) as the nondominant hand abruptly tucks into the belly to aid in blocking the shoulders and chest—also known as the third link of the kinetic chain—from rotating (figure 8.5b). After contact, a relaxed deceleration begins down through the follow-through phase (figure 8.5c).

By using this two-part overhead technique, a player can turn a defective liability into a picturesque thing of beauty.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/101ph_Main.jpg

Reducing Errors

As everybody knows, tennis is a game of errors. Deciphering the actual cause of the error is the initial step in error reduction. A study that I conducted with nationally ranked juniors in Southern California found that in match play, there are four main causes of errors:

1. Poor shot selection (46 percent)
2. Below-par movement and spacing (32 percent)
3. Inadequate emotional control or rituals (12 percent)
4. Inferior stroke mechanics (10 percent)

What do most intermediate players focus on? You've got it: strokes! Up to the elite levels of the game, retrievers tend to have all the trophies, and it's not because of their elegant strokes. They win by developing their shot selection skills. Following are some practical tips for improving shot selection:

Offense

• Position inside the court to reduce the opponent's recovery time.
• Apply proper movement and spacing to contact the ball at the desired waist-level strike zone.
• Change the angle of the ball or attack the opponent's weakness relentlessly.

Neutral

• Simply match the ball speed.
• Apply secondary “building” shots to compromise the opponent's position.
• Use proper heights above the net to maintain proper depth.

Defense

• Position farther back behind the baseline.
• Elevate shots with heavy topspin to buy recovery time.
• Simply get the point back to neutral instead of going for an offensive shot.

How do players determine whether their next shot should be offensive, neutral, or defensive? One way is to make the decision based on their position on the court, or zonal tennis. As a general rule, the farther inside the baseline a player can play the ball, the more offensive options become available to him. Obviously, if a player is scrambling up to the service line to retrieve a tough drop shot, the return becomes more defensive. So in addition to positioning, a player's balance, the ball height, and preparation time will all affect the type of shot that can be produced.

Zonal Tennis

Zonal tennis has been applied successfully for decades. In the 1970s, zones were described as defensive, neutral, and offensive. In the 1980s, the popular terms were defend, attack, and kill. Recent catch phrases include “control, hurt, and finish.” In the spirit of evolution, let's coin our own descriptions: the grind, torment, and obliterate zones. But before getting into the dynamics of these court zones, let's first cover air zones.

Air Zones

Air zones refer to the height at which the ball travels above the net. A player's court position dictates the height that the shot should travel above the net. Unforced errors and short balls multiply dramatically when players choose to ignore the laws of the air zones.

The rules are simple. When inside the court, a player should aim 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91 cm) above the net. On the baseline, a player should aim 3 to 5 feet (91 to 152 cm) above the net; and when 10 feet behind the baseline, the player should aim 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the net (figure 9.3).

The higher a player hits the ball over the net, the deeper it will generally go into the opponent's court. The farther back a player is, the higher he needs to hit the ball to achieve the depth required to keep the opponent pinned to the baseline. Therefore, as the player moves up, less net clearance is needed.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art1_Main.jpg

Court Zones

Now that we have discussed air zones, let's move on to court zones. To determine the court zones, divide both halves of the court (39 feet [11.9 m] each) into three even zones (figure 9.4). The zone (location) in which the ball lands dictates the highest-percentage options for shot selection. Smart tacticians simply match their intentions with the landing zones.

Zone 1, or the grind zone, is located from the baseline inward about 13 feet (3.9 m). When a ball is about to land in the grind zone, the high-percentage shot would be a safe, deep return. Mature players avoid the temptation of going for an offensive shot from this zone.

Zone 2, or the torment zone, is the middle zone. It is located approximately 13 feet inside the court to approximately 13 feet from the net. When a ball lands inside this center zone, a player should apply building shots as well as attacking shots.

Zone 3 is the obliterate zone; it includes the 13 feet closest to the net. Groundstroke kills, approach-volley patterns, and deadly droppers should be applied in this zone. Finishing the point with an offensive play is the correct tactical move here.

Advanced players are keenly aware that the same zonal warfare applies on both sides. In other words, the location where a shot lands on the opponent's side dictates his options for a high-percentage shot. If a player dumps a short ball in the opponent's obliterate zone, it's time to defend. Playing zonal tennis greatly increases a player's anticipatory speed, court coverage, and shot variations. By shifting the focus to this mental strategy, players can dramatically improve their win-loss record.

Be aware that the zones are still “gray” areas depending on the incoming ball's spin, speed, and trajectory. Exceptions shadow every rule, so players must use their court sense and abilities in match play.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art2_Main.jpg

Groundstroke Myths

Unfortunately, tennis is full of stock teaching methodology that should be banished—well-intentioned, catchy phrases that have become dated or, worse yet, were never even correct to begin with. Here are a few of the bigger culprits concerning groundstrokes.

Roll over the ball for topspin. This is a favorite among TV commentators. Sadly, countless teaching pros are still using this phrase, too. Players try to time the racket roll at contact, resulting in shots that spray all over the court.

Here are the facts: Depending on the type of shot, the ball is on the strings for about 2 to 4 milliseconds. It takes another 150 to 200 milliseconds for an electrical signal to travel from a player's hand back to the brain. The brain then sends a new motor program back to the muscle group to begin the wrist roll. This takes an additional 150 to 200 milliseconds, by which time the ball is now 8 to 10 feet off the racket face toward the opponent's side of the court. In other words, it's impossible to roll over the ball for topspin. The spin comes from the brushing motion of a low-to-high swing path.

Watch the ball hit the strings. As mentioned earlier, the human eye cannot register a two-millisecond event. No one has ever seen a ball hit the strings. It's simply a blur. Keeping the head down and still through contact is the best recipe for a steady racket path through the strike zone. Watch film of the best baseliners, and it's easy to see how quiet they keep their head during their groundstrokes.

Skim the net. On television, it appears that professionals barely clear the net on their groundstrokes. This is rarely the case. The deception occurs because the television cameras at pro tour events are often placed high in the stadium. This angle offers a clear view of match play, but it distorts the trajectory of the ball flight.

In actuality, players use a variety of heights, generally dictated by their court positioning. This is often the result of managing the time between hits. When players are on the defensive, they generally hit higher to buy more time for recovery. Conversely, they move forward and hit harder and lower to take time away from a vulnerable opponent.

At the club level, a ball that barely clears the net lands midcourt and bounces perfectly into an opponent's primary strike zone; this is not recommended unless losing is the main objective. The net skimmer only becomes a smart choice when the opponent is transitioning to or established at the net and a passing shot is in order, or when an opponent is well behind the baseline and the player wants to bring her in, specifically if the opponent is weak at the net.

