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- Track & Field Coaching Essentials
Coaching track and field is a unique challenge. The number of events, the specific technical skills to teach in each one, the event- and athlete-tailored training programs required for performing at a high level, and the planning and organization needed for practicing and competing effectively as a team can be difficult for even the most educated and experienced coaches.
Track & Field Coaching Essentials provides the information and direction to make your first, or twenty-first, season a success. Starting with the fundamentals, moving on to the sport sciences, and then detailing each of the events, this is the most comprehensive and authoritative coaching resource in the sport.
Experts such as Vern Gambetta on biomotor training for speed and power events, Joe Vigil on endurance events, and Jeremy Fischer on the jumps ensure the book contains the best and most current knowledge on each topic. Common technical faults and their corrections, as well as progressive performance drills, are included for every event, including relays.
This primary text in USA Track & Field’s coaching education program is also a go-to reference for veteran coaches. Be it races, jumps, or throws, Track & Field Coaching Essentials has what coaches need to know to help their athletes achieve their performance potential.
Part I Fundamentals of Coaching Track and Field
Chapter 1 Positive Coaching
Chapter 2 Ethics and Risk Management
Part II Science of Coaching
Chapter 3 Sport Psychology
Chapter 4 Sport Biomechanics
Chapter 5 Sport Physiology
Chapter 6 Training Design
Chapter 7 Biomotor Training for Speed and Power Events
Part III Running Events and Relays
Chapter 8 Sprints
Chapter 9 Relays
Chapter 10 Endurance Running and Racewalking
Chapter 11 Hurdles
Part IV Jumps
Chapter 12 Coaching Jumping Events
Chapter 13 Horizontal Jumps
Chapter 14 Vertical Jumps
Part V Throws
Chapter 15 Coaching Throwing Events
Chapter 16 Shot Put
Chapter 17 Discus
Chapter 18 Hammer
Chapter 19 Javelin
USA Track & Field (USATF) is the national governing body for track and field, long-distance running, and racewalking in the United States. Based in Indianapolis, USATF encompasses the world’s oldest organized sports, the most-watched events of Olympic broadcasts, the most popular sport in high school and middle school, and more than 30 million adult runners in the United States. Nearly 100,000 people are members of USATF. USATF member organizations include the U.S. Olympic Committee, NCAA, NAIA, Road Runners Club of America, Running USA, and the National Federation of State High School Associations. Fifty-seven USATF associations oversee the sport and its 2,500 clubs at the local level. USATF conducts coaching education courses that elevate and standardize the level of coaching across the country. More than 14,000 coaches have been educated under USATF programs.
Coach = Role Model
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach’s dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach’s personal life should also be held to high standards.
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach's dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach's personal life should also be held to high standards.
Coach - Athlete Relationship
A professional boundary must exist between the coach and the athlete, and the coach is responsible for setting that boundary. If physical contact is necessary as part of the coaching process, it must not be interpreted by the athlete or others as anything more than that. When meetings with individual athletes are needed, these meetings should be held in view of others or with an open office door.
No amount of coaching knowledge will guarantee success without a good relationship with the athlete. Athletic competence and confidence rely on a functional, effective coach - athlete relationship. Athletes are unique and need different things from their coaches. Effective coaching involves meeting the needs of every athlete.
The coach - athlete relationship must be professional. The coach should understand that although certain obligations should be met, the nature of the relationship is limited. It is the coach's role to define the limits of the relationship. Although respect is necessary, the coach and the athlete should not be considered peers.
A coach and an athlete may have a close working relationship, but a certain amount of space should remain between them. This is especially true in situations in which the possibility of inappropriate sexual contact may exist or be presumed to exist. The nature of coaching requires paying much attention to the athlete, but this attention should have limits based on the comfort of the athlete. Moreover, the beginning and ending of the coach - athlete relationship should be a matter of agreement.
The nature of the coach - athlete relationship dictates that the coach place demands on the athlete. These demands should be communicated with respect. When reprimand and criticism are necessary, they should be restricted to the athletic domain and administered professionally, privately, immediately, and tactfully without the use of insulting or personal tones.
Coach's Relationships With Others
The coach should demonstrate respect and ethical conduct in interactions with officials, other coaches, opponents, and all others in the athletic setting. The coach should exhibit self-control in disagreements and in emotional situations. Public criticism of other coaches, officials, or athletes is inappropriate.
Coach's Respect for the Rules
The coach should respect the rules and help the athlete develop a respect for the rules as well. Many sets of rules govern any athletic situation. Rules govern not only play, but also participation, eligibility, recruiting, performance-enhancing substances, and other areas. These rules must be respected and followed. When in disagreement, the coach should seek change or protest professionally through the proper channels. Team rules should be simple, easily and fairly enforced, and developed with input from athletes.
Professional Competencies
The coach should work to develop and maintain competence in the duties athletes expect and deserve from coaches. This section discusses such competencies.
Maintenance of a Safe Environment
It is the coach's obligation to make the sport as safe as reasonably possible for those participating. Maintaining safe practice and competition environments is the number one responsibility of the coach. Equipment must be safe, properly fit, and legally maintained. Facilities should be well kept. The coach should be versed in adapting the training program when dangerous climatic factors such as excessive heat, excessive cold, lightning, humidity, rain, and snow so dictate.
Injury Prevention and Management
Injury prevention and initial injury care are the responsibilities of the coach. The coach should be capable of providing first aid, and first-aid materials and equipment should be kept at the practice and competition sites. The coach should work with other professionals such as certified trainers, physical therapists, and medical doctors in the areas of injury management and rehabilitation.
Sound and Appropriate Training and Teaching
The coach should understand the demands and techniques of track and field skills and events. Also, the coach should be versed in developing training programs for track and field events and sound teaching progressions for all skills. An understanding of basic sport sciences will help in this process. The training program should be viewed as a planned path to success. Every athlete is at a unique place on that path, and each demonstrates a unique rate of improvement. Testing and competitions provide feedback the coach can use to evaluate the training and the progress of each athlete. At no time should training be used for the purpose of punishment.
Professional Development and Involvement
The coach has an obligation to improve professionally and continually work through available channels for self-improvement. The coach should consider joining professional organizations and taking a role in the activities of the sport's governing body, USA Track & Field (www.usatf.org). Coaches have a responsibility to assist in developing and improving the sport of track and field, much in the same way they develop their athletes and teams.
Commitment
Success in coaching requires a significant level of commitment. A person should not enter the coaching profession if a willingness to take the time and expend the effort needed to meet the needs of the athletes is lacking. At the same time, even the most dedicated coach has limited time and resources. A coach should be available for coaching or consulting only to a realistic level of commitment.
Achieve success in the throws
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw.
Skills of the Throwing Events
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw. Although the throwing events are similar in some aspects, the movements that lead up to the release may vary.
The shot put consists of three movements: the glide or rotation, the standing power position, and the release. Movements involved in the hammer and discus include body rotation within the boundaries of a ring and rely on centripetal forces and torque, culminating with a release. Unlike the hammer and discus, the javelin requires the athlete to build speed over a linear distance. A successful throw in any of these four events requires the transfer of explosive strength and maximal muscular force onto the object in the shortest possible time.
The importance of muscular strength drives the requirement for throwers to develop leg strength in the early stages of their careers. Strength is so important for a thrower that it often becomes a limiting factor in technique development. Weaker athletes simply cannot develop and refine technique as quickly or effectively as stronger throwers can.
Consistent Implement Acceleration
Although mechanics are important, rhythm is equally important for quality throws. Proper acceleration is a key component of rhythm. For example, the final action of shot-putting in the direction of the throw starts when the rotation of the hips and shoulders stops. At the end of the rotation of the hips and shoulders, the velocity of the shot is just over 6 m/s. After the throwing arm has taken part in the release action through the extension of the elbow and shoulders, the shot velocity increases to just under 7 m/s. The acceleration of the implement must be consistent and positive. The idea of a consistent, progressive acceleration seems simple, but it is often violated. A common error is accelerating the implement too quickly only to decelerate it later. Progressive acceleration is important in both the preliminary movements and the delivery. On a graph, the acceleration rate should map as a gradual curve, without large spikes and dips.
Summation of Force
Force generation normally begins in the proximal joints. The large muscles of the legs and torso initiate the movement and overcome inertia, so that the smaller muscles of the shoulders and arms can further increase the velocity of the implement in the delivery phase. The initial force generated by the proximal-to-distal sequencing of hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion accelerates the athlete-and-implement system. This force must be transmitted to the ground or to an implement through other (distal) joints. For example, although the shoulder (proximal joint) may be producing the force, the force is being transmitted to the shot put through the elbow and wrist (distal joints). Upper-body activity in the delivery and arm strike results from a summation of forces. Although throws differ slightly, proximal-to-distal firing must be preserved. Overall, an optimal coordination pattern appears to be one in which muscle activation and segment acceleration occur in a proximal-to-distal manner with an optimally timed deceleration of body segments leading up to the moment of release.
One of the benefits of a proximal-to-distal coordination pattern is that it generates a whiplike motion. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation is developed between the shoulders and hips. This results in a whip effect as the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil and the implement is released. This deceleration of the hips is critical in an acceleration - deceleration coordination pattern. If the extremity muscles are strong but the core is weak, an adequate summation of forces cannot be created. The result is often technical breakdown and a less-than-optimal performance.
Lengthening the Path of Implement Acceleration
The longer force is applied to the implement, the greater the momentum and velocity will be. To lengthen the amount of time force is applied, the athlete must achieve maximal length in the path of the implement during the delivery. Two ways to lengthen the acceleration path are weight transfer and turning, or using closed throwing positions.
During the delivery phase, body weight is transferred from the back foot to the front foot to increase the body's range of movement and the path of the implement. This transfer of body weight is a crucial component of the throw. The front leg should extend almost completely at the moment of release. However, the timing of initiation and the magnitude of the action of the lower extremity differ considerably between the glide and rotational techniques. Unlike in the glide technique, in the rotational technique the workload is more evenly distributed between the legs during delivery. That is, instead of an initial push with the rear leg and a weight transfer to the front leg, rotators push more simultaneously with both legs.
After arriving in the power position and during the delivery, the center of mass (proximal joints) of the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw. This turning, or rotation, is a crucial component of the throw. The body is turned away from the direction of the throw in the start and power positions, enabling it to turn through a greater angle as the implement is delivered. For more advanced throwers, a slight forward lean of the trunk while in double support helps to maintain balance when the angular velocity of the body is reduced and the absolute velocity of the implement is relatively high. A thrower of shorter stature can take advantage of a longer radius, which allows for a smoother change of kinematic indicators.
Important implications are associated with producing a larger radius in the early parts of the throw. For a given linear speed, a larger radius provides a system that allows the thrower to rotate with a slower angular velocity. A slower rate of rotation permits slower contractions of the muscles involved, which allows these muscles to exert larger forces. This is due to the force - velocity relationship for skeletal muscle. In turn, a larger muscle force results in a larger torque and an increase in the overall angular momentum of the system. Therefore, using a longer radius in the early parts of the throw increases the angular momentum of the system and lengthens the path of the implement.
Separation and Torque
Although the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw, in most situations the upper body and lower body do not turn from the same positions at the same time. This is called separation, referring to the separation between the hip and shoulder about the rotational axis. In addition, throwers generally start to turn the lower body before turning the upper body. This twists the core of the body and creates torque. Force is a push or a pull that changes the linear state of motion of an object or body. The angular equivalent of force is torque. Torque is the turning effect created by a force about an axis. Torque can be increased either by applying greater force or by increasing the radius of rotation. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation occurs between the shoulders and hips. As the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil, the implement is released; this separation results in a whip effect. Separation and torque exist in different degrees in the various throwing events. Both serve to establish a summation of rotational forces, beginning with the lower body and finishing with the upper body.
Blocking
The thrower must eventually stop the momentum created in the body to transfer it to the implement. A good way to do this is to harmoniously blend the left-leg block and the left-arm block. The blocking actions of the upper body in the shot put, discus, and javelin differ slightly based on the unique release mechanics of these events. For example, in the discus, the throwing arm is ideally 90 degrees from the body to maximize radius. The left-side block would be initiated and positioned opposite and equal to the throwing side.
Left-Leg Block
In the left-leg block, the left leg plants firmly in the power position with the left heel pushing into the ground and stopping the horizontal and rotational movement of the left side of the thrower's lower body. This action transfers momentum to the upper body and implement. Proper alignment of the feet is essential to proper blocking. A common error in the shot put, discus, and javelin is to put the left leg too far left of center making blocking impossible. The error of planting the left foot too far to the left is commonly called being in the bucket.
Left-Arm Block
During the delivery phase, the athlete has a long left arm to slow the rotation of the upper body, creating an eccentric stretch of the upper-body musculature and allowing the hips to fire ahead of the upper body. The shoulder girdle movement is a key factor in throwing performance. The left arm begins to shorten at the midline of the body to create a forceful shortening and summation of forces.Desired forceful contractions in athletic endeavors usually are elastic and reflexive, setting up a powerful response of eccentrically stretched muscles, referred to as a volitional concentric response. If the volitional contractions are improperly timed or voluntary involvement by any muscle group is too great, the elastic energy generation of the entire system is diminished, reducing efficiency. The left arm remains long until delivery is initiated, at which time it moves in close to the side of the thrower to help stop the left side of the upper body and transfer momentum to the nonthrowing side. The action of throwing occurs much more efficiently when these stretch reflexes are invoked and elastic energy is developed.
When teaching athletic techniques, coaches should create situations that prestretch the muscles. The hammer is an exception to this rule because it is thrown with both arms. However, on release, the left side of the hammer thrower blocks as the thrower attempts to maximize radius and lift the implement.
Posture
As in many athletic disciplines, posture is an important component of throwing events. Because the core is at the center of nearly all sport movements, the core musculature is a key element of energy generation. The torso's ability to support effective arm and leg actions (core stability) is essential to performance and injury prevention in many sports.
Postural integrity is directly linked to elastic energy generation. Body parts must be stabilized in proper alignment for applied forces to produce displacement without excessive distortion and rotation. Excessive instability or postural misalignment cause postural muscles to overwork to compensate and maintain balance, which restricts their ability to function elastically. However, the postural unit should not be stabilized in a way that restricts movement. Proper posture during athletic endeavors should not be associated with total rigidity, which compromises elastic energy production. Proper alignment of the core of the body is important for movement efficiency and injury prevention.
An important element of posture is head alignment, and it is important in throwing events for several reasons. Improper head alignment affects the technical execution of a skill by impairing limb function. Balance may also be affected, because most of the body's vestibular equipment is disturbed. Finally, the head is quite heavy, so extraneous movements may produce instability. Improper alignment may cause instability, which can elicit stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies and interrupt the technical flow of the throw, causing inconsistencies in performance. Proper alignment of the head ensures relaxation and balance and helps create a good release or arm strike. Dropping the head and turning the head away during the throw are common errors.
Another component of posture, pelvic alignment, is also crucial for efficient throwing. Pelvic misalignment significantly affects the function of the legs and nearly always produces instability. The instability resulting from pelvic misalignment also elicits harmful stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies, which disrupt throwing technique. A neutral alignment of the pelvis with respect to the spine promotes relaxation, proper leg function, and good turning. Excessive bending at the waist after arriving in the power position, a common mistake, places the pelvis in an inferior position.
Hydration, heat, nutrition for endurance events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training.
Safety in the Endurance Events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training. Coaches should give thought to the training surface and appropriate footwear for the athletes given the conditions.
Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration. Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention. Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.
Dehydration
Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump (think water versus molasses). On average, males can lose 2.0 liters (or quarts) per hour through sweating; females, 1.1 liters per hour. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight. Each pound (about 0.5 kg) of fluid loss needs to be replaced by 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of water. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of fluid containing electrolytes per pound (about 0.5 kg) of body weight lost during exercise. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions. In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume 120 to 400 calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids.
Heat
Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate. In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C), the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.5 percent. If the temperature is above 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 °C) and the humidity is above 70 percent, running outside should be avoided. The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat.
Great care needs to be taken when an athlete travels from a cooler climate to a warmer climate or when the daily temperature rises significantly. The body takes 5 to 8 days to significantly acclimatize to warmer conditions, and 14 days to reach near-maximal acclimatization.
Heatstroke is a medical emergency and should be treated immediately by getting the runner into an air-conditioned, or at least cooler and shaded, environment. Attempts to bring down the athlete's body temperature through the use of water and ice should begin immediately while medical assistance is sought.
Iron
Inadequate body iron reserves affect the athlete's adaptation to training. Low iron limits the quality and quantity of high-level endurance work output. Fitness is built by the athlete adapting to the training stimulus, and this adaptation requires iron.
Iron deficiency, which is more common in female athletes, can cause overtraining symptoms. A decrease in iron stores can cause a decrease in aerobic capacity since iron is part of hemoglobin, which carries 98.5 percent of blood's oxygen, and more than half of the enzymes of aerobic metabolism contain iron.
Excessive impact stress can cause hemolysis due to extravascular compression and intravascular acidosis, which can cause the following to occur:
- Increase in blood acidity
- Increase in red blood cell transit velocity
- Decrease of the mean life of red blood cells from a normal 120 days to approximately 80 days
Iron depletion is a decrease in serum ferritin levels, which inhibits erythrocyte and hemoglobin levels in the blood. An athlete's ferritin level is the most accurate indicator of his or her iron stores. Distance athletes who run 60 miles or more per week should have their ferritin levels monitored at least twice a year. If blood tests reveal an iron deficiency, the athlete should reduce training volume and consult a sport science doctor or nutritionist to begin a program designed to increase iron stores through good nutrition and iron supplementation.
