- Home
- Physical Education
- Medicine in Exercise and Sport
- Kinesiology/Exercise and Sport Science
- Coaching and Officiating
- Athletic Training and Therapy
- Psychology of Sport and Exercise
- Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise
Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise
by Diane L. Gill, Lavon Williams and Erin J. Reifsteck
352 Pages
Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition, reflects the latest developments in the field of sport and exercise psychology and presents various applications in a range of physical activity settings. The text emphasizes practical theory, which allows students pursuing careers in teaching, coaching, consulting, exercise instruction and leadership, sports medicine, rehabilitation, and athletic training environments to enhance physical activity experiences for all based on the best available knowledge. With emphasis on practical application, readers can incorporate sport and exercise psychology into both their professional and personal experiences.
Authors Diane L. Gill, Lavon Williams, and Erin J. Reifsteck highlight key theoretical work and research to provide guidelines for using sport and exercise psychology in professional practice and personal physical activities.
The fourth edition of Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise includes reorganized, revised content and relevant, up-to-date research to emphasize the areas of change and growth in the field in recent years. Specific updates to this edition include the following:
• Part IV on emotion is now expanded to include two in-depth chapters—one focusing on emotion and performance and one on physical activity and mental health—as well as a third chapter on stress management
• Part III on the popular topic of motivation is reorganized to emphasize contemporary research and connections to professional practice.
• The chapter on aggression and social development now includes more current research on prosocial and antisocial behavior as well as an expanded section on positive youth development.
• In-class and out-of-class lab activities replace case studies to provide scenario-based, experiential activities for a more applied learning experience.
• Updated end-of-chapter summaries, review questions, and recommended readings reinforce key concepts and encourage further study.
• Application Point sidebars have been updated to cover a wide variety of professions in order to connect the content with real-world application.
• A newly added image bank helps instructors prepare class lectures.
Content is organized into five parts representing major topics that are found in sport and exercise psychology curriculums. Part I provides an orientation, with chapters covering the scope, historical development, and current approaches to sport and exercise psychology. Part II focuses on the individual, with chapters on personality, attention and cognitive skills, and self-perceptions. Part III covers the broad topic of motivation, addressing the why question of physical activity behavior. Part IV looks at emotion, including the relationship between physical activity and emotion as well as stress management. Part V considers social processes in chapters on social influence, social development, and group dynamics, as well as cultural diversity.
With more in-depth coverage than introductory-level texts, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition, brings sport and exercise psychology to life for students as they prepare for their professional lives. Emphasis is placed on sport and exercise psychology concepts as they apply to three key areas off kinesiology professions: physical education teaching, coaching, and consulting; exercise instruction and fitness leadership; and sports medicine, rehabilitation, and athletic training. By focusing on these professional settings, readers will understand how psychology concepts are integral to real-world situations outside of the classroom.
Part I. Overview of Sport and Exercise Psychology
Chapter 1. Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology
Kinesiology: A Multidisciplinary, Applied Field
Sport and Exercise Psychology as a Subdiscipline
Complexity of Sport and Exercise Behavior
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 2. History of Sport and Exercise Psychology
Early Roots: 1890 to 1920
Early Sport Psychology Labs: 1920 to 1940
Isolated Sport and Exercise Psychology Studies: 1940 to 1965
Emergence of Sport and Exercise Psychology as a Subdiscipline: 1965 to 1975
Development of the Subdiscipline: 1975 to 1999
Sport and Exercise Psychology Today: 2000 to Present
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 3. Understanding and Using Sport and Exercise Psychology
Paradigms and Sources of Knowledge
Research Into Practice
Using Sport and Exercise Psychology
Putting It Into Practice
Part II. The Person in Sport and Exercise Psychology
Chapter 4. Personality
Personality Defined
Early Theories and Current Biological Perspectives
Psychology Models of Personality
Personality Measures
Personality Research in Sport and Exercise Psychology
Relevant Personality Characteristics and Sport-Specific Psychological Skills