Stay down on groundstrokes. A player's center of gravity plays an important role in generating power and depth on groundstrokes. Three critical elements lift up on world-class strokes: the knees, the backside, and the racket face. Even on slice backhands, all three critical elements rise at completion of the stroke. If not, the resulting shot will lack pace and penetration. Players who prematurely lift their head before contact do indeed need to “keep their head down” through the shot. But it's a fallacy to apply the principle to the entire body.

Keep your eye on the ball. This is correct . . . half the time. Vision control plays various functions over the course of a point that are critical for consistent ball striking and court coverage. Narrow vision is applied on an incoming ball: watching it leave the opponent's racket, cross the net, and bounce up and into the strike zone. In this regard, a player should absolutely be keeping an eye on the ball.

Broad vision, on the other hand, is used to spot the dozens of visual clues after the ball leaves the racket toward the opponent's side of the court. Such clues include an opponent's court position, body language, strike zones, swing speed, and swing length. Broad vision is a crucial component of anticipatory speed. The best movers know how to assimilate the information from their broad vision and instinctively adjust their positioning accordingly.

Overhead

The overhead smash is a shot that puts fear in the hearts of most amateurs. It can result in occasional brilliance, but it often ends in predictable embarrassment. This section uncovers a handful of secrets that will transform an overhead avoider into an overhead hunter.

The primary cause of a misfired overhead is employing a service motion. Although the overhead shares some basic components with the serve—stance, grip, forearm pronation, and keeping the nondominant hand and head up until contact—the overhead is a little trickier. In a typical service motion, the racket head travels approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) of distance from the ready position through the “down together-up together” backswing, up into the loop, and through the contact phase of the stroke. It's one thing to do all of this off a controlled toss, but trying to time a two- or three-millisecond hit off an 80-foot lob dropping at the rate of gravity—often while the player is completely unbalanced—is quite a different proposition. Wherever I travel around the world for tennis workshops, I see amateurs attempting this nearly impossible task. They will invariably shank the ball and say, “You know, I just don't feel my overhead today.”

Consistent overheads are a result of a two-part swing. The first part begins with the ready position (figure 8.4a). From there, the player executes a quick pivot, pointing the feet, knees, belly button, and shoulders toward the side fence. Simultaneously, the player moves the racket handle directly up to the dominant-side ear (figure 8.4b). (Imagine quickly picking up a phone and directly placing it up to your ear to talk.) The role of the nondominant arm is to aid in the coiling process by pointing to the ball with the elbow first (figure 8.4c), then extending the arm to point with the finger (figure 8.4d). This completes part 1 of the swing.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/100ph_Main.jpg

The second phase begins when the lob moves from ascending to the apex into the descent. This is the strike zone phase of the swing. The abbreviated backswing is restarted and moves into its remaining 3-foot (91 cm) swing. Approaching contact, the forearm should pronate (figure 8.5a) as the nondominant hand abruptly tucks into the belly to aid in blocking the shoulders and chest—also known as the third link of the kinetic chain—from rotating (figure 8.5b). After contact, a relaxed deceleration begins down through the follow-through phase (figure 8.5c).

By using this two-part overhead technique, a player can turn a defective liability into a picturesque thing of beauty.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/101ph_Main.jpg

Reducing Errors

As everybody knows, tennis is a game of errors. Deciphering the actual cause of the error is the initial step in error reduction. A study that I conducted with nationally ranked juniors in Southern California found that in match play, there are four main causes of errors:

1. Poor shot selection (46 percent)
2. Below-par movement and spacing (32 percent)
3. Inadequate emotional control or rituals (12 percent)
4. Inferior stroke mechanics (10 percent)

What do most intermediate players focus on? You've got it: strokes! Up to the elite levels of the game, retrievers tend to have all the trophies, and it's not because of their elegant strokes. They win by developing their shot selection skills. Following are some practical tips for improving shot selection:

Offense

• Position inside the court to reduce the opponent's recovery time.
• Apply proper movement and spacing to contact the ball at the desired waist-level strike zone.
• Change the angle of the ball or attack the opponent's weakness relentlessly.

Neutral

• Simply match the ball speed.
• Apply secondary “building” shots to compromise the opponent's position.
• Use proper heights above the net to maintain proper depth.

Defense

• Position farther back behind the baseline.
• Elevate shots with heavy topspin to buy recovery time.
• Simply get the point back to neutral instead of going for an offensive shot.

How do players determine whether their next shot should be offensive, neutral, or defensive? One way is to make the decision based on their position on the court, or zonal tennis. As a general rule, the farther inside the baseline a player can play the ball, the more offensive options become available to him. Obviously, if a player is scrambling up to the service line to retrieve a tough drop shot, the return becomes more defensive. So in addition to positioning, a player's balance, the ball height, and preparation time will all affect the type of shot that can be produced.

Zonal Tennis

Zonal tennis has been applied successfully for decades. In the 1970s, zones were described as defensive, neutral, and offensive. In the 1980s, the popular terms were defend, attack, and kill. Recent catch phrases include “control, hurt, and finish.” In the spirit of evolution, let's coin our own descriptions: the grind, torment, and obliterate zones. But before getting into the dynamics of these court zones, let's first cover air zones.

Air Zones

Air zones refer to the height at which the ball travels above the net. A player's court position dictates the height that the shot should travel above the net. Unforced errors and short balls multiply dramatically when players choose to ignore the laws of the air zones.

The rules are simple. When inside the court, a player should aim 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91 cm) above the net. On the baseline, a player should aim 3 to 5 feet (91 to 152 cm) above the net; and when 10 feet behind the baseline, the player should aim 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the net (figure 9.3).

The higher a player hits the ball over the net, the deeper it will generally go into the opponent's court. The farther back a player is, the higher he needs to hit the ball to achieve the depth required to keep the opponent pinned to the baseline. Therefore, as the player moves up, less net clearance is needed.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art1_Main.jpg

Court Zones

Now that we have discussed air zones, let's move on to court zones. To determine the court zones, divide both halves of the court (39 feet [11.9 m] each) into three even zones (figure 9.4). The zone (location) in which the ball lands dictates the highest-percentage options for shot selection. Smart tacticians simply match their intentions with the landing zones.

Zone 1, or the grind zone, is located from the baseline inward about 13 feet (3.9 m). When a ball is about to land in the grind zone, the high-percentage shot would be a safe, deep return. Mature players avoid the temptation of going for an offensive shot from this zone.