Coach = Role Model
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach’s dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach’s personal life should also be held to high standards.
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach's dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach's personal life should also be held to high standards.
Coach - Athlete Relationship
A professional boundary must exist between the coach and the athlete, and the coach is responsible for setting that boundary. If physical contact is necessary as part of the coaching process, it must not be interpreted by the athlete or others as anything more than that. When meetings with individual athletes are needed, these meetings should be held in view of others or with an open office door.
No amount of coaching knowledge will guarantee success without a good relationship with the athlete. Athletic competence and confidence rely on a functional, effective coach - athlete relationship. Athletes are unique and need different things from their coaches. Effective coaching involves meeting the needs of every athlete.
The coach - athlete relationship must be professional. The coach should understand that although certain obligations should be met, the nature of the relationship is limited. It is the coach's role to define the limits of the relationship. Although respect is necessary, the coach and the athlete should not be considered peers.
A coach and an athlete may have a close working relationship, but a certain amount of space should remain between them. This is especially true in situations in which the possibility of inappropriate sexual contact may exist or be presumed to exist. The nature of coaching requires paying much attention to the athlete, but this attention should have limits based on the comfort of the athlete. Moreover, the beginning and ending of the coach - athlete relationship should be a matter of agreement.
The nature of the coach - athlete relationship dictates that the coach place demands on the athlete. These demands should be communicated with respect. When reprimand and criticism are necessary, they should be restricted to the athletic domain and administered professionally, privately, immediately, and tactfully without the use of insulting or personal tones.
Coach's Relationships With Others
The coach should demonstrate respect and ethical conduct in interactions with officials, other coaches, opponents, and all others in the athletic setting. The coach should exhibit self-control in disagreements and in emotional situations. Public criticism of other coaches, officials, or athletes is inappropriate.
Coach's Respect for the Rules
The coach should respect the rules and help the athlete develop a respect for the rules as well. Many sets of rules govern any athletic situation. Rules govern not only play, but also participation, eligibility, recruiting, performance-enhancing substances, and other areas. These rules must be respected and followed. When in disagreement, the coach should seek change or protest professionally through the proper channels. Team rules should be simple, easily and fairly enforced, and developed with input from athletes.
Professional Competencies
The coach should work to develop and maintain competence in the duties athletes expect and deserve from coaches. This section discusses such competencies.
Maintenance of a Safe Environment
It is the coach's obligation to make the sport as safe as reasonably possible for those participating. Maintaining safe practice and competition environments is the number one responsibility of the coach. Equipment must be safe, properly fit, and legally maintained. Facilities should be well kept. The coach should be versed in adapting the training program when dangerous climatic factors such as excessive heat, excessive cold, lightning, humidity, rain, and snow so dictate.
Injury Prevention and Management
Injury prevention and initial injury care are the responsibilities of the coach. The coach should be capable of providing first aid, and first-aid materials and equipment should be kept at the practice and competition sites. The coach should work with other professionals such as certified trainers, physical therapists, and medical doctors in the areas of injury management and rehabilitation.
Sound and Appropriate Training and Teaching
The coach should understand the demands and techniques of track and field skills and events. Also, the coach should be versed in developing training programs for track and field events and sound teaching progressions for all skills. An understanding of basic sport sciences will help in this process. The training program should be viewed as a planned path to success. Every athlete is at a unique place on that path, and each demonstrates a unique rate of improvement. Testing and competitions provide feedback the coach can use to evaluate the training and the progress of each athlete. At no time should training be used for the purpose of punishment.
Professional Development and Involvement
The coach has an obligation to improve professionally and continually work through available channels for self-improvement. The coach should consider joining professional organizations and taking a role in the activities of the sport's governing body, USA Track & Field (www.usatf.org). Coaches have a responsibility to assist in developing and improving the sport of track and field, much in the same way they develop their athletes and teams.
Commitment
Success in coaching requires a significant level of commitment. A person should not enter the coaching profession if a willingness to take the time and expend the effort needed to meet the needs of the athletes is lacking. At the same time, even the most dedicated coach has limited time and resources. A coach should be available for coaching or consulting only to a realistic level of commitment.
Achieve success in the throws
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw.
Skills of the Throwing Events
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw. Although the throwing events are similar in some aspects, the movements that lead up to the release may vary.
The shot put consists of three movements: the glide or rotation, the standing power position, and the release. Movements involved in the hammer and discus include body rotation within the boundaries of a ring and rely on centripetal forces and torque, culminating with a release. Unlike the hammer and discus, the javelin requires the athlete to build speed over a linear distance. A successful throw in any of these four events requires the transfer of explosive strength and maximal muscular force onto the object in the shortest possible time.
The importance of muscular strength drives the requirement for throwers to develop leg strength in the early stages of their careers. Strength is so important for a thrower that it often becomes a limiting factor in technique development. Weaker athletes simply cannot develop and refine technique as quickly or effectively as stronger throwers can.
Consistent Implement Acceleration
Although mechanics are important, rhythm is equally important for quality throws. Proper acceleration is a key component of rhythm. For example, the final action of shot-putting in the direction of the throw starts when the rotation of the hips and shoulders stops. At the end of the rotation of the hips and shoulders, the velocity of the shot is just over 6 m/s. After the throwing arm has taken part in the release action through the extension of the elbow and shoulders, the shot velocity increases to just under 7 m/s. The acceleration of the implement must be consistent and positive. The idea of a consistent, progressive acceleration seems simple, but it is often violated. A common error is accelerating the implement too quickly only to decelerate it later. Progressive acceleration is important in both the preliminary movements and the delivery. On a graph, the acceleration rate should map as a gradual curve, without large spikes and dips.
Summation of Force
Force generation normally begins in the proximal joints. The large muscles of the legs and torso initiate the movement and overcome inertia, so that the smaller muscles of the shoulders and arms can further increase the velocity of the implement in the delivery phase. The initial force generated by the proximal-to-distal sequencing of hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion accelerates the athlete-and-implement system. This force must be transmitted to the ground or to an implement through other (distal) joints. For example, although the shoulder (proximal joint) may be producing the force, the force is being transmitted to the shot put through the elbow and wrist (distal joints). Upper-body activity in the delivery and arm strike results from a summation of forces. Although throws differ slightly, proximal-to-distal firing must be preserved. Overall, an optimal coordination pattern appears to be one in which muscle activation and segment acceleration occur in a proximal-to-distal manner with an optimally timed deceleration of body segments leading up to the moment of release.
One of the benefits of a proximal-to-distal coordination pattern is that it generates a whiplike motion. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation is developed between the shoulders and hips. This results in a whip effect as the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil and the implement is released. This deceleration of the hips is critical in an acceleration - deceleration coordination pattern. If the extremity muscles are strong but the core is weak, an adequate summation of forces cannot be created. The result is often technical breakdown and a less-than-optimal performance.
Lengthening the Path of Implement Acceleration
The longer force is applied to the implement, the greater the momentum and velocity will be. To lengthen the amount of time force is applied, the athlete must achieve maximal length in the path of the implement during the delivery. Two ways to lengthen the acceleration path are weight transfer and turning, or using closed throwing positions.
During the delivery phase, body weight is transferred from the back foot to the front foot to increase the body's range of movement and the path of the implement. This transfer of body weight is a crucial component of the throw. The front leg should extend almost completely at the moment of release. However, the timing of initiation and the magnitude of the action of the lower extremity differ considerably between the glide and rotational techniques. Unlike in the glide technique, in the rotational technique the workload is more evenly distributed between the legs during delivery. That is, instead of an initial push with the rear leg and a weight transfer to the front leg, rotators push more simultaneously with both legs.
After arriving in the power position and during the delivery, the center of mass (proximal joints) of the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw. This turning, or rotation, is a crucial component of the throw. The body is turned away from the direction of the throw in the start and power positions, enabling it to turn through a greater angle as the implement is delivered. For more advanced throwers, a slight forward lean of the trunk while in double support helps to maintain balance when the angular velocity of the body is reduced and the absolute velocity of the implement is relatively high. A thrower of shorter stature can take advantage of a longer radius, which allows for a smoother change of kinematic indicators.
Important implications are associated with producing a larger radius in the early parts of the throw. For a given linear speed, a larger radius provides a system that allows the thrower to rotate with a slower angular velocity. A slower rate of rotation permits slower contractions of the muscles involved, which allows these muscles to exert larger forces. This is due to the force - velocity relationship for skeletal muscle. In turn, a larger muscle force results in a larger torque and an increase in the overall angular momentum of the system. Therefore, using a longer radius in the early parts of the throw increases the angular momentum of the system and lengthens the path of the implement.
Separation and Torque
Although the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw, in most situations the upper body and lower body do not turn from the same positions at the same time. This is called separation, referring to the separation between the hip and shoulder about the rotational axis. In addition, throwers generally start to turn the lower body before turning the upper body. This twists the core of the body and creates torque. Force is a push or a pull that changes the linear state of motion of an object or body. The angular equivalent of force is torque. Torque is the turning effect created by a force about an axis. Torque can be increased either by applying greater force or by increasing the radius of rotation. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation occurs between the shoulders and hips. As the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil, the implement is released; this separation results in a whip effect. Separation and torque exist in different degrees in the various throwing events. Both serve to establish a summation of rotational forces, beginning with the lower body and finishing with the upper body.
Blocking
The thrower must eventually stop the momentum created in the body to transfer it to the implement. A good way to do this is to harmoniously blend the left-leg block and the left-arm block. The blocking actions of the upper body in the shot put, discus, and javelin differ slightly based on the unique release mechanics of these events. For example, in the discus, the throwing arm is ideally 90 degrees from the body to maximize radius. The left-side block would be initiated and positioned opposite and equal to the throwing side.
Left-Leg Block
In the left-leg block, the left leg plants firmly in the power position with the left heel pushing into the ground and stopping the horizontal and rotational movement of the left side of the thrower's lower body. This action transfers momentum to the upper body and implement. Proper alignment of the feet is essential to proper blocking. A common error in the shot put, discus, and javelin is to put the left leg too far left of center making blocking impossible. The error of planting the left foot too far to the left is commonly called being in the bucket.
Left-Arm Block
During the delivery phase, the athlete has a long left arm to slow the rotation of the upper body, creating an eccentric stretch of the upper-body musculature and allowing the hips to fire ahead of the upper body. The shoulder girdle movement is a key factor in throwing performance. The left arm begins to shorten at the midline of the body to create a forceful shortening and summation of forces.Desired forceful contractions in athletic endeavors usually are elastic and reflexive, setting up a powerful response of eccentrically stretched muscles, referred to as a volitional concentric response. If the volitional contractions are improperly timed or voluntary involvement by any muscle group is too great, the elastic energy generation of the entire system is diminished, reducing efficiency. The left arm remains long until delivery is initiated, at which time it moves in close to the side of the thrower to help stop the left side of the upper body and transfer momentum to the nonthrowing side. The action of throwing occurs much more efficiently when these stretch reflexes are invoked and elastic energy is developed.
When teaching athletic techniques, coaches should create situations that prestretch the muscles. The hammer is an exception to this rule because it is thrown with both arms. However, on release, the left side of the hammer thrower blocks as the thrower attempts to maximize radius and lift the implement.
Posture
As in many athletic disciplines, posture is an important component of throwing events. Because the core is at the center of nearly all sport movements, the core musculature is a key element of energy generation. The torso's ability to support effective arm and leg actions (core stability) is essential to performance and injury prevention in many sports.
Postural integrity is directly linked to elastic energy generation. Body parts must be stabilized in proper alignment for applied forces to produce displacement without excessive distortion and rotation. Excessive instability or postural misalignment cause postural muscles to overwork to compensate and maintain balance, which restricts their ability to function elastically. However, the postural unit should not be stabilized in a way that restricts movement. Proper posture during athletic endeavors should not be associated with total rigidity, which compromises elastic energy production. Proper alignment of the core of the body is important for movement efficiency and injury prevention.
An important element of posture is head alignment, and it is important in throwing events for several reasons. Improper head alignment affects the technical execution of a skill by impairing limb function. Balance may also be affected, because most of the body's vestibular equipment is disturbed. Finally, the head is quite heavy, so extraneous movements may produce instability. Improper alignment may cause instability, which can elicit stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies and interrupt the technical flow of the throw, causing inconsistencies in performance. Proper alignment of the head ensures relaxation and balance and helps create a good release or arm strike. Dropping the head and turning the head away during the throw are common errors.
Another component of posture, pelvic alignment, is also crucial for efficient throwing. Pelvic misalignment significantly affects the function of the legs and nearly always produces instability. The instability resulting from pelvic misalignment also elicits harmful stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies, which disrupt throwing technique. A neutral alignment of the pelvis with respect to the spine promotes relaxation, proper leg function, and good turning. Excessive bending at the waist after arriving in the power position, a common mistake, places the pelvis in an inferior position.
Hydration, heat, nutrition for endurance events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training.
Safety in the Endurance Events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training. Coaches should give thought to the training surface and appropriate footwear for the athletes given the conditions.
Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration. Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention. Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.
Dehydration
Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump (think water versus molasses). On average, males can lose 2.0 liters (or quarts) per hour through sweating; females, 1.1 liters per hour. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight. Each pound (about 0.5 kg) of fluid loss needs to be replaced by 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of water. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of fluid containing electrolytes per pound (about 0.5 kg) of body weight lost during exercise. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions. In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume 120 to 400 calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids.
Heat
Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate. In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C), the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.5 percent. If the temperature is above 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 °C) and the humidity is above 70 percent, running outside should be avoided. The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat.
Great care needs to be taken when an athlete travels from a cooler climate to a warmer climate or when the daily temperature rises significantly. The body takes 5 to 8 days to significantly acclimatize to warmer conditions, and 14 days to reach near-maximal acclimatization.
Heatstroke is a medical emergency and should be treated immediately by getting the runner into an air-conditioned, or at least cooler and shaded, environment. Attempts to bring down the athlete's body temperature through the use of water and ice should begin immediately while medical assistance is sought.
Iron
Inadequate body iron reserves affect the athlete's adaptation to training. Low iron limits the quality and quantity of high-level endurance work output. Fitness is built by the athlete adapting to the training stimulus, and this adaptation requires iron.
Iron deficiency, which is more common in female athletes, can cause overtraining symptoms. A decrease in iron stores can cause a decrease in aerobic capacity since iron is part of hemoglobin, which carries 98.5 percent of blood's oxygen, and more than half of the enzymes of aerobic metabolism contain iron.
Excessive impact stress can cause hemolysis due to extravascular compression and intravascular acidosis, which can cause the following to occur:
- Increase in blood acidity
- Increase in red blood cell transit velocity
- Decrease of the mean life of red blood cells from a normal 120 days to approximately 80 days
Iron depletion is a decrease in serum ferritin levels, which inhibits erythrocyte and hemoglobin levels in the blood. An athlete's ferritin level is the most accurate indicator of his or her iron stores. Distance athletes who run 60 miles or more per week should have their ferritin levels monitored at least twice a year. If blood tests reveal an iron deficiency, the athlete should reduce training volume and consult a sport science doctor or nutritionist to begin a program designed to increase iron stores through good nutrition and iron supplementation.
Coach = Role Model
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach’s dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach’s personal life should also be held to high standards.
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach's dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach's personal life should also be held to high standards.
Coach - Athlete Relationship
A professional boundary must exist between the coach and the athlete, and the coach is responsible for setting that boundary. If physical contact is necessary as part of the coaching process, it must not be interpreted by the athlete or others as anything more than that. When meetings with individual athletes are needed, these meetings should be held in view of others or with an open office door.
No amount of coaching knowledge will guarantee success without a good relationship with the athlete. Athletic competence and confidence rely on a functional, effective coach - athlete relationship. Athletes are unique and need different things from their coaches. Effective coaching involves meeting the needs of every athlete.
The coach - athlete relationship must be professional. The coach should understand that although certain obligations should be met, the nature of the relationship is limited. It is the coach's role to define the limits of the relationship. Although respect is necessary, the coach and the athlete should not be considered peers.
A coach and an athlete may have a close working relationship, but a certain amount of space should remain between them. This is especially true in situations in which the possibility of inappropriate sexual contact may exist or be presumed to exist. The nature of coaching requires paying much attention to the athlete, but this attention should have limits based on the comfort of the athlete. Moreover, the beginning and ending of the coach - athlete relationship should be a matter of agreement.
The nature of the coach - athlete relationship dictates that the coach place demands on the athlete. These demands should be communicated with respect. When reprimand and criticism are necessary, they should be restricted to the athletic domain and administered professionally, privately, immediately, and tactfully without the use of insulting or personal tones.
Coach's Relationships With Others
The coach should demonstrate respect and ethical conduct in interactions with officials, other coaches, opponents, and all others in the athletic setting. The coach should exhibit self-control in disagreements and in emotional situations. Public criticism of other coaches, officials, or athletes is inappropriate.
Coach's Respect for the Rules
The coach should respect the rules and help the athlete develop a respect for the rules as well. Many sets of rules govern any athletic situation. Rules govern not only play, but also participation, eligibility, recruiting, performance-enhancing substances, and other areas. These rules must be respected and followed. When in disagreement, the coach should seek change or protest professionally through the proper channels. Team rules should be simple, easily and fairly enforced, and developed with input from athletes.
Professional Competencies
The coach should work to develop and maintain competence in the duties athletes expect and deserve from coaches. This section discusses such competencies.
