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Essentials of Eccentric Training is the first comprehensive resource covering this innovative approach to resistance training and conditioning that produces extraordinary results. Backed by evidence-based studies and readily incorporated into training programs, eccentric training provides greater intensity to help individuals push past plateaus and increase muscular strength, endurance, and power. Using eccentric training, strength and conditioning professionals and personal trainers can also help their clients improve metabolism, manage their weight, and facilitate injury rehabilitation.
The text provides the physiological explanations, exercises, and sample programs beneficial to introducing eccentric training into clients’ workouts. All facets of this exciting, power-generating modality are detailed by veteran international fitness expert Len Kravitz and champion bodybuilder and personal trainer Aaron Bubbico, who use eccentric training not only with clients but also in their own exercise regimens. The practical information in the book is supported by special features:
• 70 eccentric training exercises are demonstrated through full-color photos and detailed instructions to properly illustrate techniques and minimize risk of injury.
• A selection of 46 online exercise videos explain more complex workout techniques to ensure exercises are properly performed to maximize results. Symbols throughout the book indicate when videos are available online.
• A selection of 24 sample workout plans, six case study workouts, and two sample eight-week training programs provide professionals with a strong starting point to build programs for their clients.
• An appendix lists foundational resistance training exercises across seven popular sports.
• An exercise finder categorized by muscle group makes selecting the right exercises for each client easy.
After establishing a foundation of muscular physiology, the first chapters of Essentials of Eccentric Training explain the three unique ways of using eccentric training: eccentric emphasis, supramaximal training, and the two-up/one-down method. The next two chapters address specific effects of the training method: how it bolsters postworkout metabolic rate and how to minimize delayed-onset muscle soreness. The book’s final six chapters contain exercises and program designs specifically for muscular strength, muscular endurance, explosive power, weight loss, muscle size, and rehabilitation.
Essentials of Eccentric Training imparts every aspect of this groundbreaking training system and its benefits in resistance exercise programs. The method presents boundless opportunities for strength and conditioning specialists and exercise professionals who work with athletes and exercise enthusiasts of all ages and fitness levels.
Chapter 1. Understanding Muscular Structure and the Physiological Mechanisms of Concentric and Eccentric Action
Muscular System
Gross Structure of Muscle
Muscle Cell Structure and Organization
Muscle Fiber Protein Organization
Actin–Myosin Orientation
The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction
Termination of Muscle Action
Muscle Fiber Types
Distribution of Fiber Types in Special Populations
Summary Thoughts
Chapter 2. Discovering the Eccentric Training Methods
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
Two-Up/One-Down Eccentric Training Method
Summary Thoughts
Chapter 3. Boosting the Metabolism With Eccentric Exercise
Resting Metabolic Rate
Thermic Effect of Food
Activity Energy Expenditure
Positive Energy Balance
Muscle Metabolism in Eccentric Training
Maximizing Metabolism With Eccentric Exercise
Summary Thoughts
Chapter 4. Eliminating Muscle Soreness With the Repeated Bout Approach
Repeated Bout Effect of Eccentric Training
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Summary Thoughts
Chapter 5. Eccentric raining for Strength
Exercise Program Design
Application Tools for Exercises
Training Intensity Suggestions
Summary Thoughts
Training for Strength
Upper- and Lower-Body Workout Routines for Strength Training
Chapter 6. Eccentric Training for Endurance
Exercise Program Design
Application Tools for Exercises
Summary Thoughts
Training for Endurance
Upper- and Lower-Body Workout Routines for Endurance Training
Chapter 7. Eccentric Training for Explosive Power
Exercise Program Design
Application Tools for Exercises
Summary Thoughts
Training for Explosive Power
Upper- and Lower-Body Workout Routines for Power Training
Chapter 8. Eccentric Training for Weight Loss
Exercise Program Design
Application Tools for Exercises
Summary Thoughts
Training for Weight Loss
Upper- and Lower-Body Workout Routines for Weight Loss
Chapter 9. Eccentric Training for Muscle Hypertrophy
Exercise Program Design
Application Tools for Exercises
Summary Thoughts
Training for Muscle Hypertrophy
Upper- and Lower-Body Workout Routines for Muscle Hypertrophy
Chapter 10. Eccentric Exercise and Rehabilitation
Tendons
Ligaments
Fascia
Exercise Program Design
Application Tools for Exercises
Summary Thoughts
Training for Rehabilitation
Upper- and Lower-Body Workout Routines for Rehabilitation
Len Kravitz, PhD, an international fitness expert, has been an associate professor of exercise science at the University of New Mexico since 1999 and the coordinator of the department since 2000. A leader in the fitness industry for three decades, he has written more than 250 peer-reviewed articles. Since 1989 he has been a contributing editor to IDEA Health and Fitness Association’s The Health and Fitness Source, the voice of the largest trade organization for fitness professionals. He has also given more than 1,000 presentations at the most prestigious fitness conferences in the world, including ACSM Health and Fitness, IDEA World, and canfitpro in Toronto.