Zone 2, or the torment zone, is the middle zone. It is located approximately 13 feet inside the court to approximately 13 feet from the net. When a ball lands inside this center zone, a player should apply building shots as well as attacking shots.

Zone 3 is the obliterate zone; it includes the 13 feet closest to the net. Groundstroke kills, approach-volley patterns, and deadly droppers should be applied in this zone. Finishing the point with an offensive play is the correct tactical move here.

Advanced players are keenly aware that the same zonal warfare applies on both sides. In other words, the location where a shot lands on the opponent's side dictates his options for a high-percentage shot. If a player dumps a short ball in the opponent's obliterate zone, it's time to defend. Playing zonal tennis greatly increases a player's anticipatory speed, court coverage, and shot variations. By shifting the focus to this mental strategy, players can dramatically improve their win-loss record.

Be aware that the zones are still “gray” areas depending on the incoming ball's spin, speed, and trajectory. Exceptions shadow every rule, so players must use their court sense and abilities in match play.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art2_Main.jpg

Groundstroke Myths

Unfortunately, tennis is full of stock teaching methodology that should be banished—well-intentioned, catchy phrases that have become dated or, worse yet, were never even correct to begin with. Here are a few of the bigger culprits concerning groundstrokes.

Roll over the ball for topspin. This is a favorite among TV commentators. Sadly, countless teaching pros are still using this phrase, too. Players try to time the racket roll at contact, resulting in shots that spray all over the court.

Here are the facts: Depending on the type of shot, the ball is on the strings for about 2 to 4 milliseconds. It takes another 150 to 200 milliseconds for an electrical signal to travel from a player's hand back to the brain. The brain then sends a new motor program back to the muscle group to begin the wrist roll. This takes an additional 150 to 200 milliseconds, by which time the ball is now 8 to 10 feet off the racket face toward the opponent's side of the court. In other words, it's impossible to roll over the ball for topspin. The spin comes from the brushing motion of a low-to-high swing path.

Watch the ball hit the strings. As mentioned earlier, the human eye cannot register a two-millisecond event. No one has ever seen a ball hit the strings. It's simply a blur. Keeping the head down and still through contact is the best recipe for a steady racket path through the strike zone. Watch film of the best baseliners, and it's easy to see how quiet they keep their head during their groundstrokes.

Skim the net. On television, it appears that professionals barely clear the net on their groundstrokes. This is rarely the case. The deception occurs because the television cameras at pro tour events are often placed high in the stadium. This angle offers a clear view of match play, but it distorts the trajectory of the ball flight.

In actuality, players use a variety of heights, generally dictated by their court positioning. This is often the result of managing the time between hits. When players are on the defensive, they generally hit higher to buy more time for recovery. Conversely, they move forward and hit harder and lower to take time away from a vulnerable opponent.

At the club level, a ball that barely clears the net lands midcourt and bounces perfectly into an opponent's primary strike zone; this is not recommended unless losing is the main objective. The net skimmer only becomes a smart choice when the opponent is transitioning to or established at the net and a passing shot is in order, or when an opponent is well behind the baseline and the player wants to bring her in, specifically if the opponent is weak at the net.

Stay down on groundstrokes. A player's center of gravity plays an important role in generating power and depth on groundstrokes. Three critical elements lift up on world-class strokes: the knees, the backside, and the racket face. Even on slice backhands, all three critical elements rise at completion of the stroke. If not, the resulting shot will lack pace and penetration. Players who prematurely lift their head before contact do indeed need to “keep their head down” through the shot. But it's a fallacy to apply the principle to the entire body.

Keep your eye on the ball. This is correct . . . half the time. Vision control plays various functions over the course of a point that are critical for consistent ball striking and court coverage. Narrow vision is applied on an incoming ball: watching it leave the opponent's racket, cross the net, and bounce up and into the strike zone. In this regard, a player should absolutely be keeping an eye on the ball.

Broad vision, on the other hand, is used to spot the dozens of visual clues after the ball leaves the racket toward the opponent's side of the court. Such clues include an opponent's court position, body language, strike zones, swing speed, and swing length. Broad vision is a crucial component of anticipatory speed. The best movers know how to assimilate the information from their broad vision and instinctively adjust their positioning accordingly.

Overhead

The overhead smash is a shot that puts fear in the hearts of most amateurs. It can result in occasional brilliance, but it often ends in predictable embarrassment. This section uncovers a handful of secrets that will transform an overhead avoider into an overhead hunter.

The primary cause of a misfired overhead is employing a service motion. Although the overhead shares some basic components with the serve—stance, grip, forearm pronation, and keeping the nondominant hand and head up until contact—the overhead is a little trickier. In a typical service motion, the racket head travels approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) of distance from the ready position through the “down together-up together” backswing, up into the loop, and through the contact phase of the stroke. It's one thing to do all of this off a controlled toss, but trying to time a two- or three-millisecond hit off an 80-foot lob dropping at the rate of gravity—often while the player is completely unbalanced—is quite a different proposition. Wherever I travel around the world for tennis workshops, I see amateurs attempting this nearly impossible task. They will invariably shank the ball and say, “You know, I just don't feel my overhead today.”

Consistent overheads are a result of a two-part swing. The first part begins with the ready position (figure 8.4a). From there, the player executes a quick pivot, pointing the feet, knees, belly button, and shoulders toward the side fence. Simultaneously, the player moves the racket handle directly up to the dominant-side ear (figure 8.4b). (Imagine quickly picking up a phone and directly placing it up to your ear to talk.) The role of the nondominant arm is to aid in the coiling process by pointing to the ball with the elbow first (figure 8.4c), then extending the arm to point with the finger (figure 8.4d). This completes part 1 of the swing.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/100ph_Main.jpg

The second phase begins when the lob moves from ascending to the apex into the descent. This is the strike zone phase of the swing. The abbreviated backswing is restarted and moves into its remaining 3-foot (91 cm) swing. Approaching contact, the forearm should pronate (figure 8.5a) as the nondominant hand abruptly tucks into the belly to aid in blocking the shoulders and chest—also known as the third link of the kinetic chain—from rotating (figure 8.5b). After contact, a relaxed deceleration begins down through the follow-through phase (figure 8.5c).