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 5. Attention and Cognitive Skills
Attention Models and Perspectives
Research on Attentional Processes
Attention and Expertise
Attentional Control Strategies
Imagery
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 6. Self-Perceptions
Self-Perceptions
Self-Schema and Identity
Multidimensional Self-Perceptions
Focusing on Physical Self-Concept
Self-Confidence and Self-Efficacy
Putting It Into Practice
Part III. Motivation
Chapter 7. Behavioral Approaches
Goals and Goal Setting
Behavioral Basics
Implementing a Behavior Plan
Behavioral Approaches in Professional Practice
Self-Regulation and Habits
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 8. Cognitive Approaches to Motivation
Participation Motivation
Sport and Exercise Commitment
Sources of Sport Enjoyment
Self-Determination Theory
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 9. Achievement Motivation
Attributions and Physical Activity
Atkinson’s Theory of Achievement Motivation
Achievement Goal Theory
Motivational Climate
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 10. Integrated Approaches to Physical Activity Behavior
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Theories and Models of Physical Activity Behavior
Integrated Approaches to Physical Activity Promotion
Physical Activity and Health Coaching
Excessive Participation: Exercise Dependence
Putting It Into Practice
Part IV. Emotions, Stress, and Coping
Chapter 11. Emotions and Performance
Emotion Concepts and Definitions
Positive and Negative Emotions—Accent on Positive
Emotion Models
Emotions and Performance
Anxiety Performance Models and Research
Multidimensional Anxiety Performance Models
Anxiety Patterns and Performance
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 12. Physical Activity, Emotion, and Mental Health
Physical Activity and Emotion
Physical Activity and Mental Health
Physical Activity and Cognition
Physical Activity and Quality of Life
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 13. Stress and Stress Management
Importance of Stress Management
Stress Models in Sport and Exercise Psychology
Stress Management Techniques
Putting It Into Practice
Part V. Social Processes
Chapter 14. Social Influence
Social Facilitation
Social Reinforcement and Performance
Social Cognitive Theory
Models: The Self and Socializing Agents
Social Support
Sport and Exercise Psychology Research on Social Support
Social Support and Physical Activity
Social Support in Injury Risk and Response
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 15. Aggression and Social Development
Defining Aggression
Theories of Aggression
Aggression and Sport
Moral Behavior in Sport and Physical Activity
Positive Social Development Through Physical Activity
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 16. Group Dynamics
Group Dynamics Concepts and Models
Group Performance
Leadership in Sport and Physical Activity
Cohesion in Sport and Exercise Groups
Applying Group Dynamics Through Team Building
Putting It Into Practice
Chapter 17. Culture and Cultural Competence
Culture: Basics and a Guiding Framework
Cultural Context of Sport and Exercise
Gender Scholarship in Sport and Exercise Psychology
Social Perspectives and Gender Stereotypes
Sexuality and Sexual Prejudice
Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class
Physicality and Weight Bias
Intersections and Cultural Relationships Revisited
Cultural Competence
Putting It Into Practice
Diane L. Gill, PhD, is a professor in the department of kinesiology at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro (UNCG). She held faculty positions at the University of Waterloo and the University of Iowa before moving to UNCG. At UNCG, she has served as associate dean of the School of Health and Human Performance and head of the department of kinesiology; from 2010 to 2015 she was the Linda Arnold Carlisle Distinguished Excellence Professor of Women’s and Gender Studies. She has more than 40 years of experience as a faculty member in kinesiology and specifically in sport and exercise psychology.
Dr. Gill has been engaged in research and scholarly activity in sport and exercise psychology throughout her career. She has more than 100 scholarly publications on sport and exercise psychology topics and has given many presentations at major national and international conferences. She serves on several editorial boards and is the former editor in chief of Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. She is a fellow of several professional organizations, including the American Psychological Association (APA), the American College of Sports Medicine, and the National Academy of Kinesiology. She is a former president of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) and of Division 47 (Exercise and Sport Psychology) of the APA.
In 2014, Dr. Gill received the NASPSPA Distinguished Scholar award; in 2015, she received the Distinguished Scientific and Research Contributions to Exercise and Sport Psychology award from APA Division 47. She received both her MS and PhD degrees from the University of Illinois and her undergraduate degree from the State University of New York at Cortland.