His two dozen awards are highlighted by the 2011 Distinguished Alumni Award from San Jose State University, the 2009 Canadian Fitness Professional Association Specialty Presenter of the Year, the 2006 American Council on Exercise Fitness Educator of the Year, the 2003-04 University of New Mexico Outstanding Teacher of the Year, and the 2003 Lifetime Achievement by the ECA World Fitness Association.
Kravitz earned his doctorate in health, physical education, and recreation, with an emphasis in health promotion and exercise science, from the University of New Mexico in 1994. He is a member of the American College of Sports Medicine and the National Strength and Conditioning Association.
Aaron Bubbico, MS, earned his master’s degree in exercise science from the University of New Mexico. During his undergraduate and graduate studies, his work was published in the IDEA Fitness Journal for a cutting-edge review of eccentric exercise training. Bubbico has written another review on current research in muscle hypertrophy. He is a certified strength and conditioning specialist (CSCS) and a CrossFit level 1 trainer. For a decade Bubbico has been working with clients of various ages and abilities, from novices to professionals. He focuses on helping his clients achieve their highest possible levels of fitness by incorporating a focused approach for strength, stability, conditioning, mobility, and nutrition. He loves spending time with his wife and two sons and competing as a CrossFit athlete and IFPA professional natural bodybuilder.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
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Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
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Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
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7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
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Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
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Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
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Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Barbell front squat
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Bench press
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Bent-over barbell row
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Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
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Power clean
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Bench press
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Plyometric push-up
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Leg press
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One-arm dumbbell row
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Power clean
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Zottman curl
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
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7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
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Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
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Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Barbell front squat
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Bench press
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Bent-over barbell row
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Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
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Power clean
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Bench press
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Plyometric push-up
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Leg press
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One-arm dumbbell row
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Power clean
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Zottman curl
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_496559_ebook5_Main.png
7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1132_ebook1_Main.jpg
Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1131_ebook2_Main.jpg
Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0911thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Broad jump
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0028thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Barbell back squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0012thumb_ebook2_MPreview.jpg
Barbell front squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0087thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bench press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0415thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bent-over barbell row
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1054thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0552thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Power clean
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0931thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Walking lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0403thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0911thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Broad jump
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0028thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Barbell back squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0087thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bench press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0651thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Plyometric push-up
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1041thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Leg press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0460thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
One-arm dumbbell row
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0552thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Power clean
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0337thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Zottman curl
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0931thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Walking lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0403thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_496559_ebook5_Main.png
7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1132_ebook1_Main.jpg
Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1131_ebook2_Main.jpg
Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0911thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Broad jump
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0028thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Barbell back squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0012thumb_ebook2_MPreview.jpg
Barbell front squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0087thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bench press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0415thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bent-over barbell row
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1054thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0552thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Power clean
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0931thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Walking lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0403thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0087thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bench press
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Plyometric push-up
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Leg press
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One-arm dumbbell row
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0552thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Power clean
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0337thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Zottman curl
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0931thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
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7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
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Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
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Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Barbell front squat
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Bench press
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Bent-over barbell row
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Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
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Power clean
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0911thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Broad jump
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0028thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Barbell back squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0087thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bench press
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Plyometric push-up
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1041thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Leg press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0460thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
One-arm dumbbell row