By using this two-part overhead technique, a player can turn a defective liability into a picturesque thing of beauty.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/101ph_Main.jpg

Reducing Errors

As everybody knows, tennis is a game of errors. Deciphering the actual cause of the error is the initial step in error reduction. A study that I conducted with nationally ranked juniors in Southern California found that in match play, there are four main causes of errors:

1. Poor shot selection (46 percent)
2. Below-par movement and spacing (32 percent)
3. Inadequate emotional control or rituals (12 percent)
4. Inferior stroke mechanics (10 percent)

What do most intermediate players focus on? You've got it: strokes! Up to the elite levels of the game, retrievers tend to have all the trophies, and it's not because of their elegant strokes. They win by developing their shot selection skills. Following are some practical tips for improving shot selection:

Offense

• Position inside the court to reduce the opponent's recovery time.
• Apply proper movement and spacing to contact the ball at the desired waist-level strike zone.
• Change the angle of the ball or attack the opponent's weakness relentlessly.

Neutral

• Simply match the ball speed.
• Apply secondary “building” shots to compromise the opponent's position.
• Use proper heights above the net to maintain proper depth.

Defense

• Position farther back behind the baseline.
• Elevate shots with heavy topspin to buy recovery time.
• Simply get the point back to neutral instead of going for an offensive shot.

How do players determine whether their next shot should be offensive, neutral, or defensive? One way is to make the decision based on their position on the court, or zonal tennis. As a general rule, the farther inside the baseline a player can play the ball, the more offensive options become available to him. Obviously, if a player is scrambling up to the service line to retrieve a tough drop shot, the return becomes more defensive. So in addition to positioning, a player's balance, the ball height, and preparation time will all affect the type of shot that can be produced.

Zonal Tennis

Zonal tennis has been applied successfully for decades. In the 1970s, zones were described as defensive, neutral, and offensive. In the 1980s, the popular terms were defend, attack, and kill. Recent catch phrases include “control, hurt, and finish.” In the spirit of evolution, let's coin our own descriptions: the grind, torment, and obliterate zones. But before getting into the dynamics of these court zones, let's first cover air zones.

Air Zones

Air zones refer to the height at which the ball travels above the net. A player's court position dictates the height that the shot should travel above the net. Unforced errors and short balls multiply dramatically when players choose to ignore the laws of the air zones.

The rules are simple. When inside the court, a player should aim 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91 cm) above the net. On the baseline, a player should aim 3 to 5 feet (91 to 152 cm) above the net; and when 10 feet behind the baseline, the player should aim 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the net (figure 9.3).

The higher a player hits the ball over the net, the deeper it will generally go into the opponent's court. The farther back a player is, the higher he needs to hit the ball to achieve the depth required to keep the opponent pinned to the baseline. Therefore, as the player moves up, less net clearance is needed.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art1_Main.jpg

Court Zones

Now that we have discussed air zones, let's move on to court zones. To determine the court zones, divide both halves of the court (39 feet [11.9 m] each) into three even zones (figure 9.4). The zone (location) in which the ball lands dictates the highest-percentage options for shot selection. Smart tacticians simply match their intentions with the landing zones.

Zone 1, or the grind zone, is located from the baseline inward about 13 feet (3.9 m). When a ball is about to land in the grind zone, the high-percentage shot would be a safe, deep return. Mature players avoid the temptation of going for an offensive shot from this zone.

Zone 2, or the torment zone, is the middle zone. It is located approximately 13 feet inside the court to approximately 13 feet from the net. When a ball lands inside this center zone, a player should apply building shots as well as attacking shots.

Zone 3 is the obliterate zone; it includes the 13 feet closest to the net. Groundstroke kills, approach-volley patterns, and deadly droppers should be applied in this zone. Finishing the point with an offensive play is the correct tactical move here.

Advanced players are keenly aware that the same zonal warfare applies on both sides. In other words, the location where a shot lands on the opponent's side dictates his options for a high-percentage shot. If a player dumps a short ball in the opponent's obliterate zone, it's time to defend. Playing zonal tennis greatly increases a player's anticipatory speed, court coverage, and shot variations. By shifting the focus to this mental strategy, players can dramatically improve their win-loss record.

Be aware that the zones are still “gray” areas depending on the incoming ball's spin, speed, and trajectory. Exceptions shadow every rule, so players must use their court sense and abilities in match play.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art2_Main.jpg

Groundstroke Myths

Unfortunately, tennis is full of stock teaching methodology that should be banished—well-intentioned, catchy phrases that have become dated or, worse yet, were never even correct to begin with. Here are a few of the bigger culprits concerning groundstrokes.

Roll over the ball for topspin. This is a favorite among TV commentators. Sadly, countless teaching pros are still using this phrase, too. Players try to time the racket roll at contact, resulting in shots that spray all over the court.

Here are the facts: Depending on the type of shot, the ball is on the strings for about 2 to 4 milliseconds. It takes another 150 to 200 milliseconds for an electrical signal to travel from a player's hand back to the brain. The brain then sends a new motor program back to the muscle group to begin the wrist roll. This takes an additional 150 to 200 milliseconds, by which time the ball is now 8 to 10 feet off the racket face toward the opponent's side of the court. In other words, it's impossible to roll over the ball for topspin. The spin comes from the brushing motion of a low-to-high swing path.

Watch the ball hit the strings. As mentioned earlier, the human eye cannot register a two-millisecond event. No one has ever seen a ball hit the strings. It's simply a blur. Keeping the head down and still through contact is the best recipe for a steady racket path through the strike zone. Watch film of the best baseliners, and it's easy to see how quiet they keep their head during their groundstrokes.

Skim the net. On television, it appears that professionals barely clear the net on their groundstrokes. This is rarely the case. The deception occurs because the television cameras at pro tour events are often placed high in the stadium. This angle offers a clear view of match play, but it distorts the trajectory of the ball flight.

In actuality, players use a variety of heights, generally dictated by their court positioning. This is often the result of managing the time between hits. When players are on the defensive, they generally hit higher to buy more time for recovery. Conversely, they move forward and hit harder and lower to take time away from a vulnerable opponent.

At the club level, a ball that barely clears the net lands midcourt and bounces perfectly into an opponent's primary strike zone; this is not recommended unless losing is the main objective. The net skimmer only becomes a smart choice when the opponent is transitioning to or established at the net and a passing shot is in order, or when an opponent is well behind the baseline and the player wants to bring her in, specifically if the opponent is weak at the net.

Stay down on groundstrokes. A player's center of gravity plays an important role in generating power and depth on groundstrokes. Three critical elements lift up on world-class strokes: the knees, the backside, and the racket face. Even on slice backhands, all three critical elements rise at completion of the stroke. If not, the resulting shot will lack pace and penetration. Players who prematurely lift their head before contact do indeed need to “keep their head down” through the shot. But it's a fallacy to apply the principle to the entire body.