Lavon Williams, PhD, is a professor of exercise and sport science at Guilford College, where she is currently the department chair. She previously held faculty positions at Western Illinois University, Northern Illinois University, and Purdue University.
Involved in sport and exercise psychology research throughout her career, Dr. Williams has written more than 20 scholarly publications and has given more than 30 national and international presentations. She has served as the sport psychology academy chair of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and as secretary of the SHAPE America Research Consortium.
Dr. Williams is a past member of the executive board and the former research and practice division head for the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP). She is currently a member of the American Kinesiology Association’s Publications Committee.
Dr. Williams is an associate editor for Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal (WSPAJ). She has served on the editorial board for Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, The Sport Psychologist, and WSPAJ and as an associate editor for Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (RQES) and the AASP Newsletter. She received her MS from the University of Oregon, her PhD from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, and her bachelor’s degree from Texas Christian University.
Erin J. Reifsteck, PhD, is an assistant professor in the department of kinesiology at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro (UNCG).
In 2015 through 2016, Dr. Reifsteck served as principal investigatorr for two NCAA-funded studies to develop and evaluate the Moving On! program, which is based on a theoretical framework that integrates sport and exercise psychology principles. She received the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) Young Researcher Award in 2015 and was named an American Kinesiology Association Writing Scholar in 2014.
Dr. Reifsteck’s current research focuses on promoting lifetime physical activity and health through the translation of psychosocial theory into practice. Her scholarly interests also include gender issues in sport, and she currently serves on the editorial board for Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal (WSPAJ). She is a member of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) and AASP, where she also serves on the AASP research development committee.
Dr. Reifsteck received her PhD and MS in kinesiology (sport and exercise psychology concentration) with a doctoral minor in educational research methodology from UNCG. She also received a graduate certificate in women’s and gender studies from UNCG and a health coach certificate through UNCG’s Department of Public Health Education. She earned her BS in psychology with a minor in neuroscience from Saint Francis University (Pennsylvania), where she played field hockey and was a two-time Academic All-American and Northeast Conference Scholar Athlete of the Year.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Positive and Negative Emotions - Accent on Positive
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions?
Anxiety is an often-studied emotion, particularly in sport and exercise psychology. What are the other emotions? Take a minute and list as many emotions as you can. As with many questions in this text, there is no one correct answer. Reeve (2005) notes that various scholars have identified 2 to 10 primary emotions, along with a host of other emotions. Fear, joy, sadness, and anger are on nearly every list, including five of the emotions starring in the (2015) Disney-Pixar film, Inside Out (the film also casts disgust as its fifth emotion); but given that psychology scholars have not agreed upon a list, we do not specify one here. Regardless of the number of primary emotions, many emotions exist.
All lists of emotions, including those in the sport and exercise psychology literature, are heavy with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, depression, envy, and so on. Joy jumps in, but otherwise research and practice focus on negative emotions. Here we'll give positive emotions time in the spotlight. The positive psychology movement reminds us that positive emotions deserve equal attention in research and professional practice. Positive emotions are especially relevant to sport and exercise psychology because physical activity is promoted as a path to positive health and personal growth.
Barbara Fredrickson, the leading psychology researcher on positive emotions (2001, 2013a), describes positive emotions as markers of optimal functioning and argues that cultivating positive emotions is a way to foster psychological growth and physical health. She suggests that positive emotions have been neglected in psychology because definitions and models of emotion were developed to fit the negative emotions. Positive emotions are different; they are more general and diffuse and less closely tied to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight or flight).
Fredrickson offers an alternative broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. That is, positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought - action repertoires and build enduring personal resources. Negative emotions narrow options - to fight or flee. Positive emotions such as joy, interest, serenity, pride, gratitude, love, or contentment do not provoke a specific response; many actions are possible and appealing. The broadening tendency of positive emotions builds enduring resources. Of particular note to those of us in kinesiology, Fredrickson cites play as an example, noting that play builds physical resources, as we often argue in kinesiology, and also builds social resources (social bonds, attachments) and intellectual resources (creativity).