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0552thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Power clean
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0337thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Zottman curl
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0931thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Walking lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0403thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
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7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
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Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
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Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Barbell front squat
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Bench press
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Bent-over barbell row
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Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
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Power clean
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Bench press
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Plyometric push-up
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Leg press
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One-arm dumbbell row
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Power clean
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Zottman curl
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_496559_ebook5_Main.png
7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1132_ebook1_Main.jpg
Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1131_ebook2_Main.jpg
Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0911thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Broad jump
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0028thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Barbell back squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0012thumb_ebook2_MPreview.jpg
Barbell front squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0087thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bench press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0415thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bent-over barbell row
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1054thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0552thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Power clean
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0931thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Walking lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0403thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0911thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Broad jump
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0028thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Barbell back squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0087thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bench press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0651thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Plyometric push-up
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1041thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Leg press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0460thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
One-arm dumbbell row
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0552thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Power clean
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0337thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Zottman curl
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0931thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Walking lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0403thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_496559_ebook5_Main.png
7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1132_ebook1_Main.jpg
Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1131_ebook2_Main.jpg
Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0911thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Broad jump
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0028thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Barbell back squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0012thumb_ebook2_MPreview.jpg
Barbell front squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0087thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bench press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0415thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bent-over barbell row
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1054thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0552thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Power clean
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0931thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Walking lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0403thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0911thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Broad jump
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0028thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Barbell back squat
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0087thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bench press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0651thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Plyometric push-up
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_1041thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Leg press
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0460thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
One-arm dumbbell row
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0552thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Power clean
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0337thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Zottman curl
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0931thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Walking lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0403thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Bulgarian lunge
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/138/E6138_0761P_0264thumb_ebook1_MPreview.jpg
Nordic knee flexion
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
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7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
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Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
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Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Barbell front squat
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Bench press
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Bent-over barbell row
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Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
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Power clean
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Bench press
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Plyometric push-up
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Leg press
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One-arm dumbbell row
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Power clean
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Zottman curl
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
How to use eccentric training with clients
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method.
Implementing the Repeated Bout Effect With a Client
An exercise professional can use the RBE with a client in order to begin a more challenging eccentric training program. All of the research with the RBE strategy has used the eccentric emphasis training method. We therefore support this eccentric method for introducing the RBE. To incorporate the RBE strategy, use the following guidelines. Start by having the client perform the RBE exercises one week before completing a challenging eccentric training workout (with any of the three eccentric training methods). Begin by having the client complete one or two sets of traditional concentric/eccentric (CON - - ECC) resistance training for his or her normal workout. The last set for each exercise will be the RBE. If a client does single-set training, then the RBE will be the first and last set.
As a reminder, the eccentric emphasis method involves using a one-second concentric contraction with a three- to four-second eccentric contraction. For the eccentric emphasis RBE set, choose a resistance intensity that is 50% to 60% of what the client normally lifts with that particular load. Explain to the client that he or she will perform the normal lifting phase of the movement, pause, and then lower the weight to the starting point very slowly - for three to four seconds. Encourage the client to focus on the muscles contracting while lowering the weight. The introduction of the RBE offers an excellent platform for explaining eccentric training methodology to a client.
Now let's consider a case study. Imagine that you are a personal trainer introducing the RBE to a client who currently performs three sets of each exercise at 10-repetition-maximum (10RM) intensity. In other words, the client can do 10 repetitions but reaches momentary muscular fatigue on the 11th repetition. The client does the following six exercises in her or his workout: bent-over row, incline bench press, lateral dumbbell raise, deadlift, front squat, and standing triceps extension.