Keep your eye on the ball. This is correct . . . half the time. Vision control plays various functions over the course of a point that are critical for consistent ball striking and court coverage. Narrow vision is applied on an incoming ball: watching it leave the opponent's racket, cross the net, and bounce up and into the strike zone. In this regard, a player should absolutely be keeping an eye on the ball.

Broad vision, on the other hand, is used to spot the dozens of visual clues after the ball leaves the racket toward the opponent's side of the court. Such clues include an opponent's court position, body language, strike zones, swing speed, and swing length. Broad vision is a crucial component of anticipatory speed. The best movers know how to assimilate the information from their broad vision and instinctively adjust their positioning accordingly.

Overhead

The overhead smash is a shot that puts fear in the hearts of most amateurs. It can result in occasional brilliance, but it often ends in predictable embarrassment. This section uncovers a handful of secrets that will transform an overhead avoider into an overhead hunter.

The primary cause of a misfired overhead is employing a service motion. Although the overhead shares some basic components with the serve—stance, grip, forearm pronation, and keeping the nondominant hand and head up until contact—the overhead is a little trickier. In a typical service motion, the racket head travels approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) of distance from the ready position through the “down together-up together” backswing, up into the loop, and through the contact phase of the stroke. It's one thing to do all of this off a controlled toss, but trying to time a two- or three-millisecond hit off an 80-foot lob dropping at the rate of gravity—often while the player is completely unbalanced—is quite a different proposition. Wherever I travel around the world for tennis workshops, I see amateurs attempting this nearly impossible task. They will invariably shank the ball and say, “You know, I just don't feel my overhead today.”

Consistent overheads are a result of a two-part swing. The first part begins with the ready position (figure 8.4a). From there, the player executes a quick pivot, pointing the feet, knees, belly button, and shoulders toward the side fence. Simultaneously, the player moves the racket handle directly up to the dominant-side ear (figure 8.4b). (Imagine quickly picking up a phone and directly placing it up to your ear to talk.) The role of the nondominant arm is to aid in the coiling process by pointing to the ball with the elbow first (figure 8.4c), then extending the arm to point with the finger (figure 8.4d). This completes part 1 of the swing.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/100ph_Main.jpg

The second phase begins when the lob moves from ascending to the apex into the descent. This is the strike zone phase of the swing. The abbreviated backswing is restarted and moves into its remaining 3-foot (91 cm) swing. Approaching contact, the forearm should pronate (figure 8.5a) as the nondominant hand abruptly tucks into the belly to aid in blocking the shoulders and chest—also known as the third link of the kinetic chain—from rotating (figure 8.5b). After contact, a relaxed deceleration begins down through the follow-through phase (figure 8.5c).

By using this two-part overhead technique, a player can turn a defective liability into a picturesque thing of beauty.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/101ph_Main.jpg

Reducing Errors

As everybody knows, tennis is a game of errors. Deciphering the actual cause of the error is the initial step in error reduction. A study that I conducted with nationally ranked juniors in Southern California found that in match play, there are four main causes of errors:

1. Poor shot selection (46 percent)
2. Below-par movement and spacing (32 percent)
3. Inadequate emotional control or rituals (12 percent)
4. Inferior stroke mechanics (10 percent)

What do most intermediate players focus on? You've got it: strokes! Up to the elite levels of the game, retrievers tend to have all the trophies, and it's not because of their elegant strokes. They win by developing their shot selection skills. Following are some practical tips for improving shot selection:

Offense

• Position inside the court to reduce the opponent's recovery time.
• Apply proper movement and spacing to contact the ball at the desired waist-level strike zone.
• Change the angle of the ball or attack the opponent's weakness relentlessly.

Neutral

• Simply match the ball speed.
• Apply secondary “building” shots to compromise the opponent's position.
• Use proper heights above the net to maintain proper depth.

Defense

• Position farther back behind the baseline.
• Elevate shots with heavy topspin to buy recovery time.
• Simply get the point back to neutral instead of going for an offensive shot.

How do players determine whether their next shot should be offensive, neutral, or defensive? One way is to make the decision based on their position on the court, or zonal tennis. As a general rule, the farther inside the baseline a player can play the ball, the more offensive options become available to him. Obviously, if a player is scrambling up to the service line to retrieve a tough drop shot, the return becomes more defensive. So in addition to positioning, a player's balance, the ball height, and preparation time will all affect the type of shot that can be produced.

Zonal Tennis

Zonal tennis has been applied successfully for decades. In the 1970s, zones were described as defensive, neutral, and offensive. In the 1980s, the popular terms were defend, attack, and kill. Recent catch phrases include “control, hurt, and finish.” In the spirit of evolution, let's coin our own descriptions: the grind, torment, and obliterate zones. But before getting into the dynamics of these court zones, let's first cover air zones.

Air Zones

Air zones refer to the height at which the ball travels above the net. A player's court position dictates the height that the shot should travel above the net. Unforced errors and short balls multiply dramatically when players choose to ignore the laws of the air zones.

The rules are simple. When inside the court, a player should aim 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91 cm) above the net. On the baseline, a player should aim 3 to 5 feet (91 to 152 cm) above the net; and when 10 feet behind the baseline, the player should aim 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the net (figure 9.3).

The higher a player hits the ball over the net, the deeper it will generally go into the opponent's court. The farther back a player is, the higher he needs to hit the ball to achieve the depth required to keep the opponent pinned to the baseline. Therefore, as the player moves up, less net clearance is needed.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art1_Main.jpg

Court Zones

Now that we have discussed air zones, let's move on to court zones. To determine the court zones, divide both halves of the court (39 feet [11.9 m] each) into three even zones (figure 9.4). The zone (location) in which the ball lands dictates the highest-percentage options for shot selection. Smart tacticians simply match their intentions with the landing zones.

Zone 1, or the grind zone, is located from the baseline inward about 13 feet (3.9 m). When a ball is about to land in the grind zone, the high-percentage shot would be a safe, deep return. Mature players avoid the temptation of going for an offensive shot from this zone.

Zone 2, or the torment zone, is the middle zone. It is located approximately 13 feet inside the court to approximately 13 feet from the net. When a ball lands inside this center zone, a player should apply building shots as well as attacking shots.

Zone 3 is the obliterate zone; it includes the 13 feet closest to the net. Groundstroke kills, approach-volley patterns, and deadly droppers should be applied in this zone. Finishing the point with an offensive play is the correct tactical move here.