Fredrickson (2001, 2013a, 2013b), along with her colleagues and other positive psychology researchers, have amassed a considerable body of research confirming the benefits of positive emotions for physical and mental health. Research also suggests that interventions and simple strategies to increase positive emotions have benefits. Links to the research, along with more accessible summaries of the information and practical suggestions, can be found at the positivity ratio website or Fredrickson's Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory (PEP Lab) website. The positivity ratio refers to the 3:1 ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions that Fredrickson recommended for benefits. The mathematics behind the ratio have been criticized, and rightly so. Emotions are complex processes, and it is unlikely that any equation could capture the influence of emotions on our health and behavior. Still, as Fredrickson (2013b) rightly countered in an update, considerable evidence supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical and mental health and relationships. Regardless of the specific ratio, the practical guideline is that we, as professionals working with others and for ourselves, should spend as much or more time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative emotions.
Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise
To date, few sport and exercise psychology researchers have followed Fredrickson's work, but positive emotions are gaining attention. To understand emotion in kinesiology, we must give equal attention to positive emotion. McCarthy (2011) argued that research on the benefits of positive emotions for self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem solving, and coping is particularly promising. We could even argue that positive emotion is more important than anxiety and negative emotion. Most people do not participate in exercise and sport to reduce stress (although that is a valued benefit), but because they feel better and because physical activity is fun!
Just as joy is the one positive emotion typically cited in psychology, joy or enjoyment has received attention in sport and exercise psychology. Within sport and exercise psychology, the most notable lines of research on positive emotions are the work of Tara Scanlan on enjoyment in sport and Csikszentmihalyi's long-term work on flow, which has inspired several sport and exercise psychology researchers. That research is reviewed in the following section.
Enjoyment in Sport
Tara Scanlan is one of the few sport and exercise scholars to give equal attention to positive and negative aspects of emotion. Scanlan's work focuses on youth development and includes extensive research on stress and anxiety, as well as equally extensive and more current work on sport enjoyment (Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005) and commitment, as discussed in chapter 8. In line with the emotion theme of this chapter, Scanlan and Simons (1992, p. 202) defined enjoyment as a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.
Kimiecik and Harris (1996) attempted to provide a framework for positive emotions in physical activity. They defined enjoyment with an adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi's flow definition as "an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states" (p. 256).
Although current models of affect and emotion include positive dimensions, we do not have measures of positive emotions to match the carefully developed and validated (and often sport-specific) measures of anxiety. Several studies of enjoyment have used open-ended measures in a more qualitative approach (e.g., Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Others have used simple measures developed for specific studies. Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991) developed the 18-item Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and provided initial evidence for its reliability and validity with college students. Crocker, Bouffard, and Gessaroli (1995) subsequently failed to support its unidimensional structure, but PACES is still one of the most widely used measures of enjoyment in our research. Mullen and colleagues (2011) validated the PACES with older adults and found that a revised, shortened eight-item version was psychometrically strong and recommended for use.
In reviewing the literature on sport enjoyment, Scanlan and colleagues (2005) classified the sources of enjoyment as intrapersonal, situational, and significant others. Intrapersonal sources include perceived ability, mastery, motivational goal orientation, personal movement experiences, and personal coping and emotional release through sport. Specifically, research indicates that enjoyment is associated with perceived high ability, mastery experiences, higher task orientation, movement sensations, and emotional release.
Situational sources include competitive outcomes, achievement process, recognition, and opportunities. Not surprisingly, winning is associated with enjoyment, but the relationship is not as strong or absolute as one might assume. Several studies cited in Scanlan and colleagues' review showed that postgame stress was related to enjoyment regardless of win - loss outcomes. Being engaged in competition (playing) was associated with enjoyment, as were social recognition and opportunities to travel.