Have the client perform the first two sets of each exercise with the usual 10RM intensity using the traditional CON - - ECC lifting method. For the third set of each exercise, however, have the client lift 50% to 60% of the normal resistance and introduce the eccentric emphasis method on the lowering phase of the movement. Let's assume that the client normally performs three sets (with a 10RM intensity) on the incline bench press with 100 pounds (45 kg). To introduce the RBE on the third set, set the weight at 60% of 100 pounds, which is 60 pounds (27 kg).
The client should complete the upward phase of the incline bench press in one second; this is the concentric contraction, because the triceps and pectoral muscles are in a shortening phase of contraction. Then have the client lower the weight for three to four seconds; this is the eccentric contraction or muscle-lengthening phase of the movement. The client should complete each repetition in this manner: a one-second shortening action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (i.e., the eccentric emphasis, or EE) action. Have the client continue until all 10 repetitions have been completed.
You must now wait about one week before having the client do any eccentric training method at full intensity. This one-week period allows the muscles to make the molecular and neural adaptations that bring about the RBE. The client may experience mild muscle soreness after completing the eccentric workout at 60% of normal load. Explain to the client that this soreness is a normal response to the new stimulus experienced by his or her muscles. Then, one week later, have the client do the same workout using 100% of his or her 10RM for the EE workout (i.e., the one-second concentric phase and the three- to four-second eccentric phase).
In this example, the client has been training with three sets of six exercises. For progression, since eccentric loading is more challenging to the muscles, it may be appropriate to have the client do only one or two sets for each of the six exercises the first time that he or she uses eccentric training technique at 100% of 10RM. Because the client's body has had a week to adapt from the RBE, it is now prepared for the more demanding eccentric training load; as a result, the client should have much less muscle soreness than would otherwise be the case. From this point on, you can progress and regularly incorporate eccentric training into the client's workouts - using the three eccentric methods presented in this book - without having to repeat the RBE. However, if the client is inactive for a period of time (e.g., due to illness, time off, or vacation), it would be prudent for you to reintroduce eccentric training by means of the RBE.
Educating Clients About the Repeated Bout Effect
Personal trainers will surely receive questions from their clients about eccentric training. Since the use of the RBE is often the first time that a client learns about eccentric training, this is an appropriate place in the book to offer some educational tips to share with clients.
Eccentric training focuses on the lowering phase of an exercise, during which the muscle is elongating but is still very challenged by the resistance. All sports and everyday activities demand both lengthening and shortening actions by the muscles (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014). These actions are referred to respectively as the eccentric (lengthening) and concentric (shortening) phases of movement, and a person needs to strengthen his or her muscles in both phases in order to participate effectively in sports as well as in activities of daily living.
In sports, the eccentric phase is often the braking action of an athletic skill - for example, when descending after a jump in volleyball or basketball. Therefore, this type of braking action by the muscles can be strengthened by eccentric training. The research shows that incorporating eccentric training in the program design for clients will lead to increased joint strength, stability, and mobility (LaStayo et al., 2014). This potential outcome may be most effective for injury prevention in many sports and athletic activities.
Traditionally, most resistance training programs have focused on the shortening (concentric) phase of the movement. More recently, however, the lengthening (eccentric) phase has attracted much attention because of its potential benefits for muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury (LaStayo et al., 2014), and sport performance. In workout facilities, eccentric exercise is now often referred to as doing eccentrics or negatives.