Advanced players are keenly aware that the same zonal warfare applies on both sides. In other words, the location where a shot lands on the opponent's side dictates his options for a high-percentage shot. If a player dumps a short ball in the opponent's obliterate zone, it's time to defend. Playing zonal tennis greatly increases a player's anticipatory speed, court coverage, and shot variations. By shifting the focus to this mental strategy, players can dramatically improve their win-loss record.

Be aware that the zones are still “gray” areas depending on the incoming ball's spin, speed, and trajectory. Exceptions shadow every rule, so players must use their court sense and abilities in match play.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art2_Main.jpg

Groundstroke Myths

Unfortunately, tennis is full of stock teaching methodology that should be banished—well-intentioned, catchy phrases that have become dated or, worse yet, were never even correct to begin with. Here are a few of the bigger culprits concerning groundstrokes.

Roll over the ball for topspin. This is a favorite among TV commentators. Sadly, countless teaching pros are still using this phrase, too. Players try to time the racket roll at contact, resulting in shots that spray all over the court.

Here are the facts: Depending on the type of shot, the ball is on the strings for about 2 to 4 milliseconds. It takes another 150 to 200 milliseconds for an electrical signal to travel from a player's hand back to the brain. The brain then sends a new motor program back to the muscle group to begin the wrist roll. This takes an additional 150 to 200 milliseconds, by which time the ball is now 8 to 10 feet off the racket face toward the opponent's side of the court. In other words, it's impossible to roll over the ball for topspin. The spin comes from the brushing motion of a low-to-high swing path.

Watch the ball hit the strings. As mentioned earlier, the human eye cannot register a two-millisecond event. No one has ever seen a ball hit the strings. It's simply a blur. Keeping the head down and still through contact is the best recipe for a steady racket path through the strike zone. Watch film of the best baseliners, and it's easy to see how quiet they keep their head during their groundstrokes.

Skim the net. On television, it appears that professionals barely clear the net on their groundstrokes. This is rarely the case. The deception occurs because the television cameras at pro tour events are often placed high in the stadium. This angle offers a clear view of match play, but it distorts the trajectory of the ball flight.

In actuality, players use a variety of heights, generally dictated by their court positioning. This is often the result of managing the time between hits. When players are on the defensive, they generally hit higher to buy more time for recovery. Conversely, they move forward and hit harder and lower to take time away from a vulnerable opponent.

At the club level, a ball that barely clears the net lands midcourt and bounces perfectly into an opponent's primary strike zone; this is not recommended unless losing is the main objective. The net skimmer only becomes a smart choice when the opponent is transitioning to or established at the net and a passing shot is in order, or when an opponent is well behind the baseline and the player wants to bring her in, specifically if the opponent is weak at the net.

Stay down on groundstrokes. A player's center of gravity plays an important role in generating power and depth on groundstrokes. Three critical elements lift up on world-class strokes: the knees, the backside, and the racket face. Even on slice backhands, all three critical elements rise at completion of the stroke. If not, the resulting shot will lack pace and penetration. Players who prematurely lift their head before contact do indeed need to “keep their head down” through the shot. But it's a fallacy to apply the principle to the entire body.

Keep your eye on the ball. This is correct . . . half the time. Vision control plays various functions over the course of a point that are critical for consistent ball striking and court coverage. Narrow vision is applied on an incoming ball: watching it leave the opponent's racket, cross the net, and bounce up and into the strike zone. In this regard, a player should absolutely be keeping an eye on the ball.

Broad vision, on the other hand, is used to spot the dozens of visual clues after the ball leaves the racket toward the opponent's side of the court. Such clues include an opponent's court position, body language, strike zones, swing speed, and swing length. Broad vision is a crucial component of anticipatory speed. The best movers know how to assimilate the information from their broad vision and instinctively adjust their positioning accordingly.

Overhead

The overhead smash is a shot that puts fear in the hearts of most amateurs. It can result in occasional brilliance, but it often ends in predictable embarrassment. This section uncovers a handful of secrets that will transform an overhead avoider into an overhead hunter.

The primary cause of a misfired overhead is employing a service motion. Although the overhead shares some basic components with the serve—stance, grip, forearm pronation, and keeping the nondominant hand and head up until contact—the overhead is a little trickier. In a typical service motion, the racket head travels approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) of distance from the ready position through the “down together-up together” backswing, up into the loop, and through the contact phase of the stroke. It's one thing to do all of this off a controlled toss, but trying to time a two- or three-millisecond hit off an 80-foot lob dropping at the rate of gravity—often while the player is completely unbalanced—is quite a different proposition. Wherever I travel around the world for tennis workshops, I see amateurs attempting this nearly impossible task. They will invariably shank the ball and say, “You know, I just don't feel my overhead today.”

Consistent overheads are a result of a two-part swing. The first part begins with the ready position (figure 8.4a). From there, the player executes a quick pivot, pointing the feet, knees, belly button, and shoulders toward the side fence. Simultaneously, the player moves the racket handle directly up to the dominant-side ear (figure 8.4b). (Imagine quickly picking up a phone and directly placing it up to your ear to talk.) The role of the nondominant arm is to aid in the coiling process by pointing to the ball with the elbow first (figure 8.4c), then extending the arm to point with the finger (figure 8.4d). This completes part 1 of the swing.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/100ph_Main.jpg

The second phase begins when the lob moves from ascending to the apex into the descent. This is the strike zone phase of the swing. The abbreviated backswing is restarted and moves into its remaining 3-foot (91 cm) swing. Approaching contact, the forearm should pronate (figure 8.5a) as the nondominant hand abruptly tucks into the belly to aid in blocking the shoulders and chest—also known as the third link of the kinetic chain—from rotating (figure 8.5b). After contact, a relaxed deceleration begins down through the follow-through phase (figure 8.5c).

By using this two-part overhead technique, a player can turn a defective liability into a picturesque thing of beauty.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/101ph_Main.jpg

Reducing Errors

As everybody knows, tennis is a game of errors. Deciphering the actual cause of the error is the initial step in error reduction. A study that I conducted with nationally ranked juniors in Southern California found that in match play, there are four main causes of errors:

1. Poor shot selection (46 percent)
2. Below-par movement and spacing (32 percent)
3. Inadequate emotional control or rituals (12 percent)
4. Inferior stroke mechanics (10 percent)

What do most intermediate players focus on? You've got it: strokes! Up to the elite levels of the game, retrievers tend to have all the trophies, and it's not because of their elegant strokes. They win by developing their shot selection skills. Following are some practical tips for improving shot selection:

Offense

• Position inside the court to reduce the opponent's recovery time.
• Apply proper movement and spacing to contact the ball at the desired waist-level strike zone.
• Change the angle of the ball or attack the opponent's weakness relentlessly.