Finally, significant-other sources of enjoyment involve positive perceptions of interactions and feedback from coaches, parents, and peers. Many sources of enjoyment have parallel sources of stress, and those are classified into the same three categories in Scanlan and colleagues' (2005) review. As the authors conclude, the diverse sources of enjoyment make it easy to tap a number of them to maintain motivation and activity. Notably, the researchers emphasized enjoyment rather than stress in their conclusions. In line with positive psychology, we might emphasize positive emotion in professional practice to promote physical activity and health for all participants.
Any discussion of positive emotion in sport and exercise must be about fun. Enjoyment is a proxy term for fun, but fun can mean many things. As noted in chapter 8, when youth are asked why they participate in sport, fun is the top answer. But what is fun? Visek and colleagues (2015) addressed that question with physical activity participants and developed the multidimensional Fun Integration Theory (FIT). Using hierarchical cluster analyses of 81 specific fun determinants, they developed the pictorial "FUN MAPS" with four overarching fundamental tenets over 11 fun dimensions: (a) context (e.g., games and practice), (b) internal (e.g., learning, improving), (c) social (e.g., team dynamics, friendship), and (d) external (e.g., positive coaching).
Flow in Sport
Csikszentmihalyi's work on flow has contributed a great deal to positive psychology and our understanding of intrinsic motivation, and several researchers have specifically explored flow states with sport and exercise participants. Flow occurs when the person is totally connected to the performance in an activity in which skills equal challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi used innovative experience sampling and in-depth methods to develop his conceptualization of the optimal flow experience and its antecedents. In the original flow model, flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills; when challenges are too high, anxiety results, and when they are too low, boredom results. The updated model (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005) expands to include a wider range of emotions. In the expanded model, we consider not only whether challenges and skills are equal or balanced, but also if they are high or low. More intense reactions occur as challenge and skill move farther from average levels, toward high or low ends. Flow is experienced when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average, and apathy is experienced when both are below average. High challenge and low skill leads to anxiety, whereas low challenge and high skill leads to relaxation. Flow is clearly a positive emotional state - perhaps the ultimate positive state.
Most participants at any level in any physical activity can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience - a time when everything came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Sue Jackson started from Csikszentmihalyi's model and used in-depth interviews along with more typical survey approaches to identify characteristics and antecedents of flow with athletes (Jackson, 1995), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed the Flow State Scale (FSS). The nine scales of the 36-item FSS represent the dimensions of flow identified by Csikszentmihalyi, and Jackson and Marsh provided good psychometric evidence for the scales and the FSS. These are the nine dimensions of flow:
- Challenge - skill balance: The person perceives a balance between the challenges of a situation and his or her skills, with both at a high level.
- Action - awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes spontaneous or automatic.
- Clear goals: Clearly defined goals give the person a strong sense of knowing what to do.
- Unambiguous feedback: The person receives immediate and clear feedback, usually from the activity itself.
- Concentration on task at hand: Total concentration on the task occurs.
- Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but without actively trying to exert control.
- Loss of self-consciousness: Concern for the self disappears as the person becomes one with the activity.
- Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or speeding up.
- Autotelic experience: An autotelic experience is intrinsically rewarding, done for its own sake.
Swann, Keegan, Piggott, and Crust (2012) reviewed the research on flow in sport and summarized the factors that facilitate flow as having appropriate focus, optimal preparation, and optimal situational conditions. The work of Scanlan, Jackson, and others provides direction and measures for the continuing exploration of flow and enjoyment, as well as highlighting positive emotions and fun in sport and exercise psychology.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Physical Activity for Health and Well-Being
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010.
Lifestyle physical activity is increasingly promoted in the media, as well as in health and kinesiology resources. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) published Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008 and the updated Healthy People 2020 objectives in 2010. The focus of these guidelines and objectives is to improve Americans' health, fitness, and quality of life through daily physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website also has a section that offers resources and information on physical activity.
Physical inactivity has been linked to nearly all major health problems, including increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and negative psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety (USDHHS, 2008), whereas regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Kesaniemi et al., 2001). Further benefits of an active lifestyle include improved physical function and independent living, as well as decreased likelihood of depression.