Maintenance of a Safe Environment
It is the coach's obligation to make the sport as safe as reasonably possible for those participating. Maintaining safe practice and competition environments is the number one responsibility of the coach. Equipment must be safe, properly fit, and legally maintained. Facilities should be well kept. The coach should be versed in adapting the training program when dangerous climatic factors such as excessive heat, excessive cold, lightning, humidity, rain, and snow so dictate.
Injury Prevention and Management
Injury prevention and initial injury care are the responsibilities of the coach. The coach should be capable of providing first aid, and first-aid materials and equipment should be kept at the practice and competition sites. The coach should work with other professionals such as certified trainers, physical therapists, and medical doctors in the areas of injury management and rehabilitation.
Sound and Appropriate Training and Teaching
The coach should understand the demands and techniques of track and field skills and events. Also, the coach should be versed in developing training programs for track and field events and sound teaching progressions for all skills. An understanding of basic sport sciences will help in this process. The training program should be viewed as a planned path to success. Every athlete is at a unique place on that path, and each demonstrates a unique rate of improvement. Testing and competitions provide feedback the coach can use to evaluate the training and the progress of each athlete. At no time should training be used for the purpose of punishment.
Professional Development and Involvement
The coach has an obligation to improve professionally and continually work through available channels for self-improvement. The coach should consider joining professional organizations and taking a role in the activities of the sport's governing body, USA Track & Field (www.usatf.org). Coaches have a responsibility to assist in developing and improving the sport of track and field, much in the same way they develop their athletes and teams.
Commitment
Success in coaching requires a significant level of commitment. A person should not enter the coaching profession if a willingness to take the time and expend the effort needed to meet the needs of the athletes is lacking. At the same time, even the most dedicated coach has limited time and resources. A coach should be available for coaching or consulting only to a realistic level of commitment.
Achieve success in the throws
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw.
Skills of the Throwing Events
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw. Although the throwing events are similar in some aspects, the movements that lead up to the release may vary.
The shot put consists of three movements: the glide or rotation, the standing power position, and the release. Movements involved in the hammer and discus include body rotation within the boundaries of a ring and rely on centripetal forces and torque, culminating with a release. Unlike the hammer and discus, the javelin requires the athlete to build speed over a linear distance. A successful throw in any of these four events requires the transfer of explosive strength and maximal muscular force onto the object in the shortest possible time.
The importance of muscular strength drives the requirement for throwers to develop leg strength in the early stages of their careers. Strength is so important for a thrower that it often becomes a limiting factor in technique development. Weaker athletes simply cannot develop and refine technique as quickly or effectively as stronger throwers can.
Consistent Implement Acceleration
Although mechanics are important, rhythm is equally important for quality throws. Proper acceleration is a key component of rhythm. For example, the final action of shot-putting in the direction of the throw starts when the rotation of the hips and shoulders stops. At the end of the rotation of the hips and shoulders, the velocity of the shot is just over 6 m/s. After the throwing arm has taken part in the release action through the extension of the elbow and shoulders, the shot velocity increases to just under 7 m/s. The acceleration of the implement must be consistent and positive. The idea of a consistent, progressive acceleration seems simple, but it is often violated. A common error is accelerating the implement too quickly only to decelerate it later. Progressive acceleration is important in both the preliminary movements and the delivery. On a graph, the acceleration rate should map as a gradual curve, without large spikes and dips.
Summation of Force
Force generation normally begins in the proximal joints. The large muscles of the legs and torso initiate the movement and overcome inertia, so that the smaller muscles of the shoulders and arms can further increase the velocity of the implement in the delivery phase. The initial force generated by the proximal-to-distal sequencing of hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion accelerates the athlete-and-implement system. This force must be transmitted to the ground or to an implement through other (distal) joints. For example, although the shoulder (proximal joint) may be producing the force, the force is being transmitted to the shot put through the elbow and wrist (distal joints). Upper-body activity in the delivery and arm strike results from a summation of forces. Although throws differ slightly, proximal-to-distal firing must be preserved. Overall, an optimal coordination pattern appears to be one in which muscle activation and segment acceleration occur in a proximal-to-distal manner with an optimally timed deceleration of body segments leading up to the moment of release.
One of the benefits of a proximal-to-distal coordination pattern is that it generates a whiplike motion. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation is developed between the shoulders and hips. This results in a whip effect as the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil and the implement is released. This deceleration of the hips is critical in an acceleration - deceleration coordination pattern. If the extremity muscles are strong but the core is weak, an adequate summation of forces cannot be created. The result is often technical breakdown and a less-than-optimal performance.
Lengthening the Path of Implement Acceleration
The longer force is applied to the implement, the greater the momentum and velocity will be. To lengthen the amount of time force is applied, the athlete must achieve maximal length in the path of the implement during the delivery. Two ways to lengthen the acceleration path are weight transfer and turning, or using closed throwing positions.
During the delivery phase, body weight is transferred from the back foot to the front foot to increase the body's range of movement and the path of the implement. This transfer of body weight is a crucial component of the throw. The front leg should extend almost completely at the moment of release. However, the timing of initiation and the magnitude of the action of the lower extremity differ considerably between the glide and rotational techniques. Unlike in the glide technique, in the rotational technique the workload is more evenly distributed between the legs during delivery. That is, instead of an initial push with the rear leg and a weight transfer to the front leg, rotators push more simultaneously with both legs.
After arriving in the power position and during the delivery, the center of mass (proximal joints) of the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw. This turning, or rotation, is a crucial component of the throw. The body is turned away from the direction of the throw in the start and power positions, enabling it to turn through a greater angle as the implement is delivered. For more advanced throwers, a slight forward lean of the trunk while in double support helps to maintain balance when the angular velocity of the body is reduced and the absolute velocity of the implement is relatively high. A thrower of shorter stature can take advantage of a longer radius, which allows for a smoother change of kinematic indicators.
Important implications are associated with producing a larger radius in the early parts of the throw. For a given linear speed, a larger radius provides a system that allows the thrower to rotate with a slower angular velocity. A slower rate of rotation permits slower contractions of the muscles involved, which allows these muscles to exert larger forces. This is due to the force - velocity relationship for skeletal muscle. In turn, a larger muscle force results in a larger torque and an increase in the overall angular momentum of the system. Therefore, using a longer radius in the early parts of the throw increases the angular momentum of the system and lengthens the path of the implement.
Separation and Torque
Although the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw, in most situations the upper body and lower body do not turn from the same positions at the same time. This is called separation, referring to the separation between the hip and shoulder about the rotational axis. In addition, throwers generally start to turn the lower body before turning the upper body. This twists the core of the body and creates torque. Force is a push or a pull that changes the linear state of motion of an object or body. The angular equivalent of force is torque. Torque is the turning effect created by a force about an axis. Torque can be increased either by applying greater force or by increasing the radius of rotation. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation occurs between the shoulders and hips. As the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil, the implement is released; this separation results in a whip effect. Separation and torque exist in different degrees in the various throwing events. Both serve to establish a summation of rotational forces, beginning with the lower body and finishing with the upper body.
Blocking
The thrower must eventually stop the momentum created in the body to transfer it to the implement. A good way to do this is to harmoniously blend the left-leg block and the left-arm block. The blocking actions of the upper body in the shot put, discus, and javelin differ slightly based on the unique release mechanics of these events. For example, in the discus, the throwing arm is ideally 90 degrees from the body to maximize radius. The left-side block would be initiated and positioned opposite and equal to the throwing side.
Left-Leg Block
In the left-leg block, the left leg plants firmly in the power position with the left heel pushing into the ground and stopping the horizontal and rotational movement of the left side of the thrower's lower body. This action transfers momentum to the upper body and implement. Proper alignment of the feet is essential to proper blocking. A common error in the shot put, discus, and javelin is to put the left leg too far left of center making blocking impossible. The error of planting the left foot too far to the left is commonly called being in the bucket.
Left-Arm Block
During the delivery phase, the athlete has a long left arm to slow the rotation of the upper body, creating an eccentric stretch of the upper-body musculature and allowing the hips to fire ahead of the upper body. The shoulder girdle movement is a key factor in throwing performance. The left arm begins to shorten at the midline of the body to create a forceful shortening and summation of forces.Desired forceful contractions in athletic endeavors usually are elastic and reflexive, setting up a powerful response of eccentrically stretched muscles, referred to as a volitional concentric response. If the volitional contractions are improperly timed or voluntary involvement by any muscle group is too great, the elastic energy generation of the entire system is diminished, reducing efficiency. The left arm remains long until delivery is initiated, at which time it moves in close to the side of the thrower to help stop the left side of the upper body and transfer momentum to the nonthrowing side. The action of throwing occurs much more efficiently when these stretch reflexes are invoked and elastic energy is developed.
When teaching athletic techniques, coaches should create situations that prestretch the muscles. The hammer is an exception to this rule because it is thrown with both arms. However, on release, the left side of the hammer thrower blocks as the thrower attempts to maximize radius and lift the implement.
Posture
As in many athletic disciplines, posture is an important component of throwing events. Because the core is at the center of nearly all sport movements, the core musculature is a key element of energy generation. The torso's ability to support effective arm and leg actions (core stability) is essential to performance and injury prevention in many sports.
Postural integrity is directly linked to elastic energy generation. Body parts must be stabilized in proper alignment for applied forces to produce displacement without excessive distortion and rotation. Excessive instability or postural misalignment cause postural muscles to overwork to compensate and maintain balance, which restricts their ability to function elastically. However, the postural unit should not be stabilized in a way that restricts movement. Proper posture during athletic endeavors should not be associated with total rigidity, which compromises elastic energy production. Proper alignment of the core of the body is important for movement efficiency and injury prevention.
An important element of posture is head alignment, and it is important in throwing events for several reasons. Improper head alignment affects the technical execution of a skill by impairing limb function. Balance may also be affected, because most of the body's vestibular equipment is disturbed. Finally, the head is quite heavy, so extraneous movements may produce instability. Improper alignment may cause instability, which can elicit stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies and interrupt the technical flow of the throw, causing inconsistencies in performance. Proper alignment of the head ensures relaxation and balance and helps create a good release or arm strike. Dropping the head and turning the head away during the throw are common errors.
Another component of posture, pelvic alignment, is also crucial for efficient throwing. Pelvic misalignment significantly affects the function of the legs and nearly always produces instability. The instability resulting from pelvic misalignment also elicits harmful stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies, which disrupt throwing technique. A neutral alignment of the pelvis with respect to the spine promotes relaxation, proper leg function, and good turning. Excessive bending at the waist after arriving in the power position, a common mistake, places the pelvis in an inferior position.
Hydration, heat, nutrition for endurance events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training.
Safety in the Endurance Events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training. Coaches should give thought to the training surface and appropriate footwear for the athletes given the conditions.
Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration. Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention. Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.
Dehydration
Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump (think water versus molasses). On average, males can lose 2.0 liters (or quarts) per hour through sweating; females, 1.1 liters per hour. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight. Each pound (about 0.5 kg) of fluid loss needs to be replaced by 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of water. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of fluid containing electrolytes per pound (about 0.5 kg) of body weight lost during exercise. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions. In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume 120 to 400 calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids.
Heat
Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate. In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C), the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.5 percent. If the temperature is above 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 °C) and the humidity is above 70 percent, running outside should be avoided. The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat.
Great care needs to be taken when an athlete travels from a cooler climate to a warmer climate or when the daily temperature rises significantly. The body takes 5 to 8 days to significantly acclimatize to warmer conditions, and 14 days to reach near-maximal acclimatization.
Heatstroke is a medical emergency and should be treated immediately by getting the runner into an air-conditioned, or at least cooler and shaded, environment. Attempts to bring down the athlete's body temperature through the use of water and ice should begin immediately while medical assistance is sought.
Iron
Inadequate body iron reserves affect the athlete's adaptation to training. Low iron limits the quality and quantity of high-level endurance work output. Fitness is built by the athlete adapting to the training stimulus, and this adaptation requires iron.
Iron deficiency, which is more common in female athletes, can cause overtraining symptoms. A decrease in iron stores can cause a decrease in aerobic capacity since iron is part of hemoglobin, which carries 98.5 percent of blood's oxygen, and more than half of the enzymes of aerobic metabolism contain iron.
Excessive impact stress can cause hemolysis due to extravascular compression and intravascular acidosis, which can cause the following to occur:
- Increase in blood acidity
- Increase in red blood cell transit velocity
- Decrease of the mean life of red blood cells from a normal 120 days to approximately 80 days
Iron depletion is a decrease in serum ferritin levels, which inhibits erythrocyte and hemoglobin levels in the blood. An athlete's ferritin level is the most accurate indicator of his or her iron stores. Distance athletes who run 60 miles or more per week should have their ferritin levels monitored at least twice a year. If blood tests reveal an iron deficiency, the athlete should reduce training volume and consult a sport science doctor or nutritionist to begin a program designed to increase iron stores through good nutrition and iron supplementation.
Coach = Role Model
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach’s dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach’s personal life should also be held to high standards.
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach's dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach's personal life should also be held to high standards.
Coach - Athlete Relationship
A professional boundary must exist between the coach and the athlete, and the coach is responsible for setting that boundary. If physical contact is necessary as part of the coaching process, it must not be interpreted by the athlete or others as anything more than that. When meetings with individual athletes are needed, these meetings should be held in view of others or with an open office door.
No amount of coaching knowledge will guarantee success without a good relationship with the athlete. Athletic competence and confidence rely on a functional, effective coach - athlete relationship. Athletes are unique and need different things from their coaches. Effective coaching involves meeting the needs of every athlete.
The coach - athlete relationship must be professional. The coach should understand that although certain obligations should be met, the nature of the relationship is limited. It is the coach's role to define the limits of the relationship. Although respect is necessary, the coach and the athlete should not be considered peers.
A coach and an athlete may have a close working relationship, but a certain amount of space should remain between them. This is especially true in situations in which the possibility of inappropriate sexual contact may exist or be presumed to exist. The nature of coaching requires paying much attention to the athlete, but this attention should have limits based on the comfort of the athlete. Moreover, the beginning and ending of the coach - athlete relationship should be a matter of agreement.
The nature of the coach - athlete relationship dictates that the coach place demands on the athlete. These demands should be communicated with respect. When reprimand and criticism are necessary, they should be restricted to the athletic domain and administered professionally, privately, immediately, and tactfully without the use of insulting or personal tones.
Coach's Relationships With Others
The coach should demonstrate respect and ethical conduct in interactions with officials, other coaches, opponents, and all others in the athletic setting. The coach should exhibit self-control in disagreements and in emotional situations. Public criticism of other coaches, officials, or athletes is inappropriate.
Coach's Respect for the Rules
The coach should respect the rules and help the athlete develop a respect for the rules as well. Many sets of rules govern any athletic situation. Rules govern not only play, but also participation, eligibility, recruiting, performance-enhancing substances, and other areas. These rules must be respected and followed. When in disagreement, the coach should seek change or protest professionally through the proper channels. Team rules should be simple, easily and fairly enforced, and developed with input from athletes.
Professional Competencies
The coach should work to develop and maintain competence in the duties athletes expect and deserve from coaches. This section discusses such competencies.
Maintenance of a Safe Environment
It is the coach's obligation to make the sport as safe as reasonably possible for those participating. Maintaining safe practice and competition environments is the number one responsibility of the coach. Equipment must be safe, properly fit, and legally maintained. Facilities should be well kept. The coach should be versed in adapting the training program when dangerous climatic factors such as excessive heat, excessive cold, lightning, humidity, rain, and snow so dictate.
Injury Prevention and Management
Injury prevention and initial injury care are the responsibilities of the coach. The coach should be capable of providing first aid, and first-aid materials and equipment should be kept at the practice and competition sites. The coach should work with other professionals such as certified trainers, physical therapists, and medical doctors in the areas of injury management and rehabilitation.
Sound and Appropriate Training and Teaching
The coach should understand the demands and techniques of track and field skills and events. Also, the coach should be versed in developing training programs for track and field events and sound teaching progressions for all skills. An understanding of basic sport sciences will help in this process. The training program should be viewed as a planned path to success. Every athlete is at a unique place on that path, and each demonstrates a unique rate of improvement. Testing and competitions provide feedback the coach can use to evaluate the training and the progress of each athlete. At no time should training be used for the purpose of punishment.
Professional Development and Involvement
The coach has an obligation to improve professionally and continually work through available channels for self-improvement. The coach should consider joining professional organizations and taking a role in the activities of the sport's governing body, USA Track & Field (www.usatf.org). Coaches have a responsibility to assist in developing and improving the sport of track and field, much in the same way they develop their athletes and teams.
Commitment
Success in coaching requires a significant level of commitment. A person should not enter the coaching profession if a willingness to take the time and expend the effort needed to meet the needs of the athletes is lacking. At the same time, even the most dedicated coach has limited time and resources. A coach should be available for coaching or consulting only to a realistic level of commitment.
Achieve success in the throws
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw.
Skills of the Throwing Events
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw. Although the throwing events are similar in some aspects, the movements that lead up to the release may vary.
The shot put consists of three movements: the glide or rotation, the standing power position, and the release. Movements involved in the hammer and discus include body rotation within the boundaries of a ring and rely on centripetal forces and torque, culminating with a release. Unlike the hammer and discus, the javelin requires the athlete to build speed over a linear distance. A successful throw in any of these four events requires the transfer of explosive strength and maximal muscular force onto the object in the shortest possible time.
The importance of muscular strength drives the requirement for throwers to develop leg strength in the early stages of their careers. Strength is so important for a thrower that it often becomes a limiting factor in technique development. Weaker athletes simply cannot develop and refine technique as quickly or effectively as stronger throwers can.