Neutral

• Simply match the ball speed.
• Apply secondary “building” shots to compromise the opponent's position.
• Use proper heights above the net to maintain proper depth.

Defense

• Position farther back behind the baseline.
• Elevate shots with heavy topspin to buy recovery time.
• Simply get the point back to neutral instead of going for an offensive shot.

How do players determine whether their next shot should be offensive, neutral, or defensive? One way is to make the decision based on their position on the court, or zonal tennis. As a general rule, the farther inside the baseline a player can play the ball, the more offensive options become available to him. Obviously, if a player is scrambling up to the service line to retrieve a tough drop shot, the return becomes more defensive. So in addition to positioning, a player's balance, the ball height, and preparation time will all affect the type of shot that can be produced.

Zonal Tennis

Zonal tennis has been applied successfully for decades. In the 1970s, zones were described as defensive, neutral, and offensive. In the 1980s, the popular terms were defend, attack, and kill. Recent catch phrases include “control, hurt, and finish.” In the spirit of evolution, let's coin our own descriptions: the grind, torment, and obliterate zones. But before getting into the dynamics of these court zones, let's first cover air zones.

Air Zones

Air zones refer to the height at which the ball travels above the net. A player's court position dictates the height that the shot should travel above the net. Unforced errors and short balls multiply dramatically when players choose to ignore the laws of the air zones.

The rules are simple. When inside the court, a player should aim 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91 cm) above the net. On the baseline, a player should aim 3 to 5 feet (91 to 152 cm) above the net; and when 10 feet behind the baseline, the player should aim 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the net (figure 9.3).

The higher a player hits the ball over the net, the deeper it will generally go into the opponent's court. The farther back a player is, the higher he needs to hit the ball to achieve the depth required to keep the opponent pinned to the baseline. Therefore, as the player moves up, less net clearance is needed.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art1_Main.jpg

Court Zones

Now that we have discussed air zones, let's move on to court zones. To determine the court zones, divide both halves of the court (39 feet [11.9 m] each) into three even zones (figure 9.4). The zone (location) in which the ball lands dictates the highest-percentage options for shot selection. Smart tacticians simply match their intentions with the landing zones.

Zone 1, or the grind zone, is located from the baseline inward about 13 feet (3.9 m). When a ball is about to land in the grind zone, the high-percentage shot would be a safe, deep return. Mature players avoid the temptation of going for an offensive shot from this zone.

Zone 2, or the torment zone, is the middle zone. It is located approximately 13 feet inside the court to approximately 13 feet from the net. When a ball lands inside this center zone, a player should apply building shots as well as attacking shots.

Zone 3 is the obliterate zone; it includes the 13 feet closest to the net. Groundstroke kills, approach-volley patterns, and deadly droppers should be applied in this zone. Finishing the point with an offensive play is the correct tactical move here.

Advanced players are keenly aware that the same zonal warfare applies on both sides. In other words, the location where a shot lands on the opponent's side dictates his options for a high-percentage shot. If a player dumps a short ball in the opponent's obliterate zone, it's time to defend. Playing zonal tennis greatly increases a player's anticipatory speed, court coverage, and shot variations. By shifting the focus to this mental strategy, players can dramatically improve their win-loss record.

Be aware that the zones are still “gray” areas depending on the incoming ball's spin, speed, and trajectory. Exceptions shadow every rule, so players must use their court sense and abilities in match play.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/127art2_Main.jpg

Groundstroke Myths

Unfortunately, tennis is full of stock teaching methodology that should be banished—well-intentioned, catchy phrases that have become dated or, worse yet, were never even correct to begin with. Here are a few of the bigger culprits concerning groundstrokes.

Roll over the ball for topspin. This is a favorite among TV commentators. Sadly, countless teaching pros are still using this phrase, too. Players try to time the racket roll at contact, resulting in shots that spray all over the court.

Here are the facts: Depending on the type of shot, the ball is on the strings for about 2 to 4 milliseconds. It takes another 150 to 200 milliseconds for an electrical signal to travel from a player's hand back to the brain. The brain then sends a new motor program back to the muscle group to begin the wrist roll. This takes an additional 150 to 200 milliseconds, by which time the ball is now 8 to 10 feet off the racket face toward the opponent's side of the court. In other words, it's impossible to roll over the ball for topspin. The spin comes from the brushing motion of a low-to-high swing path.

Watch the ball hit the strings. As mentioned earlier, the human eye cannot register a two-millisecond event. No one has ever seen a ball hit the strings. It's simply a blur. Keeping the head down and still through contact is the best recipe for a steady racket path through the strike zone. Watch film of the best baseliners, and it's easy to see how quiet they keep their head during their groundstrokes.

Skim the net. On television, it appears that professionals barely clear the net on their groundstrokes. This is rarely the case. The deception occurs because the television cameras at pro tour events are often placed high in the stadium. This angle offers a clear view of match play, but it distorts the trajectory of the ball flight.

In actuality, players use a variety of heights, generally dictated by their court positioning. This is often the result of managing the time between hits. When players are on the defensive, they generally hit higher to buy more time for recovery. Conversely, they move forward and hit harder and lower to take time away from a vulnerable opponent.

At the club level, a ball that barely clears the net lands midcourt and bounces perfectly into an opponent's primary strike zone; this is not recommended unless losing is the main objective. The net skimmer only becomes a smart choice when the opponent is transitioning to or established at the net and a passing shot is in order, or when an opponent is well behind the baseline and the player wants to bring her in, specifically if the opponent is weak at the net.

Stay down on groundstrokes. A player's center of gravity plays an important role in generating power and depth on groundstrokes. Three critical elements lift up on world-class strokes: the knees, the backside, and the racket face. Even on slice backhands, all three critical elements rise at completion of the stroke. If not, the resulting shot will lack pace and penetration. Players who prematurely lift their head before contact do indeed need to “keep their head down” through the shot. But it's a fallacy to apply the principle to the entire body.

Keep your eye on the ball. This is correct . . . half the time. Vision control plays various functions over the course of a point that are critical for consistent ball striking and court coverage. Narrow vision is applied on an incoming ball: watching it leave the opponent's racket, cross the net, and bounce up and into the strike zone. In this regard, a player should absolutely be keeping an eye on the ball.