A few caveats are also in order. First, even though the RBE can markedly reduce muscle soreness, you may wish to advise clients that they could still experience mild soreness 24 to 48 hours after performing eccentric training exercise. In addition, if a client has osteoarthritis or another joint-related disease, eccentric exercise may not be recommended due to the extra stress it puts on the musculoskeletal system. Often, personal trainers are also asked whether eccentric training is appropriate for older clients. The general answer is absolutely yes. According to LaStayo and colleagues (2014), eccentric muscle contractions can benefit older adults requiring rehabilitation not only to improve their mobility but also to avoid falls, which can improve confidence when moving about during daily activities. Older adults living with diseases that result in bodily weakness, fatigue, and atrophy can progressively load muscles eccentrically without inducing classic DOMS responses. However, some older clients may have a low level of muscular strength or endurance or may experience joint pain (due to a preexisting condition) in daily life. For these clients, personal trainers may wish to introduce eccentric training with very light loads and progress very gradually.
Understanding Muscle Recovery
Exercise professionals should discuss the concept of recovery with any client who is starting eccentric training. Recovery from exercise training is an integral component of the overall training program; indeed, it is essential for optimal improvement and performance. If a client's rate of recovery improves, he or she can use higher training volumes and intensities without the detrimental effects of overtraining (Bishop, Jones, & Woods, 2008).
Understanding the physiological realities of recovery is essential for designing optimal training programs, particularly those using eccentric training. In essence, recovery includes the following processes: (1) normalization of physiological functions (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac cycle), (2) return to homeostasis (i.e., a resting cell environment), (3) restoration of energy stores (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), and (4) replenishment of cellular energy enzymes (e.g., phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism) (Jeffreys, 2005). Muscle recovery occurs during and (primarily) after exercise and is characterized by continued removal of metabolic end products (e.g., lactate and hydrogen ions). During exercise, recovery is needed in order to reestablish intramuscular blood flow for oxygen delivery, which promotes replenishment of phosphocreatine stores (used to resynthesize ATP), restoration of intramuscular pH (acid - base balance), and regain of muscle membrane potential (balance between sodium and potassium exchanges inside and outside of a cell) (Weiss, 1991).
For clients to achieve optimal exercise performance, the exercise professional needs to be proactive in planning recovery as part of the training program. Although no consensus exists about a central recovery strategy, monitoring and observing a client's exercise performance is always helpful in adjusting and planning for this essential ingredient of training. The recovery process varies by the individual due to multiple factors - for example, training status (trained or untrained); level of fatigue; and the person's ability to deal with physical, emotional, and psychological stressors (Jeffreys, 2005). In addition, educating clients about the importance of recovery (e.g., the quantity and quality of sleep) may empower them to complete suitable recovery interventions that will enhance their training outcomes.
Learn more about Essentials of Eccentric Training.
Understand the fundamentals of eccentric training
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise.
Eccentric Emphasis Training Method
The eccentric emphasis training method provides a unique external load methodology by slowing the lowering or eccentric-loading phase of an exercise. As a training stimulus, this increase in the time under tension elicits changes in the muscles that improve their strength, function, and size (Schoenfeld, 2010). In fact, recent research indicates that longer times under tension increase the metabolic processes that promote muscle protein synthesis, which have been observed for 24 to 30 hours after the muscle experiences the training stimulus (Burd et al., 2012).
This training method must be applied in a gradual overloading fashion, particularly when working with entry-level clients. And for all fitness levels, research shows that a unique exercise stimulus is required for continued muscle growth and development (Burd et al., 2012). Strong scientific evidence supports the use of all of the eccentric training techniques presented in this text.
Theories about why eccentric loading leads to increases in strength include the following: enhanced neural stimulation to and within muscle, higher stored elastic energy in muscle, and increases in muscle hypertrophy. These factors are all discussed further in chapter 5. The current chapter focuses instead on the specific technical steps in performing the three eccentric training methods. When using the eccentric emphasis technique, exercise professionals should allow time for the client to become familiar with this method of training. Figure 2.1 shows an exercise using the eccentric emphasis method.
Steps for Eccentric Emphasis Training
- Start with a weight that the client normally uses for the particular muscular fitness goal.