Consistent Implement Acceleration
Although mechanics are important, rhythm is equally important for quality throws. Proper acceleration is a key component of rhythm. For example, the final action of shot-putting in the direction of the throw starts when the rotation of the hips and shoulders stops. At the end of the rotation of the hips and shoulders, the velocity of the shot is just over 6 m/s. After the throwing arm has taken part in the release action through the extension of the elbow and shoulders, the shot velocity increases to just under 7 m/s. The acceleration of the implement must be consistent and positive. The idea of a consistent, progressive acceleration seems simple, but it is often violated. A common error is accelerating the implement too quickly only to decelerate it later. Progressive acceleration is important in both the preliminary movements and the delivery. On a graph, the acceleration rate should map as a gradual curve, without large spikes and dips.
Summation of Force
Force generation normally begins in the proximal joints. The large muscles of the legs and torso initiate the movement and overcome inertia, so that the smaller muscles of the shoulders and arms can further increase the velocity of the implement in the delivery phase. The initial force generated by the proximal-to-distal sequencing of hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion accelerates the athlete-and-implement system. This force must be transmitted to the ground or to an implement through other (distal) joints. For example, although the shoulder (proximal joint) may be producing the force, the force is being transmitted to the shot put through the elbow and wrist (distal joints). Upper-body activity in the delivery and arm strike results from a summation of forces. Although throws differ slightly, proximal-to-distal firing must be preserved. Overall, an optimal coordination pattern appears to be one in which muscle activation and segment acceleration occur in a proximal-to-distal manner with an optimally timed deceleration of body segments leading up to the moment of release.
One of the benefits of a proximal-to-distal coordination pattern is that it generates a whiplike motion. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation is developed between the shoulders and hips. This results in a whip effect as the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil and the implement is released. This deceleration of the hips is critical in an acceleration - deceleration coordination pattern. If the extremity muscles are strong but the core is weak, an adequate summation of forces cannot be created. The result is often technical breakdown and a less-than-optimal performance.
Lengthening the Path of Implement Acceleration
The longer force is applied to the implement, the greater the momentum and velocity will be. To lengthen the amount of time force is applied, the athlete must achieve maximal length in the path of the implement during the delivery. Two ways to lengthen the acceleration path are weight transfer and turning, or using closed throwing positions.
During the delivery phase, body weight is transferred from the back foot to the front foot to increase the body's range of movement and the path of the implement. This transfer of body weight is a crucial component of the throw. The front leg should extend almost completely at the moment of release. However, the timing of initiation and the magnitude of the action of the lower extremity differ considerably between the glide and rotational techniques. Unlike in the glide technique, in the rotational technique the workload is more evenly distributed between the legs during delivery. That is, instead of an initial push with the rear leg and a weight transfer to the front leg, rotators push more simultaneously with both legs.
After arriving in the power position and during the delivery, the center of mass (proximal joints) of the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw. This turning, or rotation, is a crucial component of the throw. The body is turned away from the direction of the throw in the start and power positions, enabling it to turn through a greater angle as the implement is delivered. For more advanced throwers, a slight forward lean of the trunk while in double support helps to maintain balance when the angular velocity of the body is reduced and the absolute velocity of the implement is relatively high. A thrower of shorter stature can take advantage of a longer radius, which allows for a smoother change of kinematic indicators.
Important implications are associated with producing a larger radius in the early parts of the throw. For a given linear speed, a larger radius provides a system that allows the thrower to rotate with a slower angular velocity. A slower rate of rotation permits slower contractions of the muscles involved, which allows these muscles to exert larger forces. This is due to the force - velocity relationship for skeletal muscle. In turn, a larger muscle force results in a larger torque and an increase in the overall angular momentum of the system. Therefore, using a longer radius in the early parts of the throw increases the angular momentum of the system and lengthens the path of the implement.
Separation and Torque
Although the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw, in most situations the upper body and lower body do not turn from the same positions at the same time. This is called separation, referring to the separation between the hip and shoulder about the rotational axis. In addition, throwers generally start to turn the lower body before turning the upper body. This twists the core of the body and creates torque. Force is a push or a pull that changes the linear state of motion of an object or body. The angular equivalent of force is torque. Torque is the turning effect created by a force about an axis. Torque can be increased either by applying greater force or by increasing the radius of rotation. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation occurs between the shoulders and hips. As the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil, the implement is released; this separation results in a whip effect. Separation and torque exist in different degrees in the various throwing events. Both serve to establish a summation of rotational forces, beginning with the lower body and finishing with the upper body.
Blocking
The thrower must eventually stop the momentum created in the body to transfer it to the implement. A good way to do this is to harmoniously blend the left-leg block and the left-arm block. The blocking actions of the upper body in the shot put, discus, and javelin differ slightly based on the unique release mechanics of these events. For example, in the discus, the throwing arm is ideally 90 degrees from the body to maximize radius. The left-side block would be initiated and positioned opposite and equal to the throwing side.
Left-Leg Block
In the left-leg block, the left leg plants firmly in the power position with the left heel pushing into the ground and stopping the horizontal and rotational movement of the left side of the thrower's lower body. This action transfers momentum to the upper body and implement. Proper alignment of the feet is essential to proper blocking. A common error in the shot put, discus, and javelin is to put the left leg too far left of center making blocking impossible. The error of planting the left foot too far to the left is commonly called being in the bucket.
Left-Arm Block
During the delivery phase, the athlete has a long left arm to slow the rotation of the upper body, creating an eccentric stretch of the upper-body musculature and allowing the hips to fire ahead of the upper body. The shoulder girdle movement is a key factor in throwing performance. The left arm begins to shorten at the midline of the body to create a forceful shortening and summation of forces.Desired forceful contractions in athletic endeavors usually are elastic and reflexive, setting up a powerful response of eccentrically stretched muscles, referred to as a volitional concentric response. If the volitional contractions are improperly timed or voluntary involvement by any muscle group is too great, the elastic energy generation of the entire system is diminished, reducing efficiency. The left arm remains long until delivery is initiated, at which time it moves in close to the side of the thrower to help stop the left side of the upper body and transfer momentum to the nonthrowing side. The action of throwing occurs much more efficiently when these stretch reflexes are invoked and elastic energy is developed.
When teaching athletic techniques, coaches should create situations that prestretch the muscles. The hammer is an exception to this rule because it is thrown with both arms. However, on release, the left side of the hammer thrower blocks as the thrower attempts to maximize radius and lift the implement.
Posture
As in many athletic disciplines, posture is an important component of throwing events. Because the core is at the center of nearly all sport movements, the core musculature is a key element of energy generation. The torso's ability to support effective arm and leg actions (core stability) is essential to performance and injury prevention in many sports.
Postural integrity is directly linked to elastic energy generation. Body parts must be stabilized in proper alignment for applied forces to produce displacement without excessive distortion and rotation. Excessive instability or postural misalignment cause postural muscles to overwork to compensate and maintain balance, which restricts their ability to function elastically. However, the postural unit should not be stabilized in a way that restricts movement. Proper posture during athletic endeavors should not be associated with total rigidity, which compromises elastic energy production. Proper alignment of the core of the body is important for movement efficiency and injury prevention.
An important element of posture is head alignment, and it is important in throwing events for several reasons. Improper head alignment affects the technical execution of a skill by impairing limb function. Balance may also be affected, because most of the body's vestibular equipment is disturbed. Finally, the head is quite heavy, so extraneous movements may produce instability. Improper alignment may cause instability, which can elicit stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies and interrupt the technical flow of the throw, causing inconsistencies in performance. Proper alignment of the head ensures relaxation and balance and helps create a good release or arm strike. Dropping the head and turning the head away during the throw are common errors.
Another component of posture, pelvic alignment, is also crucial for efficient throwing. Pelvic misalignment significantly affects the function of the legs and nearly always produces instability. The instability resulting from pelvic misalignment also elicits harmful stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies, which disrupt throwing technique. A neutral alignment of the pelvis with respect to the spine promotes relaxation, proper leg function, and good turning. Excessive bending at the waist after arriving in the power position, a common mistake, places the pelvis in an inferior position.
Hydration, heat, nutrition for endurance events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training.
Safety in the Endurance Events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training. Coaches should give thought to the training surface and appropriate footwear for the athletes given the conditions.
Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration. Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention. Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.
Dehydration
Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump (think water versus molasses). On average, males can lose 2.0 liters (or quarts) per hour through sweating; females, 1.1 liters per hour. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight. Each pound (about 0.5 kg) of fluid loss needs to be replaced by 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of water. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of fluid containing electrolytes per pound (about 0.5 kg) of body weight lost during exercise. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions. In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume 120 to 400 calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids.
Heat
Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate. In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C), the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.5 percent. If the temperature is above 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 °C) and the humidity is above 70 percent, running outside should be avoided. The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat.
Great care needs to be taken when an athlete travels from a cooler climate to a warmer climate or when the daily temperature rises significantly. The body takes 5 to 8 days to significantly acclimatize to warmer conditions, and 14 days to reach near-maximal acclimatization.
Heatstroke is a medical emergency and should be treated immediately by getting the runner into an air-conditioned, or at least cooler and shaded, environment. Attempts to bring down the athlete's body temperature through the use of water and ice should begin immediately while medical assistance is sought.
Iron
Inadequate body iron reserves affect the athlete's adaptation to training. Low iron limits the quality and quantity of high-level endurance work output. Fitness is built by the athlete adapting to the training stimulus, and this adaptation requires iron.
Iron deficiency, which is more common in female athletes, can cause overtraining symptoms. A decrease in iron stores can cause a decrease in aerobic capacity since iron is part of hemoglobin, which carries 98.5 percent of blood's oxygen, and more than half of the enzymes of aerobic metabolism contain iron.
Excessive impact stress can cause hemolysis due to extravascular compression and intravascular acidosis, which can cause the following to occur:
- Increase in blood acidity
- Increase in red blood cell transit velocity
- Decrease of the mean life of red blood cells from a normal 120 days to approximately 80 days
Iron depletion is a decrease in serum ferritin levels, which inhibits erythrocyte and hemoglobin levels in the blood. An athlete's ferritin level is the most accurate indicator of his or her iron stores. Distance athletes who run 60 miles or more per week should have their ferritin levels monitored at least twice a year. If blood tests reveal an iron deficiency, the athlete should reduce training volume and consult a sport science doctor or nutritionist to begin a program designed to increase iron stores through good nutrition and iron supplementation.
Coach = Role Model
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach’s dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach’s personal life should also be held to high standards.
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach's dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach's personal life should also be held to high standards.
Coach - Athlete Relationship
A professional boundary must exist between the coach and the athlete, and the coach is responsible for setting that boundary. If physical contact is necessary as part of the coaching process, it must not be interpreted by the athlete or others as anything more than that. When meetings with individual athletes are needed, these meetings should be held in view of others or with an open office door.
No amount of coaching knowledge will guarantee success without a good relationship with the athlete. Athletic competence and confidence rely on a functional, effective coach - athlete relationship. Athletes are unique and need different things from their coaches. Effective coaching involves meeting the needs of every athlete.
The coach - athlete relationship must be professional. The coach should understand that although certain obligations should be met, the nature of the relationship is limited. It is the coach's role to define the limits of the relationship. Although respect is necessary, the coach and the athlete should not be considered peers.
A coach and an athlete may have a close working relationship, but a certain amount of space should remain between them. This is especially true in situations in which the possibility of inappropriate sexual contact may exist or be presumed to exist. The nature of coaching requires paying much attention to the athlete, but this attention should have limits based on the comfort of the athlete. Moreover, the beginning and ending of the coach - athlete relationship should be a matter of agreement.
The nature of the coach - athlete relationship dictates that the coach place demands on the athlete. These demands should be communicated with respect. When reprimand and criticism are necessary, they should be restricted to the athletic domain and administered professionally, privately, immediately, and tactfully without the use of insulting or personal tones.
Coach's Relationships With Others
The coach should demonstrate respect and ethical conduct in interactions with officials, other coaches, opponents, and all others in the athletic setting. The coach should exhibit self-control in disagreements and in emotional situations. Public criticism of other coaches, officials, or athletes is inappropriate.
Coach's Respect for the Rules
The coach should respect the rules and help the athlete develop a respect for the rules as well. Many sets of rules govern any athletic situation. Rules govern not only play, but also participation, eligibility, recruiting, performance-enhancing substances, and other areas. These rules must be respected and followed. When in disagreement, the coach should seek change or protest professionally through the proper channels. Team rules should be simple, easily and fairly enforced, and developed with input from athletes.
Professional Competencies
The coach should work to develop and maintain competence in the duties athletes expect and deserve from coaches. This section discusses such competencies.
Maintenance of a Safe Environment
It is the coach's obligation to make the sport as safe as reasonably possible for those participating. Maintaining safe practice and competition environments is the number one responsibility of the coach. Equipment must be safe, properly fit, and legally maintained. Facilities should be well kept. The coach should be versed in adapting the training program when dangerous climatic factors such as excessive heat, excessive cold, lightning, humidity, rain, and snow so dictate.
Injury Prevention and Management
Injury prevention and initial injury care are the responsibilities of the coach. The coach should be capable of providing first aid, and first-aid materials and equipment should be kept at the practice and competition sites. The coach should work with other professionals such as certified trainers, physical therapists, and medical doctors in the areas of injury management and rehabilitation.
Sound and Appropriate Training and Teaching
The coach should understand the demands and techniques of track and field skills and events. Also, the coach should be versed in developing training programs for track and field events and sound teaching progressions for all skills. An understanding of basic sport sciences will help in this process. The training program should be viewed as a planned path to success. Every athlete is at a unique place on that path, and each demonstrates a unique rate of improvement. Testing and competitions provide feedback the coach can use to evaluate the training and the progress of each athlete. At no time should training be used for the purpose of punishment.
Professional Development and Involvement
The coach has an obligation to improve professionally and continually work through available channels for self-improvement. The coach should consider joining professional organizations and taking a role in the activities of the sport's governing body, USA Track & Field (www.usatf.org). Coaches have a responsibility to assist in developing and improving the sport of track and field, much in the same way they develop their athletes and teams.
Commitment
Success in coaching requires a significant level of commitment. A person should not enter the coaching profession if a willingness to take the time and expend the effort needed to meet the needs of the athletes is lacking. At the same time, even the most dedicated coach has limited time and resources. A coach should be available for coaching or consulting only to a realistic level of commitment.
Achieve success in the throws
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw.
Skills of the Throwing Events
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw. Although the throwing events are similar in some aspects, the movements that lead up to the release may vary.
The shot put consists of three movements: the glide or rotation, the standing power position, and the release. Movements involved in the hammer and discus include body rotation within the boundaries of a ring and rely on centripetal forces and torque, culminating with a release. Unlike the hammer and discus, the javelin requires the athlete to build speed over a linear distance. A successful throw in any of these four events requires the transfer of explosive strength and maximal muscular force onto the object in the shortest possible time.
The importance of muscular strength drives the requirement for throwers to develop leg strength in the early stages of their careers. Strength is so important for a thrower that it often becomes a limiting factor in technique development. Weaker athletes simply cannot develop and refine technique as quickly or effectively as stronger throwers can.
Consistent Implement Acceleration
Although mechanics are important, rhythm is equally important for quality throws. Proper acceleration is a key component of rhythm. For example, the final action of shot-putting in the direction of the throw starts when the rotation of the hips and shoulders stops. At the end of the rotation of the hips and shoulders, the velocity of the shot is just over 6 m/s. After the throwing arm has taken part in the release action through the extension of the elbow and shoulders, the shot velocity increases to just under 7 m/s. The acceleration of the implement must be consistent and positive. The idea of a consistent, progressive acceleration seems simple, but it is often violated. A common error is accelerating the implement too quickly only to decelerate it later. Progressive acceleration is important in both the preliminary movements and the delivery. On a graph, the acceleration rate should map as a gradual curve, without large spikes and dips.
Summation of Force
Force generation normally begins in the proximal joints. The large muscles of the legs and torso initiate the movement and overcome inertia, so that the smaller muscles of the shoulders and arms can further increase the velocity of the implement in the delivery phase. The initial force generated by the proximal-to-distal sequencing of hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion accelerates the athlete-and-implement system. This force must be transmitted to the ground or to an implement through other (distal) joints. For example, although the shoulder (proximal joint) may be producing the force, the force is being transmitted to the shot put through the elbow and wrist (distal joints). Upper-body activity in the delivery and arm strike results from a summation of forces. Although throws differ slightly, proximal-to-distal firing must be preserved. Overall, an optimal coordination pattern appears to be one in which muscle activation and segment acceleration occur in a proximal-to-distal manner with an optimally timed deceleration of body segments leading up to the moment of release.
One of the benefits of a proximal-to-distal coordination pattern is that it generates a whiplike motion. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation is developed between the shoulders and hips. This results in a whip effect as the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil and the implement is released. This deceleration of the hips is critical in an acceleration - deceleration coordination pattern. If the extremity muscles are strong but the core is weak, an adequate summation of forces cannot be created. The result is often technical breakdown and a less-than-optimal performance.
Lengthening the Path of Implement Acceleration
The longer force is applied to the implement, the greater the momentum and velocity will be. To lengthen the amount of time force is applied, the athlete must achieve maximal length in the path of the implement during the delivery. Two ways to lengthen the acceleration path are weight transfer and turning, or using closed throwing positions.