Broad vision, on the other hand, is used to spot the dozens of visual clues after the ball leaves the racket toward the opponent's side of the court. Such clues include an opponent's court position, body language, strike zones, swing speed, and swing length. Broad vision is a crucial component of anticipatory speed. The best movers know how to assimilate the information from their broad vision and instinctively adjust their positioning accordingly.

Overhead

The overhead smash is a shot that puts fear in the hearts of most amateurs. It can result in occasional brilliance, but it often ends in predictable embarrassment. This section uncovers a handful of secrets that will transform an overhead avoider into an overhead hunter.

The primary cause of a misfired overhead is employing a service motion. Although the overhead shares some basic components with the serve—stance, grip, forearm pronation, and keeping the nondominant hand and head up until contact—the overhead is a little trickier. In a typical service motion, the racket head travels approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) of distance from the ready position through the “down together-up together” backswing, up into the loop, and through the contact phase of the stroke. It's one thing to do all of this off a controlled toss, but trying to time a two- or three-millisecond hit off an 80-foot lob dropping at the rate of gravity—often while the player is completely unbalanced—is quite a different proposition. Wherever I travel around the world for tennis workshops, I see amateurs attempting this nearly impossible task. They will invariably shank the ball and say, “You know, I just don't feel my overhead today.”

Consistent overheads are a result of a two-part swing. The first part begins with the ready position (figure 8.4a). From there, the player executes a quick pivot, pointing the feet, knees, belly button, and shoulders toward the side fence. Simultaneously, the player moves the racket handle directly up to the dominant-side ear (figure 8.4b). (Imagine quickly picking up a phone and directly placing it up to your ear to talk.) The role of the nondominant arm is to aid in the coiling process by pointing to the ball with the elbow first (figure 8.4c), then extending the arm to point with the finger (figure 8.4d). This completes part 1 of the swing.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/100ph_Main.jpg

The second phase begins when the lob moves from ascending to the apex into the descent. This is the strike zone phase of the swing. The abbreviated backswing is restarted and moves into its remaining 3-foot (91 cm) swing. Approaching contact, the forearm should pronate (figure 8.5a) as the nondominant hand abruptly tucks into the belly to aid in blocking the shoulders and chest—also known as the third link of the kinetic chain—from rotating (figure 8.5b). After contact, a relaxed deceleration begins down through the follow-through phase (figure 8.5c).

By using this two-part overhead technique, a player can turn a defective liability into a picturesque thing of beauty.

http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/093/101ph_Main.jpg

Reducing Errors

As everybody knows, tennis is a game of errors. Deciphering the actual cause of the error is the initial step in error reduction. A study that I conducted with nationally ranked juniors in Southern California found that in match play, there are four main causes of errors:

1. Poor shot selection (46 percent)
2. Below-par movement and spacing (32 percent)
3. Inadequate emotional control or rituals (12 percent)
4. Inferior stroke mechanics (10 percent)

What do most intermediate players focus on? You've got it: strokes! Up to the elite levels of the game, retrievers tend to have all the trophies, and it's not because of their elegant strokes. They win by developing their shot selection skills. Following are some practical tips for improving shot selection:

Offense

• Position inside the court to reduce the opponent's recovery time.
• Apply proper movement and spacing to contact the ball at the desired waist-level strike zone.
• Change the angle of the ball or attack the opponent's weakness relentlessly.

Neutral

• Simply match the ball speed.
• Apply secondary “building” shots to compromise the opponent's position.
• Use proper heights above the net to maintain proper depth.

Defense

• Position farther back behind the baseline.
• Elevate shots with heavy topspin to buy recovery time.
• Simply get the point back to neutral instead of going for an offensive shot.

How do players determine whether their next shot should be offensive, neutral, or defensive? One way is to make the decision based on their position on the court, or zonal tennis. As a general rule, the farther inside the baseline a player can play the ball, the more offensive options become available to him. Obviously, if a player is scrambling up to the service line to retrieve a tough drop shot, the return becomes more defensive. So in addition to positioning, a player's balance, the ball height, and preparation time will all affect the type of shot that can be produced.

Zonal Tennis

Zonal tennis has been applied successfully for decades. In the 1970s, zones were described as defensive, neutral, and offensive. In the 1980s, the popular terms were defend, attack, and kill. Recent catch phrases include “control, hurt, and finish.” In the spirit of evolution, let's coin our own descriptions: the grind, torment, and obliterate zones. But before getting into the dynamics of these court zones, let's first cover air zones.

Air Zones

Air zones refer to the height at which the ball travels above the net. A player's court position dictates the height that the shot should travel above the net. Unforced errors and short balls multiply dramatically when players choose to ignore the laws of the air zones.

The rules are simple. When inside the court, a player should aim 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91 cm) above the net. On the baseline, a player should aim 3 to 5 feet (91 to 152 cm) above the net; and when 10 feet behind the baseline, the player should aim 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the net (figure 9.3).

The higher a player hits the ball over the net, the deeper it will generally go into the opponent's court. The farther back a player is, the higher he needs to hit the ball to achieve the depth required to keep the opponent pinned to the baseline. Therefore, as the player moves up, less net clearance is needed.

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Court Zones

Now that we have discussed air zones, let's move on to court zones. To determine the court zones, divide both halves of the court (39 feet [11.9 m] each) into three even zones (figure 9.4). The zone (location) in which the ball lands dictates the highest-percentage options for shot selection. Smart tacticians simply match their intentions with the landing zones.

Zone 1, or the grind zone, is located from the baseline inward about 13 feet (3.9 m). When a ball is about to land in the grind zone, the high-percentage shot would be a safe, deep return. Mature players avoid the temptation of going for an offensive shot from this zone.

Zone 2, or the torment zone, is the middle zone. It is located approximately 13 feet inside the court to approximately 13 feet from the net. When a ball lands inside this center zone, a player should apply building shots as well as attacking shots.

Zone 3 is the obliterate zone; it includes the 13 feet closest to the net. Groundstroke kills, approach-volley patterns, and deadly droppers should be applied in this zone. Finishing the point with an offensive play is the correct tactical move here.

Advanced players are keenly aware that the same zonal warfare applies on both sides. In other words, the location where a shot lands on the opponent's side dictates his options for a high-percentage shot. If a player dumps a short ball in the opponent's obliterate zone, it's time to defend. Playing zonal tennis greatly increases a player's anticipatory speed, court coverage, and shot variations. By shifting the focus to this mental strategy, players can dramatically improve their win-loss record.

Be aware that the zones are still “gray” areas depending on the incoming ball's spin, speed, and trajectory. Exceptions shadow every rule, so players must use their court sense and abilities in match play.

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