The interest in physical activity and health promotion is not limited to the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes physical activity as a public health priority, and the WHO website contains information on physical activity and health that parallels U.S. reports. Physical inactivity is a major health problem around the world, and WHO estimates that over 80 percent of the world's adolescent population does not get enough physical activity to meet recommendations. Globally, adults in developed countries are the most likely to be inactive. Like the CDC, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and many governmental and professional organizations in North America, WHO promotes physical activity and offers recommendations for both individuals and public policies.
The USDHHS and ACSM recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (or minimum of 150 minutes total per week), yet data from population-based surveys consistently show that the majority of the U.S. population is insufficiently active. Less than half of the U.S. population meets physical activity guidelines, and less than 20 percent meet recommendations for both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities, with higher rates of inactivity among those who are older, racial or ethnic minorities, female, less educated, overweight, or have a history of being physically inactive. Physical activity patterns of childhood and adolescence begin the lifetime patterns that promote health in adulthood, but unfortunately, the evidence indicates that activity declines in adolescence, particularly for girls (CDC, 2014).
Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello (2014) summarize the epidemiological data on physical activity patterns around the world as follows:
- The number of people worldwide who exercise at even the minimal level to achieve physical benefits is low (conservatively estimated at 50 percent); at least 25 percent do not exercise at all.
- Participation in physical activity declines linearly across the life span, and time spent in sedentary activities increases.
- Males are more likely to engage in vigorous activity, although women engage in as much moderate physical activity as men.
- Differences are small, but low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than the overall population.
- The higher the education level, the greater the participation in physical activity. Although not as strong, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Moreover, 50 percent of adults who start to exercise in fitness programs drop out within six months, and as Buckworth, Dishman, O'Connor, and Tomporowski (2013) note, this high dropout rate has not changed over the last several decades.
Much of the interest in physical activity motivation stems from increasing public recognition of the health benefits of exercise coupled with the fact that most people do not act on that recognition. Given this global lack of physical activity participation, the ability to understand and apply sport and exercise psychology principles is important for professionals seeking to promote health-related physical activity programs.
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Using and Evaluating Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation).
Lab
Relaxation exercises consist of both body-to-mind techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) and mind-to-body techniques (e.g., meditation). For this lab activity, you will first practice each kind of technique on your own and then apply this experience to describe how stress management techniques may be used in a professional setting.
- Do a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. You can use the example provided following this lab or search for other examples online, such as YouTube videos. Complete the pre- and postratings in the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form to rate your experience.
- Do Benson's relaxation response exercise. To find examples that will guide you in completing this exercise, follow the simple steps provided in the "Meditation" section in this chapter or search online for related resources using the key phrase "Benson relaxation response." Record your pre - post ratings and overall evaluation using the Evaluation of Relaxation Techniques form.
- Identify a specific sport- or exercise-related professional setting, such as physical education, physical therapy, or personal training. Describe how and why stress management might be helpful for the participants in this setting (why, when, how they could use it; what it could do for them). In your response, identify two specific techniques or exercises discussed in this chapter and explain how you might use them with these participants.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation Example
Progressive muscle relaxation involves progressively tensing and then relaxing muscle groups. As you are doing PMR, pay attention to the feelings of tension and relaxation. The following muscle sequence includes 16 muscle groups. The PMR exercise can be shortened by combining muscle groups. For example, you might combine the foot and leg muscles into one group. As you practice, you can shorten the sessions. The goal of PMR is to learn to recognize tension in any muscle and then be able to relax the muscle.
As you progress through the sequence, tense each muscle group for about 5 seconds. Then relax that muscle group for about 10 seconds while paying attention to the feelings in the muscle group.
PMR Sequence
- Right foot
- Right lower leg and foot
- Entire right leg
- Left foot
- Left lower leg and foot
- Entire left leg
- Right hand
- Right forearm and hand
- Entire right arm
- Left hand
- Left forearm and hand
- Entire left arm
- Abdomen
- Chest
- Neck and shoulders
- Face
From D.L. Gill, L. Williams, and E. Reifsteck, 2017, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
Learn more about Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, Fourth Edition.
Related Books