During the delivery phase, body weight is transferred from the back foot to the front foot to increase the body's range of movement and the path of the implement. This transfer of body weight is a crucial component of the throw. The front leg should extend almost completely at the moment of release. However, the timing of initiation and the magnitude of the action of the lower extremity differ considerably between the glide and rotational techniques. Unlike in the glide technique, in the rotational technique the workload is more evenly distributed between the legs during delivery. That is, instead of an initial push with the rear leg and a weight transfer to the front leg, rotators push more simultaneously with both legs.
After arriving in the power position and during the delivery, the center of mass (proximal joints) of the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw. This turning, or rotation, is a crucial component of the throw. The body is turned away from the direction of the throw in the start and power positions, enabling it to turn through a greater angle as the implement is delivered. For more advanced throwers, a slight forward lean of the trunk while in double support helps to maintain balance when the angular velocity of the body is reduced and the absolute velocity of the implement is relatively high. A thrower of shorter stature can take advantage of a longer radius, which allows for a smoother change of kinematic indicators.
Important implications are associated with producing a larger radius in the early parts of the throw. For a given linear speed, a larger radius provides a system that allows the thrower to rotate with a slower angular velocity. A slower rate of rotation permits slower contractions of the muscles involved, which allows these muscles to exert larger forces. This is due to the force - velocity relationship for skeletal muscle. In turn, a larger muscle force results in a larger torque and an increase in the overall angular momentum of the system. Therefore, using a longer radius in the early parts of the throw increases the angular momentum of the system and lengthens the path of the implement.
Separation and Torque
Although the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw, in most situations the upper body and lower body do not turn from the same positions at the same time. This is called separation, referring to the separation between the hip and shoulder about the rotational axis. In addition, throwers generally start to turn the lower body before turning the upper body. This twists the core of the body and creates torque. Force is a push or a pull that changes the linear state of motion of an object or body. The angular equivalent of force is torque. Torque is the turning effect created by a force about an axis. Torque can be increased either by applying greater force or by increasing the radius of rotation. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation occurs between the shoulders and hips. As the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil, the implement is released; this separation results in a whip effect. Separation and torque exist in different degrees in the various throwing events. Both serve to establish a summation of rotational forces, beginning with the lower body and finishing with the upper body.
Blocking
The thrower must eventually stop the momentum created in the body to transfer it to the implement. A good way to do this is to harmoniously blend the left-leg block and the left-arm block. The blocking actions of the upper body in the shot put, discus, and javelin differ slightly based on the unique release mechanics of these events. For example, in the discus, the throwing arm is ideally 90 degrees from the body to maximize radius. The left-side block would be initiated and positioned opposite and equal to the throwing side.
Left-Leg Block
In the left-leg block, the left leg plants firmly in the power position with the left heel pushing into the ground and stopping the horizontal and rotational movement of the left side of the thrower's lower body. This action transfers momentum to the upper body and implement. Proper alignment of the feet is essential to proper blocking. A common error in the shot put, discus, and javelin is to put the left leg too far left of center making blocking impossible. The error of planting the left foot too far to the left is commonly called being in the bucket.
Left-Arm Block
During the delivery phase, the athlete has a long left arm to slow the rotation of the upper body, creating an eccentric stretch of the upper-body musculature and allowing the hips to fire ahead of the upper body. The shoulder girdle movement is a key factor in throwing performance. The left arm begins to shorten at the midline of the body to create a forceful shortening and summation of forces.Desired forceful contractions in athletic endeavors usually are elastic and reflexive, setting up a powerful response of eccentrically stretched muscles, referred to as a volitional concentric response. If the volitional contractions are improperly timed or voluntary involvement by any muscle group is too great, the elastic energy generation of the entire system is diminished, reducing efficiency. The left arm remains long until delivery is initiated, at which time it moves in close to the side of the thrower to help stop the left side of the upper body and transfer momentum to the nonthrowing side. The action of throwing occurs much more efficiently when these stretch reflexes are invoked and elastic energy is developed.
When teaching athletic techniques, coaches should create situations that prestretch the muscles. The hammer is an exception to this rule because it is thrown with both arms. However, on release, the left side of the hammer thrower blocks as the thrower attempts to maximize radius and lift the implement.
Posture
As in many athletic disciplines, posture is an important component of throwing events. Because the core is at the center of nearly all sport movements, the core musculature is a key element of energy generation. The torso's ability to support effective arm and leg actions (core stability) is essential to performance and injury prevention in many sports.
Postural integrity is directly linked to elastic energy generation. Body parts must be stabilized in proper alignment for applied forces to produce displacement without excessive distortion and rotation. Excessive instability or postural misalignment cause postural muscles to overwork to compensate and maintain balance, which restricts their ability to function elastically. However, the postural unit should not be stabilized in a way that restricts movement. Proper posture during athletic endeavors should not be associated with total rigidity, which compromises elastic energy production. Proper alignment of the core of the body is important for movement efficiency and injury prevention.
An important element of posture is head alignment, and it is important in throwing events for several reasons. Improper head alignment affects the technical execution of a skill by impairing limb function. Balance may also be affected, because most of the body's vestibular equipment is disturbed. Finally, the head is quite heavy, so extraneous movements may produce instability. Improper alignment may cause instability, which can elicit stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies and interrupt the technical flow of the throw, causing inconsistencies in performance. Proper alignment of the head ensures relaxation and balance and helps create a good release or arm strike. Dropping the head and turning the head away during the throw are common errors.
Another component of posture, pelvic alignment, is also crucial for efficient throwing. Pelvic misalignment significantly affects the function of the legs and nearly always produces instability. The instability resulting from pelvic misalignment also elicits harmful stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies, which disrupt throwing technique. A neutral alignment of the pelvis with respect to the spine promotes relaxation, proper leg function, and good turning. Excessive bending at the waist after arriving in the power position, a common mistake, places the pelvis in an inferior position.
Hydration, heat, nutrition for endurance events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training.
Safety in the Endurance Events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training. Coaches should give thought to the training surface and appropriate footwear for the athletes given the conditions.
Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration. Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention. Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.
Dehydration
Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump (think water versus molasses). On average, males can lose 2.0 liters (or quarts) per hour through sweating; females, 1.1 liters per hour. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight. Each pound (about 0.5 kg) of fluid loss needs to be replaced by 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of water. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of fluid containing electrolytes per pound (about 0.5 kg) of body weight lost during exercise. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions. In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume 120 to 400 calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids.
Heat
Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate. In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C), the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.5 percent. If the temperature is above 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 °C) and the humidity is above 70 percent, running outside should be avoided. The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat.
Great care needs to be taken when an athlete travels from a cooler climate to a warmer climate or when the daily temperature rises significantly. The body takes 5 to 8 days to significantly acclimatize to warmer conditions, and 14 days to reach near-maximal acclimatization.
Heatstroke is a medical emergency and should be treated immediately by getting the runner into an air-conditioned, or at least cooler and shaded, environment. Attempts to bring down the athlete's body temperature through the use of water and ice should begin immediately while medical assistance is sought.
Iron
Inadequate body iron reserves affect the athlete's adaptation to training. Low iron limits the quality and quantity of high-level endurance work output. Fitness is built by the athlete adapting to the training stimulus, and this adaptation requires iron.
Iron deficiency, which is more common in female athletes, can cause overtraining symptoms. A decrease in iron stores can cause a decrease in aerobic capacity since iron is part of hemoglobin, which carries 98.5 percent of blood's oxygen, and more than half of the enzymes of aerobic metabolism contain iron.
Excessive impact stress can cause hemolysis due to extravascular compression and intravascular acidosis, which can cause the following to occur:
- Increase in blood acidity
- Increase in red blood cell transit velocity
- Decrease of the mean life of red blood cells from a normal 120 days to approximately 80 days
Iron depletion is a decrease in serum ferritin levels, which inhibits erythrocyte and hemoglobin levels in the blood. An athlete's ferritin level is the most accurate indicator of his or her iron stores. Distance athletes who run 60 miles or more per week should have their ferritin levels monitored at least twice a year. If blood tests reveal an iron deficiency, the athlete should reduce training volume and consult a sport science doctor or nutritionist to begin a program designed to increase iron stores through good nutrition and iron supplementation.
Coach = Role Model
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach’s dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach’s personal life should also be held to high standards.
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach's dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach's personal life should also be held to high standards.
Coach - Athlete Relationship
A professional boundary must exist between the coach and the athlete, and the coach is responsible for setting that boundary. If physical contact is necessary as part of the coaching process, it must not be interpreted by the athlete or others as anything more than that. When meetings with individual athletes are needed, these meetings should be held in view of others or with an open office door.
No amount of coaching knowledge will guarantee success without a good relationship with the athlete. Athletic competence and confidence rely on a functional, effective coach - athlete relationship. Athletes are unique and need different things from their coaches. Effective coaching involves meeting the needs of every athlete.
The coach - athlete relationship must be professional. The coach should understand that although certain obligations should be met, the nature of the relationship is limited. It is the coach's role to define the limits of the relationship. Although respect is necessary, the coach and the athlete should not be considered peers.
A coach and an athlete may have a close working relationship, but a certain amount of space should remain between them. This is especially true in situations in which the possibility of inappropriate sexual contact may exist or be presumed to exist. The nature of coaching requires paying much attention to the athlete, but this attention should have limits based on the comfort of the athlete. Moreover, the beginning and ending of the coach - athlete relationship should be a matter of agreement.
The nature of the coach - athlete relationship dictates that the coach place demands on the athlete. These demands should be communicated with respect. When reprimand and criticism are necessary, they should be restricted to the athletic domain and administered professionally, privately, immediately, and tactfully without the use of insulting or personal tones.
Coach's Relationships With Others
The coach should demonstrate respect and ethical conduct in interactions with officials, other coaches, opponents, and all others in the athletic setting. The coach should exhibit self-control in disagreements and in emotional situations. Public criticism of other coaches, officials, or athletes is inappropriate.
Coach's Respect for the Rules
The coach should respect the rules and help the athlete develop a respect for the rules as well. Many sets of rules govern any athletic situation. Rules govern not only play, but also participation, eligibility, recruiting, performance-enhancing substances, and other areas. These rules must be respected and followed. When in disagreement, the coach should seek change or protest professionally through the proper channels. Team rules should be simple, easily and fairly enforced, and developed with input from athletes.
Professional Competencies
The coach should work to develop and maintain competence in the duties athletes expect and deserve from coaches. This section discusses such competencies.
Maintenance of a Safe Environment
It is the coach's obligation to make the sport as safe as reasonably possible for those participating. Maintaining safe practice and competition environments is the number one responsibility of the coach. Equipment must be safe, properly fit, and legally maintained. Facilities should be well kept. The coach should be versed in adapting the training program when dangerous climatic factors such as excessive heat, excessive cold, lightning, humidity, rain, and snow so dictate.
Injury Prevention and Management
Injury prevention and initial injury care are the responsibilities of the coach. The coach should be capable of providing first aid, and first-aid materials and equipment should be kept at the practice and competition sites. The coach should work with other professionals such as certified trainers, physical therapists, and medical doctors in the areas of injury management and rehabilitation.
Sound and Appropriate Training and Teaching
The coach should understand the demands and techniques of track and field skills and events. Also, the coach should be versed in developing training programs for track and field events and sound teaching progressions for all skills. An understanding of basic sport sciences will help in this process. The training program should be viewed as a planned path to success. Every athlete is at a unique place on that path, and each demonstrates a unique rate of improvement. Testing and competitions provide feedback the coach can use to evaluate the training and the progress of each athlete. At no time should training be used for the purpose of punishment.
Professional Development and Involvement
The coach has an obligation to improve professionally and continually work through available channels for self-improvement. The coach should consider joining professional organizations and taking a role in the activities of the sport's governing body, USA Track & Field (www.usatf.org). Coaches have a responsibility to assist in developing and improving the sport of track and field, much in the same way they develop their athletes and teams.
Commitment
Success in coaching requires a significant level of commitment. A person should not enter the coaching profession if a willingness to take the time and expend the effort needed to meet the needs of the athletes is lacking. At the same time, even the most dedicated coach has limited time and resources. A coach should be available for coaching or consulting only to a realistic level of commitment.
Achieve success in the throws
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw.
Skills of the Throwing Events
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw. Although the throwing events are similar in some aspects, the movements that lead up to the release may vary.
The shot put consists of three movements: the glide or rotation, the standing power position, and the release. Movements involved in the hammer and discus include body rotation within the boundaries of a ring and rely on centripetal forces and torque, culminating with a release. Unlike the hammer and discus, the javelin requires the athlete to build speed over a linear distance. A successful throw in any of these four events requires the transfer of explosive strength and maximal muscular force onto the object in the shortest possible time.
The importance of muscular strength drives the requirement for throwers to develop leg strength in the early stages of their careers. Strength is so important for a thrower that it often becomes a limiting factor in technique development. Weaker athletes simply cannot develop and refine technique as quickly or effectively as stronger throwers can.
Consistent Implement Acceleration
Although mechanics are important, rhythm is equally important for quality throws. Proper acceleration is a key component of rhythm. For example, the final action of shot-putting in the direction of the throw starts when the rotation of the hips and shoulders stops. At the end of the rotation of the hips and shoulders, the velocity of the shot is just over 6 m/s. After the throwing arm has taken part in the release action through the extension of the elbow and shoulders, the shot velocity increases to just under 7 m/s. The acceleration of the implement must be consistent and positive. The idea of a consistent, progressive acceleration seems simple, but it is often violated. A common error is accelerating the implement too quickly only to decelerate it later. Progressive acceleration is important in both the preliminary movements and the delivery. On a graph, the acceleration rate should map as a gradual curve, without large spikes and dips.
Summation of Force
Force generation normally begins in the proximal joints. The large muscles of the legs and torso initiate the movement and overcome inertia, so that the smaller muscles of the shoulders and arms can further increase the velocity of the implement in the delivery phase. The initial force generated by the proximal-to-distal sequencing of hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion accelerates the athlete-and-implement system. This force must be transmitted to the ground or to an implement through other (distal) joints. For example, although the shoulder (proximal joint) may be producing the force, the force is being transmitted to the shot put through the elbow and wrist (distal joints). Upper-body activity in the delivery and arm strike results from a summation of forces. Although throws differ slightly, proximal-to-distal firing must be preserved. Overall, an optimal coordination pattern appears to be one in which muscle activation and segment acceleration occur in a proximal-to-distal manner with an optimally timed deceleration of body segments leading up to the moment of release.
One of the benefits of a proximal-to-distal coordination pattern is that it generates a whiplike motion. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation is developed between the shoulders and hips. This results in a whip effect as the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil and the implement is released. This deceleration of the hips is critical in an acceleration - deceleration coordination pattern. If the extremity muscles are strong but the core is weak, an adequate summation of forces cannot be created. The result is often technical breakdown and a less-than-optimal performance.
Lengthening the Path of Implement Acceleration
The longer force is applied to the implement, the greater the momentum and velocity will be. To lengthen the amount of time force is applied, the athlete must achieve maximal length in the path of the implement during the delivery. Two ways to lengthen the acceleration path are weight transfer and turning, or using closed throwing positions.
During the delivery phase, body weight is transferred from the back foot to the front foot to increase the body's range of movement and the path of the implement. This transfer of body weight is a crucial component of the throw. The front leg should extend almost completely at the moment of release. However, the timing of initiation and the magnitude of the action of the lower extremity differ considerably between the glide and rotational techniques. Unlike in the glide technique, in the rotational technique the workload is more evenly distributed between the legs during delivery. That is, instead of an initial push with the rear leg and a weight transfer to the front leg, rotators push more simultaneously with both legs.
After arriving in the power position and during the delivery, the center of mass (proximal joints) of the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw. This turning, or rotation, is a crucial component of the throw. The body is turned away from the direction of the throw in the start and power positions, enabling it to turn through a greater angle as the implement is delivered. For more advanced throwers, a slight forward lean of the trunk while in double support helps to maintain balance when the angular velocity of the body is reduced and the absolute velocity of the implement is relatively high. A thrower of shorter stature can take advantage of a longer radius, which allows for a smoother change of kinematic indicators.
Important implications are associated with producing a larger radius in the early parts of the throw. For a given linear speed, a larger radius provides a system that allows the thrower to rotate with a slower angular velocity. A slower rate of rotation permits slower contractions of the muscles involved, which allows these muscles to exert larger forces. This is due to the force - velocity relationship for skeletal muscle. In turn, a larger muscle force results in a larger torque and an increase in the overall angular momentum of the system. Therefore, using a longer radius in the early parts of the throw increases the angular momentum of the system and lengthens the path of the implement.
Separation and Torque
Although the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw, in most situations the upper body and lower body do not turn from the same positions at the same time. This is called separation, referring to the separation between the hip and shoulder about the rotational axis. In addition, throwers generally start to turn the lower body before turning the upper body. This twists the core of the body and creates torque. Force is a push or a pull that changes the linear state of motion of an object or body. The angular equivalent of force is torque. Torque is the turning effect created by a force about an axis. Torque can be increased either by applying greater force or by increasing the radius of rotation. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation occurs between the shoulders and hips. As the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil, the implement is released; this separation results in a whip effect. Separation and torque exist in different degrees in the various throwing events. Both serve to establish a summation of rotational forces, beginning with the lower body and finishing with the upper body.
Blocking
The thrower must eventually stop the momentum created in the body to transfer it to the implement. A good way to do this is to harmoniously blend the left-leg block and the left-arm block. The blocking actions of the upper body in the shot put, discus, and javelin differ slightly based on the unique release mechanics of these events. For example, in the discus, the throwing arm is ideally 90 degrees from the body to maximize radius. The left-side block would be initiated and positioned opposite and equal to the throwing side.