- For instance, let's assume that the client normally does an 8-repetition maximum (8RM) set, meaning that she or he does eight repetitions using a weight that produces momentary muscular fatigue (i.e., failure) after the eighth repetition.
- The client does the concentric contraction - that is, the muscle-shortening phase of the movement - by lifting the load in a one-second motion.
- The client proceeds to the eccentric contraction - that is, the muscle-lengthening phase of the movement - by lowering the load in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. (This is why the training method gets the name "eccentric emphasis.") For each repetition in the set, the client performs a one-second shortening (concentric) action followed by a three- to four-second lowering (eccentric) action.
- The client completes eight repetitions to momentary muscular fatigue (thus an 8RM). The exercise professional will likely need to aid the client with the concentric lifts as he or she begins to fatigue.
- Individualize the number of sets to each client's goals.
- Decide the number of repetitions in each set based on the client's training goal: strength, explosive power, endurance, weight loss, muscle size, or rehabilitation. The number of repetitions may range from as few as 2 to 20 or even more - all using the one-second shortening motion followed by the three- to four-second lowering action.
For a specific example, let's now consider a client who typically does six repetitions on the seated shoulder press. In preparation for having the client use the eccentric emphasis technique, the trainer gives the client the appropriately weighted dumbbells for this exercise. The trainer then instructs the client to proceed as follows:
• Step 1: Grasp the two dumbbells tightly and bring them to your shoulders. Keep your upper arms toward the sides of your torso. Push the dumbbells upward in a one-second extension until your arms are fully extended.
• Step 2: Lower your arms back to the sides of your torso with an even, slow motion in three to four seconds, thus emphasizing the eccentric phase of the exercise. Continue the set with this eccentric emphasis training technique.
Supramaximal Eccentric Training Method
The supramaximal eccentric training method has been shown to be quite effective in eliciting changes in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Schoenfeld, 2011). To produce the desired changes, the principles for designing strength training involve manipulating the number of repetitions and sets, the movement speed, the rest interval between sets, the recovery between workouts, the selection of exercises, and the load. The specific combination of repetitions, sets, exercises, resistance, and force help define the goal or purpose chosen by the individual performing the exercise.
The supramaximal eccentric training method (see figure 2.2) closely parallels the theoretical concepts validating progressive overload. To develop more strength, the skeletal muscles must be challenged in a way that stimulates the body's natural adaptive processes to manage new demands. In progressive overload resistance training, the participant exercises his or her muscles against a resistance that is gradually increased. Progressive overload may be applied creatively by using exercise machines, free weights, medicine balls, elastic bands, and other exercise devices. Progressive overload not only stimulates muscle strength and hypertrophy but also contributes to the development of stronger bones, ligaments, tendons, and joint cartilage, thus protecting the skeletal system.
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Train to maximize your explosive power
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed: 1. Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
Exercise Program Design
Any exercise program requires two elements before the workout is performed:
- Full-body warm-up: The exerciser should perform 5 to 10 minutes of general aerobics (e.g., cycling, rowing, walking, running, use of an elliptical trainer, or any other multijoint movement).
- Specific warm-up for explosive power training: The exerciser should perform one or two traditional warm-up sets (i.e., concentric phase followed by eccentric phase) of the exercise at about 50% to 60% of what he or she normally lifts. The goal is specifically to warm up the joint, which includes the tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, synovial fluid, and all surrounding muscles and fascia.
For the purpose of improving explosive power, it is uncommon to use an eccentric-only exercise protocol. However, incorporating the three eccentric training methods in some training microcycles would be appropriate. For example, one could perform two or three weeks of power and strength movements (e.g., power clean) combined with some eccentric emphasis power movements (e.g., box depth jump). The design for improving explosive power calls for the exerciser to complete three to five sets of one or two repetitions of each exercise. Guidelines from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (2008) suggest working at an intensity of 80% to 90% of 1RM with three to five minutes of rest between sets.