Left-Leg Block
In the left-leg block, the left leg plants firmly in the power position with the left heel pushing into the ground and stopping the horizontal and rotational movement of the left side of the thrower's lower body. This action transfers momentum to the upper body and implement. Proper alignment of the feet is essential to proper blocking. A common error in the shot put, discus, and javelin is to put the left leg too far left of center making blocking impossible. The error of planting the left foot too far to the left is commonly called being in the bucket.
Left-Arm Block
During the delivery phase, the athlete has a long left arm to slow the rotation of the upper body, creating an eccentric stretch of the upper-body musculature and allowing the hips to fire ahead of the upper body. The shoulder girdle movement is a key factor in throwing performance. The left arm begins to shorten at the midline of the body to create a forceful shortening and summation of forces.Desired forceful contractions in athletic endeavors usually are elastic and reflexive, setting up a powerful response of eccentrically stretched muscles, referred to as a volitional concentric response. If the volitional contractions are improperly timed or voluntary involvement by any muscle group is too great, the elastic energy generation of the entire system is diminished, reducing efficiency. The left arm remains long until delivery is initiated, at which time it moves in close to the side of the thrower to help stop the left side of the upper body and transfer momentum to the nonthrowing side. The action of throwing occurs much more efficiently when these stretch reflexes are invoked and elastic energy is developed.
When teaching athletic techniques, coaches should create situations that prestretch the muscles. The hammer is an exception to this rule because it is thrown with both arms. However, on release, the left side of the hammer thrower blocks as the thrower attempts to maximize radius and lift the implement.
Posture
As in many athletic disciplines, posture is an important component of throwing events. Because the core is at the center of nearly all sport movements, the core musculature is a key element of energy generation. The torso's ability to support effective arm and leg actions (core stability) is essential to performance and injury prevention in many sports.
Postural integrity is directly linked to elastic energy generation. Body parts must be stabilized in proper alignment for applied forces to produce displacement without excessive distortion and rotation. Excessive instability or postural misalignment cause postural muscles to overwork to compensate and maintain balance, which restricts their ability to function elastically. However, the postural unit should not be stabilized in a way that restricts movement. Proper posture during athletic endeavors should not be associated with total rigidity, which compromises elastic energy production. Proper alignment of the core of the body is important for movement efficiency and injury prevention.
An important element of posture is head alignment, and it is important in throwing events for several reasons. Improper head alignment affects the technical execution of a skill by impairing limb function. Balance may also be affected, because most of the body's vestibular equipment is disturbed. Finally, the head is quite heavy, so extraneous movements may produce instability. Improper alignment may cause instability, which can elicit stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies and interrupt the technical flow of the throw, causing inconsistencies in performance. Proper alignment of the head ensures relaxation and balance and helps create a good release or arm strike. Dropping the head and turning the head away during the throw are common errors.
Another component of posture, pelvic alignment, is also crucial for efficient throwing. Pelvic misalignment significantly affects the function of the legs and nearly always produces instability. The instability resulting from pelvic misalignment also elicits harmful stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies, which disrupt throwing technique. A neutral alignment of the pelvis with respect to the spine promotes relaxation, proper leg function, and good turning. Excessive bending at the waist after arriving in the power position, a common mistake, places the pelvis in an inferior position.
Hydration, heat, nutrition for endurance events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training.
Safety in the Endurance Events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training. Coaches should give thought to the training surface and appropriate footwear for the athletes given the conditions.
Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration. Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention. Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.
Dehydration
Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump (think water versus molasses). On average, males can lose 2.0 liters (or quarts) per hour through sweating; females, 1.1 liters per hour. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight. Each pound (about 0.5 kg) of fluid loss needs to be replaced by 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of water. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of fluid containing electrolytes per pound (about 0.5 kg) of body weight lost during exercise. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions. In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume 120 to 400 calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids.
Heat
Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate. In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C), the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.5 percent. If the temperature is above 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 °C) and the humidity is above 70 percent, running outside should be avoided. The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat.
Great care needs to be taken when an athlete travels from a cooler climate to a warmer climate or when the daily temperature rises significantly. The body takes 5 to 8 days to significantly acclimatize to warmer conditions, and 14 days to reach near-maximal acclimatization.
Heatstroke is a medical emergency and should be treated immediately by getting the runner into an air-conditioned, or at least cooler and shaded, environment. Attempts to bring down the athlete's body temperature through the use of water and ice should begin immediately while medical assistance is sought.
Iron
Inadequate body iron reserves affect the athlete's adaptation to training. Low iron limits the quality and quantity of high-level endurance work output. Fitness is built by the athlete adapting to the training stimulus, and this adaptation requires iron.
Iron deficiency, which is more common in female athletes, can cause overtraining symptoms. A decrease in iron stores can cause a decrease in aerobic capacity since iron is part of hemoglobin, which carries 98.5 percent of blood's oxygen, and more than half of the enzymes of aerobic metabolism contain iron.
Excessive impact stress can cause hemolysis due to extravascular compression and intravascular acidosis, which can cause the following to occur:
- Increase in blood acidity
- Increase in red blood cell transit velocity
- Decrease of the mean life of red blood cells from a normal 120 days to approximately 80 days
Iron depletion is a decrease in serum ferritin levels, which inhibits erythrocyte and hemoglobin levels in the blood. An athlete's ferritin level is the most accurate indicator of his or her iron stores. Distance athletes who run 60 miles or more per week should have their ferritin levels monitored at least twice a year. If blood tests reveal an iron deficiency, the athlete should reduce training volume and consult a sport science doctor or nutritionist to begin a program designed to increase iron stores through good nutrition and iron supplementation.
Coach = Role Model
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach’s dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach’s personal life should also be held to high standards.
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach's dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach's personal life should also be held to high standards.
Coach - Athlete Relationship
A professional boundary must exist between the coach and the athlete, and the coach is responsible for setting that boundary. If physical contact is necessary as part of the coaching process, it must not be interpreted by the athlete or others as anything more than that. When meetings with individual athletes are needed, these meetings should be held in view of others or with an open office door.
No amount of coaching knowledge will guarantee success without a good relationship with the athlete. Athletic competence and confidence rely on a functional, effective coach - athlete relationship. Athletes are unique and need different things from their coaches. Effective coaching involves meeting the needs of every athlete.
The coach - athlete relationship must be professional. The coach should understand that although certain obligations should be met, the nature of the relationship is limited. It is the coach's role to define the limits of the relationship. Although respect is necessary, the coach and the athlete should not be considered peers.
A coach and an athlete may have a close working relationship, but a certain amount of space should remain between them. This is especially true in situations in which the possibility of inappropriate sexual contact may exist or be presumed to exist. The nature of coaching requires paying much attention to the athlete, but this attention should have limits based on the comfort of the athlete. Moreover, the beginning and ending of the coach - athlete relationship should be a matter of agreement.
The nature of the coach - athlete relationship dictates that the coach place demands on the athlete. These demands should be communicated with respect. When reprimand and criticism are necessary, they should be restricted to the athletic domain and administered professionally, privately, immediately, and tactfully without the use of insulting or personal tones.
Coach's Relationships With Others
The coach should demonstrate respect and ethical conduct in interactions with officials, other coaches, opponents, and all others in the athletic setting. The coach should exhibit self-control in disagreements and in emotional situations. Public criticism of other coaches, officials, or athletes is inappropriate.
Coach's Respect for the Rules
The coach should respect the rules and help the athlete develop a respect for the rules as well. Many sets of rules govern any athletic situation. Rules govern not only play, but also participation, eligibility, recruiting, performance-enhancing substances, and other areas. These rules must be respected and followed. When in disagreement, the coach should seek change or protest professionally through the proper channels. Team rules should be simple, easily and fairly enforced, and developed with input from athletes.
Professional Competencies
The coach should work to develop and maintain competence in the duties athletes expect and deserve from coaches. This section discusses such competencies.
Maintenance of a Safe Environment
It is the coach's obligation to make the sport as safe as reasonably possible for those participating. Maintaining safe practice and competition environments is the number one responsibility of the coach. Equipment must be safe, properly fit, and legally maintained. Facilities should be well kept. The coach should be versed in adapting the training program when dangerous climatic factors such as excessive heat, excessive cold, lightning, humidity, rain, and snow so dictate.
Injury Prevention and Management
Injury prevention and initial injury care are the responsibilities of the coach. The coach should be capable of providing first aid, and first-aid materials and equipment should be kept at the practice and competition sites. The coach should work with other professionals such as certified trainers, physical therapists, and medical doctors in the areas of injury management and rehabilitation.
Sound and Appropriate Training and Teaching
The coach should understand the demands and techniques of track and field skills and events. Also, the coach should be versed in developing training programs for track and field events and sound teaching progressions for all skills. An understanding of basic sport sciences will help in this process. The training program should be viewed as a planned path to success. Every athlete is at a unique place on that path, and each demonstrates a unique rate of improvement. Testing and competitions provide feedback the coach can use to evaluate the training and the progress of each athlete. At no time should training be used for the purpose of punishment.
Professional Development and Involvement
The coach has an obligation to improve professionally and continually work through available channels for self-improvement. The coach should consider joining professional organizations and taking a role in the activities of the sport's governing body, USA Track & Field (www.usatf.org). Coaches have a responsibility to assist in developing and improving the sport of track and field, much in the same way they develop their athletes and teams.
Commitment
Success in coaching requires a significant level of commitment. A person should not enter the coaching profession if a willingness to take the time and expend the effort needed to meet the needs of the athletes is lacking. At the same time, even the most dedicated coach has limited time and resources. A coach should be available for coaching or consulting only to a realistic level of commitment.
Achieve success in the throws
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw.
Skills of the Throwing Events
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw. Although the throwing events are similar in some aspects, the movements that lead up to the release may vary.
The shot put consists of three movements: the glide or rotation, the standing power position, and the release. Movements involved in the hammer and discus include body rotation within the boundaries of a ring and rely on centripetal forces and torque, culminating with a release. Unlike the hammer and discus, the javelin requires the athlete to build speed over a linear distance. A successful throw in any of these four events requires the transfer of explosive strength and maximal muscular force onto the object in the shortest possible time.
The importance of muscular strength drives the requirement for throwers to develop leg strength in the early stages of their careers. Strength is so important for a thrower that it often becomes a limiting factor in technique development. Weaker athletes simply cannot develop and refine technique as quickly or effectively as stronger throwers can.
Consistent Implement Acceleration
Although mechanics are important, rhythm is equally important for quality throws. Proper acceleration is a key component of rhythm. For example, the final action of shot-putting in the direction of the throw starts when the rotation of the hips and shoulders stops. At the end of the rotation of the hips and shoulders, the velocity of the shot is just over 6 m/s. After the throwing arm has taken part in the release action through the extension of the elbow and shoulders, the shot velocity increases to just under 7 m/s. The acceleration of the implement must be consistent and positive. The idea of a consistent, progressive acceleration seems simple, but it is often violated. A common error is accelerating the implement too quickly only to decelerate it later. Progressive acceleration is important in both the preliminary movements and the delivery. On a graph, the acceleration rate should map as a gradual curve, without large spikes and dips.
Summation of Force
Force generation normally begins in the proximal joints. The large muscles of the legs and torso initiate the movement and overcome inertia, so that the smaller muscles of the shoulders and arms can further increase the velocity of the implement in the delivery phase. The initial force generated by the proximal-to-distal sequencing of hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion accelerates the athlete-and-implement system. This force must be transmitted to the ground or to an implement through other (distal) joints. For example, although the shoulder (proximal joint) may be producing the force, the force is being transmitted to the shot put through the elbow and wrist (distal joints). Upper-body activity in the delivery and arm strike results from a summation of forces. Although throws differ slightly, proximal-to-distal firing must be preserved. Overall, an optimal coordination pattern appears to be one in which muscle activation and segment acceleration occur in a proximal-to-distal manner with an optimally timed deceleration of body segments leading up to the moment of release.
One of the benefits of a proximal-to-distal coordination pattern is that it generates a whiplike motion. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation is developed between the shoulders and hips. This results in a whip effect as the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil and the implement is released. This deceleration of the hips is critical in an acceleration - deceleration coordination pattern. If the extremity muscles are strong but the core is weak, an adequate summation of forces cannot be created. The result is often technical breakdown and a less-than-optimal performance.
Lengthening the Path of Implement Acceleration
The longer force is applied to the implement, the greater the momentum and velocity will be. To lengthen the amount of time force is applied, the athlete must achieve maximal length in the path of the implement during the delivery. Two ways to lengthen the acceleration path are weight transfer and turning, or using closed throwing positions.
During the delivery phase, body weight is transferred from the back foot to the front foot to increase the body's range of movement and the path of the implement. This transfer of body weight is a crucial component of the throw. The front leg should extend almost completely at the moment of release. However, the timing of initiation and the magnitude of the action of the lower extremity differ considerably between the glide and rotational techniques. Unlike in the glide technique, in the rotational technique the workload is more evenly distributed between the legs during delivery. That is, instead of an initial push with the rear leg and a weight transfer to the front leg, rotators push more simultaneously with both legs.
After arriving in the power position and during the delivery, the center of mass (proximal joints) of the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw. This turning, or rotation, is a crucial component of the throw. The body is turned away from the direction of the throw in the start and power positions, enabling it to turn through a greater angle as the implement is delivered. For more advanced throwers, a slight forward lean of the trunk while in double support helps to maintain balance when the angular velocity of the body is reduced and the absolute velocity of the implement is relatively high. A thrower of shorter stature can take advantage of a longer radius, which allows for a smoother change of kinematic indicators.
Important implications are associated with producing a larger radius in the early parts of the throw. For a given linear speed, a larger radius provides a system that allows the thrower to rotate with a slower angular velocity. A slower rate of rotation permits slower contractions of the muscles involved, which allows these muscles to exert larger forces. This is due to the force - velocity relationship for skeletal muscle. In turn, a larger muscle force results in a larger torque and an increase in the overall angular momentum of the system. Therefore, using a longer radius in the early parts of the throw increases the angular momentum of the system and lengthens the path of the implement.
Separation and Torque
Although the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw, in most situations the upper body and lower body do not turn from the same positions at the same time. This is called separation, referring to the separation between the hip and shoulder about the rotational axis. In addition, throwers generally start to turn the lower body before turning the upper body. This twists the core of the body and creates torque. Force is a push or a pull that changes the linear state of motion of an object or body. The angular equivalent of force is torque. Torque is the turning effect created by a force about an axis. Torque can be increased either by applying greater force or by increasing the radius of rotation. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation occurs between the shoulders and hips. As the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil, the implement is released; this separation results in a whip effect. Separation and torque exist in different degrees in the various throwing events. Both serve to establish a summation of rotational forces, beginning with the lower body and finishing with the upper body.
Blocking
The thrower must eventually stop the momentum created in the body to transfer it to the implement. A good way to do this is to harmoniously blend the left-leg block and the left-arm block. The blocking actions of the upper body in the shot put, discus, and javelin differ slightly based on the unique release mechanics of these events. For example, in the discus, the throwing arm is ideally 90 degrees from the body to maximize radius. The left-side block would be initiated and positioned opposite and equal to the throwing side.
Left-Leg Block
In the left-leg block, the left leg plants firmly in the power position with the left heel pushing into the ground and stopping the horizontal and rotational movement of the left side of the thrower's lower body. This action transfers momentum to the upper body and implement. Proper alignment of the feet is essential to proper blocking. A common error in the shot put, discus, and javelin is to put the left leg too far left of center making blocking impossible. The error of planting the left foot too far to the left is commonly called being in the bucket.
Left-Arm Block
During the delivery phase, the athlete has a long left arm to slow the rotation of the upper body, creating an eccentric stretch of the upper-body musculature and allowing the hips to fire ahead of the upper body. The shoulder girdle movement is a key factor in throwing performance. The left arm begins to shorten at the midline of the body to create a forceful shortening and summation of forces.Desired forceful contractions in athletic endeavors usually are elastic and reflexive, setting up a powerful response of eccentrically stretched muscles, referred to as a volitional concentric response. If the volitional contractions are improperly timed or voluntary involvement by any muscle group is too great, the elastic energy generation of the entire system is diminished, reducing efficiency. The left arm remains long until delivery is initiated, at which time it moves in close to the side of the thrower to help stop the left side of the upper body and transfer momentum to the nonthrowing side. The action of throwing occurs much more efficiently when these stretch reflexes are invoked and elastic energy is developed.
When teaching athletic techniques, coaches should create situations that prestretch the muscles. The hammer is an exception to this rule because it is thrown with both arms. However, on release, the left side of the hammer thrower blocks as the thrower attempts to maximize radius and lift the implement.
Posture
As in many athletic disciplines, posture is an important component of throwing events. Because the core is at the center of nearly all sport movements, the core musculature is a key element of energy generation. The torso's ability to support effective arm and leg actions (core stability) is essential to performance and injury prevention in many sports.
Postural integrity is directly linked to elastic energy generation. Body parts must be stabilized in proper alignment for applied forces to produce displacement without excessive distortion and rotation. Excessive instability or postural misalignment cause postural muscles to overwork to compensate and maintain balance, which restricts their ability to function elastically. However, the postural unit should not be stabilized in a way that restricts movement. Proper posture during athletic endeavors should not be associated with total rigidity, which compromises elastic energy production. Proper alignment of the core of the body is important for movement efficiency and injury prevention.
An important element of posture is head alignment, and it is important in throwing events for several reasons. Improper head alignment affects the technical execution of a skill by impairing limb function. Balance may also be affected, because most of the body's vestibular equipment is disturbed. Finally, the head is quite heavy, so extraneous movements may produce instability. Improper alignment may cause instability, which can elicit stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies and interrupt the technical flow of the throw, causing inconsistencies in performance. Proper alignment of the head ensures relaxation and balance and helps create a good release or arm strike. Dropping the head and turning the head away during the throw are common errors.
Another component of posture, pelvic alignment, is also crucial for efficient throwing. Pelvic misalignment significantly affects the function of the legs and nearly always produces instability. The instability resulting from pelvic misalignment also elicits harmful stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies, which disrupt throwing technique. A neutral alignment of the pelvis with respect to the spine promotes relaxation, proper leg function, and good turning. Excessive bending at the waist after arriving in the power position, a common mistake, places the pelvis in an inferior position.
Hydration, heat, nutrition for endurance events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training.
Safety in the Endurance Events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training. Coaches should give thought to the training surface and appropriate footwear for the athletes given the conditions.
Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration. Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention. Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.
Dehydration
Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump (think water versus molasses). On average, males can lose 2.0 liters (or quarts) per hour through sweating; females, 1.1 liters per hour. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight. Each pound (about 0.5 kg) of fluid loss needs to be replaced by 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of water. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of fluid containing electrolytes per pound (about 0.5 kg) of body weight lost during exercise. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions. In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume 120 to 400 calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids.
Heat
Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate. In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C), the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.5 percent. If the temperature is above 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 °C) and the humidity is above 70 percent, running outside should be avoided. The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat.
Great care needs to be taken when an athlete travels from a cooler climate to a warmer climate or when the daily temperature rises significantly. The body takes 5 to 8 days to significantly acclimatize to warmer conditions, and 14 days to reach near-maximal acclimatization.
Heatstroke is a medical emergency and should be treated immediately by getting the runner into an air-conditioned, or at least cooler and shaded, environment. Attempts to bring down the athlete's body temperature through the use of water and ice should begin immediately while medical assistance is sought.
Iron
Inadequate body iron reserves affect the athlete's adaptation to training. Low iron limits the quality and quantity of high-level endurance work output. Fitness is built by the athlete adapting to the training stimulus, and this adaptation requires iron.
Iron deficiency, which is more common in female athletes, can cause overtraining symptoms. A decrease in iron stores can cause a decrease in aerobic capacity since iron is part of hemoglobin, which carries 98.5 percent of blood's oxygen, and more than half of the enzymes of aerobic metabolism contain iron.
Excessive impact stress can cause hemolysis due to extravascular compression and intravascular acidosis, which can cause the following to occur:
- Increase in blood acidity
- Increase in red blood cell transit velocity
- Decrease of the mean life of red blood cells from a normal 120 days to approximately 80 days
Iron depletion is a decrease in serum ferritin levels, which inhibits erythrocyte and hemoglobin levels in the blood. An athlete's ferritin level is the most accurate indicator of his or her iron stores. Distance athletes who run 60 miles or more per week should have their ferritin levels monitored at least twice a year. If blood tests reveal an iron deficiency, the athlete should reduce training volume and consult a sport science doctor or nutritionist to begin a program designed to increase iron stores through good nutrition and iron supplementation.
Coach = Role Model
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach’s dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach’s personal life should also be held to high standards.
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach's dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach's personal life should also be held to high standards.
Coach - Athlete Relationship
A professional boundary must exist between the coach and the athlete, and the coach is responsible for setting that boundary. If physical contact is necessary as part of the coaching process, it must not be interpreted by the athlete or others as anything more than that. When meetings with individual athletes are needed, these meetings should be held in view of others or with an open office door.
No amount of coaching knowledge will guarantee success without a good relationship with the athlete. Athletic competence and confidence rely on a functional, effective coach - athlete relationship. Athletes are unique and need different things from their coaches. Effective coaching involves meeting the needs of every athlete.
The coach - athlete relationship must be professional. The coach should understand that although certain obligations should be met, the nature of the relationship is limited. It is the coach's role to define the limits of the relationship. Although respect is necessary, the coach and the athlete should not be considered peers.
A coach and an athlete may have a close working relationship, but a certain amount of space should remain between them. This is especially true in situations in which the possibility of inappropriate sexual contact may exist or be presumed to exist. The nature of coaching requires paying much attention to the athlete, but this attention should have limits based on the comfort of the athlete. Moreover, the beginning and ending of the coach - athlete relationship should be a matter of agreement.
The nature of the coach - athlete relationship dictates that the coach place demands on the athlete. These demands should be communicated with respect. When reprimand and criticism are necessary, they should be restricted to the athletic domain and administered professionally, privately, immediately, and tactfully without the use of insulting or personal tones.
Coach's Relationships With Others
The coach should demonstrate respect and ethical conduct in interactions with officials, other coaches, opponents, and all others in the athletic setting. The coach should exhibit self-control in disagreements and in emotional situations. Public criticism of other coaches, officials, or athletes is inappropriate.
Coach's Respect for the Rules
The coach should respect the rules and help the athlete develop a respect for the rules as well. Many sets of rules govern any athletic situation. Rules govern not only play, but also participation, eligibility, recruiting, performance-enhancing substances, and other areas. These rules must be respected and followed. When in disagreement, the coach should seek change or protest professionally through the proper channels. Team rules should be simple, easily and fairly enforced, and developed with input from athletes.
Professional Competencies
The coach should work to develop and maintain competence in the duties athletes expect and deserve from coaches. This section discusses such competencies.
Maintenance of a Safe Environment
It is the coach's obligation to make the sport as safe as reasonably possible for those participating. Maintaining safe practice and competition environments is the number one responsibility of the coach. Equipment must be safe, properly fit, and legally maintained. Facilities should be well kept. The coach should be versed in adapting the training program when dangerous climatic factors such as excessive heat, excessive cold, lightning, humidity, rain, and snow so dictate.
Injury Prevention and Management
Injury prevention and initial injury care are the responsibilities of the coach. The coach should be capable of providing first aid, and first-aid materials and equipment should be kept at the practice and competition sites. The coach should work with other professionals such as certified trainers, physical therapists, and medical doctors in the areas of injury management and rehabilitation.
Sound and Appropriate Training and Teaching
The coach should understand the demands and techniques of track and field skills and events. Also, the coach should be versed in developing training programs for track and field events and sound teaching progressions for all skills. An understanding of basic sport sciences will help in this process. The training program should be viewed as a planned path to success. Every athlete is at a unique place on that path, and each demonstrates a unique rate of improvement. Testing and competitions provide feedback the coach can use to evaluate the training and the progress of each athlete. At no time should training be used for the purpose of punishment.
Professional Development and Involvement
The coach has an obligation to improve professionally and continually work through available channels for self-improvement. The coach should consider joining professional organizations and taking a role in the activities of the sport's governing body, USA Track & Field (www.usatf.org). Coaches have a responsibility to assist in developing and improving the sport of track and field, much in the same way they develop their athletes and teams.
Commitment
Success in coaching requires a significant level of commitment. A person should not enter the coaching profession if a willingness to take the time and expend the effort needed to meet the needs of the athletes is lacking. At the same time, even the most dedicated coach has limited time and resources. A coach should be available for coaching or consulting only to a realistic level of commitment.
Achieve success in the throws
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw.
Skills of the Throwing Events
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw. Although the throwing events are similar in some aspects, the movements that lead up to the release may vary.
The shot put consists of three movements: the glide or rotation, the standing power position, and the release. Movements involved in the hammer and discus include body rotation within the boundaries of a ring and rely on centripetal forces and torque, culminating with a release. Unlike the hammer and discus, the javelin requires the athlete to build speed over a linear distance. A successful throw in any of these four events requires the transfer of explosive strength and maximal muscular force onto the object in the shortest possible time.
The importance of muscular strength drives the requirement for throwers to develop leg strength in the early stages of their careers. Strength is so important for a thrower that it often becomes a limiting factor in technique development. Weaker athletes simply cannot develop and refine technique as quickly or effectively as stronger throwers can.
Consistent Implement Acceleration
Although mechanics are important, rhythm is equally important for quality throws. Proper acceleration is a key component of rhythm. For example, the final action of shot-putting in the direction of the throw starts when the rotation of the hips and shoulders stops. At the end of the rotation of the hips and shoulders, the velocity of the shot is just over 6 m/s. After the throwing arm has taken part in the release action through the extension of the elbow and shoulders, the shot velocity increases to just under 7 m/s. The acceleration of the implement must be consistent and positive. The idea of a consistent, progressive acceleration seems simple, but it is often violated. A common error is accelerating the implement too quickly only to decelerate it later. Progressive acceleration is important in both the preliminary movements and the delivery. On a graph, the acceleration rate should map as a gradual curve, without large spikes and dips.
Summation of Force
Force generation normally begins in the proximal joints. The large muscles of the legs and torso initiate the movement and overcome inertia, so that the smaller muscles of the shoulders and arms can further increase the velocity of the implement in the delivery phase. The initial force generated by the proximal-to-distal sequencing of hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion accelerates the athlete-and-implement system. This force must be transmitted to the ground or to an implement through other (distal) joints. For example, although the shoulder (proximal joint) may be producing the force, the force is being transmitted to the shot put through the elbow and wrist (distal joints). Upper-body activity in the delivery and arm strike results from a summation of forces. Although throws differ slightly, proximal-to-distal firing must be preserved. Overall, an optimal coordination pattern appears to be one in which muscle activation and segment acceleration occur in a proximal-to-distal manner with an optimally timed deceleration of body segments leading up to the moment of release.
One of the benefits of a proximal-to-distal coordination pattern is that it generates a whiplike motion. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation is developed between the shoulders and hips. This results in a whip effect as the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil and the implement is released. This deceleration of the hips is critical in an acceleration - deceleration coordination pattern. If the extremity muscles are strong but the core is weak, an adequate summation of forces cannot be created. The result is often technical breakdown and a less-than-optimal performance.
Lengthening the Path of Implement Acceleration
The longer force is applied to the implement, the greater the momentum and velocity will be. To lengthen the amount of time force is applied, the athlete must achieve maximal length in the path of the implement during the delivery. Two ways to lengthen the acceleration path are weight transfer and turning, or using closed throwing positions.
During the delivery phase, body weight is transferred from the back foot to the front foot to increase the body's range of movement and the path of the implement. This transfer of body weight is a crucial component of the throw. The front leg should extend almost completely at the moment of release. However, the timing of initiation and the magnitude of the action of the lower extremity differ considerably between the glide and rotational techniques. Unlike in the glide technique, in the rotational technique the workload is more evenly distributed between the legs during delivery. That is, instead of an initial push with the rear leg and a weight transfer to the front leg, rotators push more simultaneously with both legs.
After arriving in the power position and during the delivery, the center of mass (proximal joints) of the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw. This turning, or rotation, is a crucial component of the throw. The body is turned away from the direction of the throw in the start and power positions, enabling it to turn through a greater angle as the implement is delivered. For more advanced throwers, a slight forward lean of the trunk while in double support helps to maintain balance when the angular velocity of the body is reduced and the absolute velocity of the implement is relatively high. A thrower of shorter stature can take advantage of a longer radius, which allows for a smoother change of kinematic indicators.
Important implications are associated with producing a larger radius in the early parts of the throw. For a given linear speed, a larger radius provides a system that allows the thrower to rotate with a slower angular velocity. A slower rate of rotation permits slower contractions of the muscles involved, which allows these muscles to exert larger forces. This is due to the force - velocity relationship for skeletal muscle. In turn, a larger muscle force results in a larger torque and an increase in the overall angular momentum of the system. Therefore, using a longer radius in the early parts of the throw increases the angular momentum of the system and lengthens the path of the implement.
Separation and Torque
Although the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw, in most situations the upper body and lower body do not turn from the same positions at the same time. This is called separation, referring to the separation between the hip and shoulder about the rotational axis. In addition, throwers generally start to turn the lower body before turning the upper body. This twists the core of the body and creates torque. Force is a push or a pull that changes the linear state of motion of an object or body. The angular equivalent of force is torque. Torque is the turning effect created by a force about an axis. Torque can be increased either by applying greater force or by increasing the radius of rotation. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation occurs between the shoulders and hips. As the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil, the implement is released; this separation results in a whip effect. Separation and torque exist in different degrees in the various throwing events. Both serve to establish a summation of rotational forces, beginning with the lower body and finishing with the upper body.
Blocking
The thrower must eventually stop the momentum created in the body to transfer it to the implement. A good way to do this is to harmoniously blend the left-leg block and the left-arm block. The blocking actions of the upper body in the shot put, discus, and javelin differ slightly based on the unique release mechanics of these events. For example, in the discus, the throwing arm is ideally 90 degrees from the body to maximize radius. The left-side block would be initiated and positioned opposite and equal to the throwing side.
Left-Leg Block
In the left-leg block, the left leg plants firmly in the power position with the left heel pushing into the ground and stopping the horizontal and rotational movement of the left side of the thrower's lower body. This action transfers momentum to the upper body and implement. Proper alignment of the feet is essential to proper blocking. A common error in the shot put, discus, and javelin is to put the left leg too far left of center making blocking impossible. The error of planting the left foot too far to the left is commonly called being in the bucket.
Left-Arm Block
During the delivery phase, the athlete has a long left arm to slow the rotation of the upper body, creating an eccentric stretch of the upper-body musculature and allowing the hips to fire ahead of the upper body. The shoulder girdle movement is a key factor in throwing performance. The left arm begins to shorten at the midline of the body to create a forceful shortening and summation of forces.Desired forceful contractions in athletic endeavors usually are elastic and reflexive, setting up a powerful response of eccentrically stretched muscles, referred to as a volitional concentric response. If the volitional contractions are improperly timed or voluntary involvement by any muscle group is too great, the elastic energy generation of the entire system is diminished, reducing efficiency. The left arm remains long until delivery is initiated, at which time it moves in close to the side of the thrower to help stop the left side of the upper body and transfer momentum to the nonthrowing side. The action of throwing occurs much more efficiently when these stretch reflexes are invoked and elastic energy is developed.
When teaching athletic techniques, coaches should create situations that prestretch the muscles. The hammer is an exception to this rule because it is thrown with both arms. However, on release, the left side of the hammer thrower blocks as the thrower attempts to maximize radius and lift the implement.
Posture
As in many athletic disciplines, posture is an important component of throwing events. Because the core is at the center of nearly all sport movements, the core musculature is a key element of energy generation. The torso's ability to support effective arm and leg actions (core stability) is essential to performance and injury prevention in many sports.
Postural integrity is directly linked to elastic energy generation. Body parts must be stabilized in proper alignment for applied forces to produce displacement without excessive distortion and rotation. Excessive instability or postural misalignment cause postural muscles to overwork to compensate and maintain balance, which restricts their ability to function elastically. However, the postural unit should not be stabilized in a way that restricts movement. Proper posture during athletic endeavors should not be associated with total rigidity, which compromises elastic energy production. Proper alignment of the core of the body is important for movement efficiency and injury prevention.
An important element of posture is head alignment, and it is important in throwing events for several reasons. Improper head alignment affects the technical execution of a skill by impairing limb function. Balance may also be affected, because most of the body's vestibular equipment is disturbed. Finally, the head is quite heavy, so extraneous movements may produce instability. Improper alignment may cause instability, which can elicit stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies and interrupt the technical flow of the throw, causing inconsistencies in performance. Proper alignment of the head ensures relaxation and balance and helps create a good release or arm strike. Dropping the head and turning the head away during the throw are common errors.
Another component of posture, pelvic alignment, is also crucial for efficient throwing. Pelvic misalignment significantly affects the function of the legs and nearly always produces instability. The instability resulting from pelvic misalignment also elicits harmful stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies, which disrupt throwing technique. A neutral alignment of the pelvis with respect to the spine promotes relaxation, proper leg function, and good turning. Excessive bending at the waist after arriving in the power position, a common mistake, places the pelvis in an inferior position.
Hydration, heat, nutrition for endurance events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training.
Safety in the Endurance Events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training. Coaches should give thought to the training surface and appropriate footwear for the athletes given the conditions.
Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration. Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention. Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.
Dehydration
Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump (think water versus molasses). On average, males can lose 2.0 liters (or quarts) per hour through sweating; females, 1.1 liters per hour. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight. Each pound (about 0.5 kg) of fluid loss needs to be replaced by 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of water. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of fluid containing electrolytes per pound (about 0.5 kg) of body weight lost during exercise. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions. In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume 120 to 400 calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids.
Heat
Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate. In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C), the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.5 percent. If the temperature is above 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 °C) and the humidity is above 70 percent, running outside should be avoided. The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat.
Great care needs to be taken when an athlete travels from a cooler climate to a warmer climate or when the daily temperature rises significantly. The body takes 5 to 8 days to significantly acclimatize to warmer conditions, and 14 days to reach near-maximal acclimatization.
Heatstroke is a medical emergency and should be treated immediately by getting the runner into an air-conditioned, or at least cooler and shaded, environment. Attempts to bring down the athlete's body temperature through the use of water and ice should begin immediately while medical assistance is sought.
Iron
Inadequate body iron reserves affect the athlete's adaptation to training. Low iron limits the quality and quantity of high-level endurance work output. Fitness is built by the athlete adapting to the training stimulus, and this adaptation requires iron.
Iron deficiency, which is more common in female athletes, can cause overtraining symptoms. A decrease in iron stores can cause a decrease in aerobic capacity since iron is part of hemoglobin, which carries 98.5 percent of blood's oxygen, and more than half of the enzymes of aerobic metabolism contain iron.