Application Tools for Exercises
Here are some directions for optimal resistance training.
• Concentric-eccentric (CON - ECC): one- to two-second concentric with a one- to two-second eccentric
• Eccentric emphasis (EE): movement ratio of one second (concentric) to three to four seconds (eccentric)
• Supramaximal (SUP): 105% to 125% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM)
• Two-up/one-down (2UP/1DN): 40% to 50% of repetition maximum (from 1RM to 10RM), incorporating the alternating-sides or same-side method at the discretion of the personal trainer
Trainers are encouraged to modify training methods based on each client's needs and goals. With this aim in mind, change-out exercises are presented to give trainers a variety of options. The exercises presented a bit later in this chapter include six for the upper body and six for the lower body, each of which is shown in its starting and ending positions.
Power is a product of both strength and speed and is an important aspect of functional exercise, especially as a person ages. Power training helps the exerciser maintain and enhance muscle contractions, particularly in everyday activities in which one needs to respond quickly to a certain event. Therefore, we've included power exercises aimed at improving all aspects of an active lifestyle.
Summary Thoughts
Explosive power training is essential for sport and movement activities that require sudden bursts of activity, such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, pushing, and quick directional movement changes. Muscular strength training establishes a solid foundation from which power training can be developed and improved.
Power training enables a recreational athlete or exercise enthusiast to incorporate a great amount of maximal strength in a short time. A person can be exceptionally strong but lack explosive power if she or he is unable to apply that strength quickly - thus the need for specific power training. Use of eccentric exercise has been shown to improve power performance (Vogt & Hoppeler, 2014).
The rest of this chapter provides you with descriptions of exercises for increasing explosive power, sample workout routines, and change-out exercise options.
Training for Explosive Power
In explosive power training, the speed with which a person lifts a weight is an indication of how successful he or she is at quickly recruiting the worked muscles. Therefore, in many ways, the signaling messages from the nervous system form a main component of this type of training. In effect, in explosive power training, the exerciser's central nervous system learns to control her or his muscles in a more efficient way. Since most people do not do this type of recruitment regularly, it is advantageous to really focus on the muscles being recruited for each exercise. For better power efficiency and explosiveness, have your clients concentrate on the target muscles of each power exercise as they perform it. Table 7.1 presents exercises designed to maximize explosive power.
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7.1
Incline Bench Press
(CON - ECC, EE, or SUP)
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Starting Position
- Lie on an incline bench with your feet flat on the floor.
- Grasp the barbell with an overhand grip and with your hands slightly farther than shoulder-width apart.
- Lift the bar from the rack and position it above your chest.
Trainer Recommendations
• Stand directly behind the client as he or she performs the incline bench press.
• Assist in the lift-off if the weight is heavy; doing so helps prevent shoulder injury.
• Maintaining contact with the bar, follow the movement with the client from beginning to end.
• To decrease the risk of shoulder injury, help the client return the barbell to the starting position on the rack.
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Exercise Motion
- Lower the barbell until it touches the upper part of your chest, right across your collarbone.
- Push the bar up, squeezing your pectoralis major muscles, until your arms are extended.
Performance Improvement Tips
• Maintain a stable position and avoid bouncing the bar off of your chest.
• Keep your forearms directly under the bar, perpendicular to the floor.
• Adjust your hand positioning from wide to narrow, depending on your shoulder stability and range of motion.
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Exercises that improve performance in football and basketball
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
Appendix C
Exercises for Improving in Seven Popular Sports
1. Football
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Barbell front squat
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Bench press
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Bent-over barbell row
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Wide-grip latissimus dorsi pull-down
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Power clean
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
2. Basketball
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Broad jump
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Barbell back squat
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Bench press
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Plyometric push-up
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Leg press
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One-arm dumbbell row
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Power clean
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Zottman curl
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Walking lunge
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Bulgarian lunge
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Nordic knee flexion
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