Excessive impact stress can cause hemolysis due to extravascular compression and intravascular acidosis, which can cause the following to occur:
- Increase in blood acidity
- Increase in red blood cell transit velocity
- Decrease of the mean life of red blood cells from a normal 120 days to approximately 80 days
Iron depletion is a decrease in serum ferritin levels, which inhibits erythrocyte and hemoglobin levels in the blood. An athlete's ferritin level is the most accurate indicator of his or her iron stores. Distance athletes who run 60 miles or more per week should have their ferritin levels monitored at least twice a year. If blood tests reveal an iron deficiency, the athlete should reduce training volume and consult a sport science doctor or nutritionist to begin a program designed to increase iron stores through good nutrition and iron supplementation.
Coach = Role Model
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach’s dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach’s personal life should also be held to high standards.
The coach, by the very nature of the position, is a role model for athletes and a representative of an entire profession and sport. The coach's dress, behavior, and relationship with others should be professional. Because of the position of authority and responsibility, the coach's personal life should also be held to high standards.
Coach - Athlete Relationship
A professional boundary must exist between the coach and the athlete, and the coach is responsible for setting that boundary. If physical contact is necessary as part of the coaching process, it must not be interpreted by the athlete or others as anything more than that. When meetings with individual athletes are needed, these meetings should be held in view of others or with an open office door.
No amount of coaching knowledge will guarantee success without a good relationship with the athlete. Athletic competence and confidence rely on a functional, effective coach - athlete relationship. Athletes are unique and need different things from their coaches. Effective coaching involves meeting the needs of every athlete.
The coach - athlete relationship must be professional. The coach should understand that although certain obligations should be met, the nature of the relationship is limited. It is the coach's role to define the limits of the relationship. Although respect is necessary, the coach and the athlete should not be considered peers.
A coach and an athlete may have a close working relationship, but a certain amount of space should remain between them. This is especially true in situations in which the possibility of inappropriate sexual contact may exist or be presumed to exist. The nature of coaching requires paying much attention to the athlete, but this attention should have limits based on the comfort of the athlete. Moreover, the beginning and ending of the coach - athlete relationship should be a matter of agreement.
The nature of the coach - athlete relationship dictates that the coach place demands on the athlete. These demands should be communicated with respect. When reprimand and criticism are necessary, they should be restricted to the athletic domain and administered professionally, privately, immediately, and tactfully without the use of insulting or personal tones.
Coach's Relationships With Others
The coach should demonstrate respect and ethical conduct in interactions with officials, other coaches, opponents, and all others in the athletic setting. The coach should exhibit self-control in disagreements and in emotional situations. Public criticism of other coaches, officials, or athletes is inappropriate.
Coach's Respect for the Rules
The coach should respect the rules and help the athlete develop a respect for the rules as well. Many sets of rules govern any athletic situation. Rules govern not only play, but also participation, eligibility, recruiting, performance-enhancing substances, and other areas. These rules must be respected and followed. When in disagreement, the coach should seek change or protest professionally through the proper channels. Team rules should be simple, easily and fairly enforced, and developed with input from athletes.
Professional Competencies
The coach should work to develop and maintain competence in the duties athletes expect and deserve from coaches. This section discusses such competencies.
Maintenance of a Safe Environment
It is the coach's obligation to make the sport as safe as reasonably possible for those participating. Maintaining safe practice and competition environments is the number one responsibility of the coach. Equipment must be safe, properly fit, and legally maintained. Facilities should be well kept. The coach should be versed in adapting the training program when dangerous climatic factors such as excessive heat, excessive cold, lightning, humidity, rain, and snow so dictate.
Injury Prevention and Management
Injury prevention and initial injury care are the responsibilities of the coach. The coach should be capable of providing first aid, and first-aid materials and equipment should be kept at the practice and competition sites. The coach should work with other professionals such as certified trainers, physical therapists, and medical doctors in the areas of injury management and rehabilitation.
Sound and Appropriate Training and Teaching
The coach should understand the demands and techniques of track and field skills and events. Also, the coach should be versed in developing training programs for track and field events and sound teaching progressions for all skills. An understanding of basic sport sciences will help in this process. The training program should be viewed as a planned path to success. Every athlete is at a unique place on that path, and each demonstrates a unique rate of improvement. Testing and competitions provide feedback the coach can use to evaluate the training and the progress of each athlete. At no time should training be used for the purpose of punishment.
Professional Development and Involvement
The coach has an obligation to improve professionally and continually work through available channels for self-improvement. The coach should consider joining professional organizations and taking a role in the activities of the sport's governing body, USA Track & Field (www.usatf.org). Coaches have a responsibility to assist in developing and improving the sport of track and field, much in the same way they develop their athletes and teams.
Commitment
Success in coaching requires a significant level of commitment. A person should not enter the coaching profession if a willingness to take the time and expend the effort needed to meet the needs of the athletes is lacking. At the same time, even the most dedicated coach has limited time and resources. A coach should be available for coaching or consulting only to a realistic level of commitment.
Achieve success in the throws
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw.
Skills of the Throwing Events
Success in the throws depends on the consistent performance of skills and techniques. Some of the skills required for throwing may seem unnatural at first. The summation of all forces leading up to the release of the implement directly affects the throw. Although the throwing events are similar in some aspects, the movements that lead up to the release may vary.
The shot put consists of three movements: the glide or rotation, the standing power position, and the release. Movements involved in the hammer and discus include body rotation within the boundaries of a ring and rely on centripetal forces and torque, culminating with a release. Unlike the hammer and discus, the javelin requires the athlete to build speed over a linear distance. A successful throw in any of these four events requires the transfer of explosive strength and maximal muscular force onto the object in the shortest possible time.
The importance of muscular strength drives the requirement for throwers to develop leg strength in the early stages of their careers. Strength is so important for a thrower that it often becomes a limiting factor in technique development. Weaker athletes simply cannot develop and refine technique as quickly or effectively as stronger throwers can.
Consistent Implement Acceleration
Although mechanics are important, rhythm is equally important for quality throws. Proper acceleration is a key component of rhythm. For example, the final action of shot-putting in the direction of the throw starts when the rotation of the hips and shoulders stops. At the end of the rotation of the hips and shoulders, the velocity of the shot is just over 6 m/s. After the throwing arm has taken part in the release action through the extension of the elbow and shoulders, the shot velocity increases to just under 7 m/s. The acceleration of the implement must be consistent and positive. The idea of a consistent, progressive acceleration seems simple, but it is often violated. A common error is accelerating the implement too quickly only to decelerate it later. Progressive acceleration is important in both the preliminary movements and the delivery. On a graph, the acceleration rate should map as a gradual curve, without large spikes and dips.
Summation of Force
Force generation normally begins in the proximal joints. The large muscles of the legs and torso initiate the movement and overcome inertia, so that the smaller muscles of the shoulders and arms can further increase the velocity of the implement in the delivery phase. The initial force generated by the proximal-to-distal sequencing of hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion accelerates the athlete-and-implement system. This force must be transmitted to the ground or to an implement through other (distal) joints. For example, although the shoulder (proximal joint) may be producing the force, the force is being transmitted to the shot put through the elbow and wrist (distal joints). Upper-body activity in the delivery and arm strike results from a summation of forces. Although throws differ slightly, proximal-to-distal firing must be preserved. Overall, an optimal coordination pattern appears to be one in which muscle activation and segment acceleration occur in a proximal-to-distal manner with an optimally timed deceleration of body segments leading up to the moment of release.
One of the benefits of a proximal-to-distal coordination pattern is that it generates a whiplike motion. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation is developed between the shoulders and hips. This results in a whip effect as the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil and the implement is released. This deceleration of the hips is critical in an acceleration - deceleration coordination pattern. If the extremity muscles are strong but the core is weak, an adequate summation of forces cannot be created. The result is often technical breakdown and a less-than-optimal performance.
Lengthening the Path of Implement Acceleration
The longer force is applied to the implement, the greater the momentum and velocity will be. To lengthen the amount of time force is applied, the athlete must achieve maximal length in the path of the implement during the delivery. Two ways to lengthen the acceleration path are weight transfer and turning, or using closed throwing positions.
During the delivery phase, body weight is transferred from the back foot to the front foot to increase the body's range of movement and the path of the implement. This transfer of body weight is a crucial component of the throw. The front leg should extend almost completely at the moment of release. However, the timing of initiation and the magnitude of the action of the lower extremity differ considerably between the glide and rotational techniques. Unlike in the glide technique, in the rotational technique the workload is more evenly distributed between the legs during delivery. That is, instead of an initial push with the rear leg and a weight transfer to the front leg, rotators push more simultaneously with both legs.
After arriving in the power position and during the delivery, the center of mass (proximal joints) of the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw. This turning, or rotation, is a crucial component of the throw. The body is turned away from the direction of the throw in the start and power positions, enabling it to turn through a greater angle as the implement is delivered. For more advanced throwers, a slight forward lean of the trunk while in double support helps to maintain balance when the angular velocity of the body is reduced and the absolute velocity of the implement is relatively high. A thrower of shorter stature can take advantage of a longer radius, which allows for a smoother change of kinematic indicators.
Important implications are associated with producing a larger radius in the early parts of the throw. For a given linear speed, a larger radius provides a system that allows the thrower to rotate with a slower angular velocity. A slower rate of rotation permits slower contractions of the muscles involved, which allows these muscles to exert larger forces. This is due to the force - velocity relationship for skeletal muscle. In turn, a larger muscle force results in a larger torque and an increase in the overall angular momentum of the system. Therefore, using a longer radius in the early parts of the throw increases the angular momentum of the system and lengthens the path of the implement.
Separation and Torque
Although the body turns smoothly and progressively in the direction of the throw, in most situations the upper body and lower body do not turn from the same positions at the same time. This is called separation, referring to the separation between the hip and shoulder about the rotational axis. In addition, throwers generally start to turn the lower body before turning the upper body. This twists the core of the body and creates torque. Force is a push or a pull that changes the linear state of motion of an object or body. The angular equivalent of force is torque. Torque is the turning effect created by a force about an axis. Torque can be increased either by applying greater force or by increasing the radius of rotation. When the upper leg and trunk musculature are the first to contract, greater separation occurs between the shoulders and hips. As the hips decelerate and the shoulders accelerate as they uncoil, the implement is released; this separation results in a whip effect. Separation and torque exist in different degrees in the various throwing events. Both serve to establish a summation of rotational forces, beginning with the lower body and finishing with the upper body.
Blocking
The thrower must eventually stop the momentum created in the body to transfer it to the implement. A good way to do this is to harmoniously blend the left-leg block and the left-arm block. The blocking actions of the upper body in the shot put, discus, and javelin differ slightly based on the unique release mechanics of these events. For example, in the discus, the throwing arm is ideally 90 degrees from the body to maximize radius. The left-side block would be initiated and positioned opposite and equal to the throwing side.
Left-Leg Block
In the left-leg block, the left leg plants firmly in the power position with the left heel pushing into the ground and stopping the horizontal and rotational movement of the left side of the thrower's lower body. This action transfers momentum to the upper body and implement. Proper alignment of the feet is essential to proper blocking. A common error in the shot put, discus, and javelin is to put the left leg too far left of center making blocking impossible. The error of planting the left foot too far to the left is commonly called being in the bucket.
Left-Arm Block
During the delivery phase, the athlete has a long left arm to slow the rotation of the upper body, creating an eccentric stretch of the upper-body musculature and allowing the hips to fire ahead of the upper body. The shoulder girdle movement is a key factor in throwing performance. The left arm begins to shorten at the midline of the body to create a forceful shortening and summation of forces.Desired forceful contractions in athletic endeavors usually are elastic and reflexive, setting up a powerful response of eccentrically stretched muscles, referred to as a volitional concentric response. If the volitional contractions are improperly timed or voluntary involvement by any muscle group is too great, the elastic energy generation of the entire system is diminished, reducing efficiency. The left arm remains long until delivery is initiated, at which time it moves in close to the side of the thrower to help stop the left side of the upper body and transfer momentum to the nonthrowing side. The action of throwing occurs much more efficiently when these stretch reflexes are invoked and elastic energy is developed.
When teaching athletic techniques, coaches should create situations that prestretch the muscles. The hammer is an exception to this rule because it is thrown with both arms. However, on release, the left side of the hammer thrower blocks as the thrower attempts to maximize radius and lift the implement.
Posture
As in many athletic disciplines, posture is an important component of throwing events. Because the core is at the center of nearly all sport movements, the core musculature is a key element of energy generation. The torso's ability to support effective arm and leg actions (core stability) is essential to performance and injury prevention in many sports.
Postural integrity is directly linked to elastic energy generation. Body parts must be stabilized in proper alignment for applied forces to produce displacement without excessive distortion and rotation. Excessive instability or postural misalignment cause postural muscles to overwork to compensate and maintain balance, which restricts their ability to function elastically. However, the postural unit should not be stabilized in a way that restricts movement. Proper posture during athletic endeavors should not be associated with total rigidity, which compromises elastic energy production. Proper alignment of the core of the body is important for movement efficiency and injury prevention.
An important element of posture is head alignment, and it is important in throwing events for several reasons. Improper head alignment affects the technical execution of a skill by impairing limb function. Balance may also be affected, because most of the body's vestibular equipment is disturbed. Finally, the head is quite heavy, so extraneous movements may produce instability. Improper alignment may cause instability, which can elicit stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies and interrupt the technical flow of the throw, causing inconsistencies in performance. Proper alignment of the head ensures relaxation and balance and helps create a good release or arm strike. Dropping the head and turning the head away during the throw are common errors.
Another component of posture, pelvic alignment, is also crucial for efficient throwing. Pelvic misalignment significantly affects the function of the legs and nearly always produces instability. The instability resulting from pelvic misalignment also elicits harmful stiffening, multilink, or grounding strategies, which disrupt throwing technique. A neutral alignment of the pelvis with respect to the spine promotes relaxation, proper leg function, and good turning. Excessive bending at the waist after arriving in the power position, a common mistake, places the pelvis in an inferior position.
Hydration, heat, nutrition for endurance events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training.
Safety in the Endurance Events
Good safety practices should be used when training endurance athletes. Because of the high volume of work, special problems arise. A proper training program balances intensity and volume and provides event-specific flexibility, strength, and drill training. Coaches should give thought to the training surface and appropriate footwear for the athletes given the conditions.
Because most endurance training programs include a great deal of training off the track, safety when running near traffic and other hazards is an important consideration. Overtraining and heat-related problems are significant issues in these events; avoiding these situations is an important part of safety and injury prevention. Hydration, environmental conditions, and nutrition are also more significant in the endurance events because of their longer duration.
Dehydration
Dehydration thickens the blood and makes it harder to pump (think water versus molasses). On average, males can lose 2.0 liters (or quarts) per hour through sweating; females, 1.1 liters per hour. In warm weather athletes should restrict their fluid loss to 1 to 2 percent of their total body weight. Each pound (about 0.5 kg) of fluid loss needs to be replaced by 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of water. Runners should consume 16 to 24 ounces (473 to 710 ml) of fluid containing electrolytes per pound (about 0.5 kg) of body weight lost during exercise. These figures are estimates; there is great variability among individuals and environmental conditions. In addition, for optimal performance for events lasting longer than one hour, athletes should consume 120 to 400 calories per hour during the event either as fluids or in addition to fluids.
Heat
Performance in endurance events can be significantly affected by extremes in climate. In regard to heat, the longer the event, the greater the impact. In the case of the marathon, for every 5 degrees the temperature rises above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3 degrees it rises above 10 °C), the athlete's final time typically increases by about 0.5 percent. If the temperature is above 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 °C) and the humidity is above 70 percent, running outside should be avoided. The body sheds heat through the evaporation of sweat. When humidity is high, evaporative cooling is inhibited, and so is the body's ability to shed heat.
Great care needs to be taken when an athlete travels from a cooler climate to a warmer climate or when the daily temperature rises significantly. The body takes 5 to 8 days to significantly acclimatize to warmer conditions, and 14 days to reach near-maximal acclimatization.
Heatstroke is a medical emergency and should be treated immediately by getting the runner into an air-conditioned, or at least cooler and shaded, environment. Attempts to bring down the athlete's body temperature through the use of water and ice should begin immediately while medical assistance is sought.
Iron
Inadequate body iron reserves affect the athlete's adaptation to training. Low iron limits the quality and quantity of high-level endurance work output. Fitness is built by the athlete adapting to the training stimulus, and this adaptation requires iron.
Iron deficiency, which is more common in female athletes, can cause overtraining symptoms. A decrease in iron stores can cause a decrease in aerobic capacity since iron is part of hemoglobin, which carries 98.5 percent of blood's oxygen, and more than half of the enzymes of aerobic metabolism contain iron.
Excessive impact stress can cause hemolysis due to extravascular compression and intravascular acidosis, which can cause the following to occur:
- Increase in blood acidity
- Increase in red blood cell transit velocity
- Decrease of the mean life of red blood cells from a normal 120 days to approximately 80 days
Iron depletion is a decrease in serum ferritin levels, which inhibits erythrocyte and hemoglobin levels in the blood. An athlete's ferritin level is the most accurate indicator of his or her iron stores. Distance athletes who run 60 miles or more per week should have their ferritin levels monitored at least twice a year. If blood tests reveal an iron deficiency, the athlete should reduce training volume and consult a sport science doctor or nutritionist to begin a program designed to increase iron stores through good nutrition and iron supplementation.