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Every dancer of every age, ability, and style should be able to engage fully in the act of dancing and be encouraged to achieve their potential without risk of harm to the body or mind. Practical information on all aspects of safe practice that is not too simplistic or complex has not always been easy to find.
Enter Safe Dance Practice, by Edel Quin, Sonia Rafferty, and Charlotte Tomlinson. With nearly 60 years of collective experience in the dance profession as creative artists, teachers, and researchers, the authors translate extensive research and evidence-based practice in order to present the principles of safe practice that are essential to any dance experience.
Guidelines in Implementing Principles
The authors offer evidence-based guidelines on implementing diverse principles in practice, informing and supporting dance practitioners in an ever-growing pool of styles and genres. These guidelines and principles are of use not only to dancers and dance educators but also to choreographers, rehearsal and company directors, and studio managers. The information is underpinned by research in dance science and applied with contextual delivery in mind, ensuring an engaging experience for those accessing the book.
Benefits to Readers
The authors guide readers in these aspects:
• Facilitating a physically and psychologically safe and supportive dance environment
• Understanding principles of anatomy and biomechanically sound alignment
• Implementing effective physiological preparation and progression through warm-up and cool-down protocols as well as supplementary fitness and conditioning
• Minimizing risk of injury and understanding injury management aligned with appropriate rest and recovery strategies
• Incorporating advice on nutrition and hydration for enhanced performance and healthy dance practice
• Tailoring delivery to the specific needs and demographics of participants for diverse engagement with dance
• Evaluating personal practice in order to assess and monitor effective application of the principles
Holistic and Inclusive Approach
Safe Dance Practice takes a multidisciplinary approach to the components of dancing safely, integrating principles without compromising dancers’ artistic creativity and expression. The authors examine not only the immediate variables associated with occurrence of injury but also delve into contributing factors, such as nutrition, alignment, rest and recovery, and supplementary fitness and conditioning.
This comprehensive approach is evident throughout, including a dedicated chapter that will help readers apply the principles to dancers of diverse ages, standards, and physical abilities.
Features of the Book
Safe Dance Practice includes
• diagrams that illustrate ideal and compensated alignment and posture, which readers can apply when assessing all dancers in all genres;
• case studies that help readers contextualize their learning as they see it portrayed in an applied environment;
• at-a-glance chapter summaries and highlighted key points to help readers retain criticaal information;
• cross-referencing to guide readers to related information in other areas of the book; and
• sources for additional information.
Safe Dance Practice contains 11 chapters, which can be accessed sequentially or studied in any order. The first eight chapters present environmental, anatomical, physical, and psychological principles of safe dance practice. Each chapter includes strategies and examples for putting the principles into practice in relation to dance styles and settings. Chapter 9 focuses on injury awareness and management, and chapter 10 offers guidelines on adapting the principles to a range of dance populations. Chapter 11 helps readers to understand the value of continued monitoring of their practice and includes a checklist of safe practices. Six appendixes supply a series of aids and templates to use as learning resources for ongoing professional development.
This text offers pragmatic recommendations from the authors, who combine scientific fact with experience. The principles are presented in a practical fashion with many specific examples. The take-home messages, checklists, and templates make this text accessible and valuable.
Bridging the Gap Between Science and Practice
Safe Dance Practice bridges the gap between academic research and its application for dancers and educators in all levels and genres. It illuminates the principles of working safely in dance so as to support best practice and encourages all dance practitioners and leaders to better understand, communicate, and apply principles of safe dance practice.
With its applied perspective on dance science, Safe Dance Practice will resonate with readers who want their dance experience to be factually endorsed while allowing sufficient scope for artistic expression. Such evidence-based practice will enable readers to access wider sources of information to aid their ongoing development whilst empowering them to take responsibility for their own safe dance practice and that of others with whom they interact.
Chapter 1 The Dance Environment
Chapter 2 Alignment
Chapter 3 Warming Up and Cooling Down
Chapter 4 Training Principles and Supplementary Fitness
Chapter 5 Rest and Recovery
Chapter 6 Sequencing and Progression
Chapter 7 Nutrition and Hydration
Chapter 8 Psychological Well-Being
Chapter 9 Injury Awareness and Management
Chapter 10 Adaptations for Specific Populations
Chapter 11 Evaluating and Appreciating Safe Dance Practice
Appendix A Health Questionnaire
Appendix B Equal Opportunities Statement
Appendix C Risk Assessment Form
Appendix D Accident Report Form
Appendix E Nutrition Intake Record
Appendix F Sources for Additional Information
Edel Quin, MSc, FHEA, is leader of the master’s in dance science programme in the faculty of dance at Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance in London, UK. She specializes in the application of dance science theory and research to the teaching and practice of dance across styles, ages and settings. She frequently presents her applied research at national and international conferences and has published numerous papers. A registered course provider with Safe in Dance International (SiDI), Quin is a sought-after speaker on safe dance practice. She also serves on the education committee of the International Association for Dance Medicine & Science (IADMS).
Quin is a trained Irish and contemporary dancer. She has performed in London’s West End and toured as a troupe member and lead dancer with Riverdance from 1996 to 2001. She has also taught performance enhancement on Trinity Laban’s Centre for Advanced Training scheme for gifted and talented young dancers along with directing rehearsals for visiting professional dance artists and choreographers.
Sonia Rafferty, MSc, is a senior lecturer at Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance in London, UK. She has been a consultant and lead assessor for Trinity College London’s certificate in safe and effective dance practice and is now senior associate at Safe in Dance International (SiDI), developing the healthy dance practice and healthy dancer certificates. Rafferty has published several peer-reviewed articles on dance science and has been a member of the International Association for Dance Medicine & Science education committee.
She is a professional freelance performer, choreographer, artistic director, and company and master class teacher, and she was a drummer and performer in the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2012 London Olympic Games.
Charlotte Tomlinson, MSc, is a dance lecturer, community practitioner, and registered course provider for Safe in Dance International (SiDI), for whom she designed and delivered the first healthy dance practice certification course in Europe. She has presented at the International Association for Dance Medicine & Science annual meetings and co-wrote the foundation degree in dance at Leicester College, UK, where she is module leader for community dance practice and anatomy and physiology. She is a member of the International Association for Dance Medicine & Science, Dance UK, Foundation for Community Dance, and FitPro.
Tomlinson is artistic director of SideKick Dance, an inclusive dance group for young people with disabilities. She also leads dance classes for older adults and is a listed healthier dancer speaker with Dance UK.
Common deviations from ideal alignment
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely.
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely. On inhalation, the ribs widen and the abdominal muscles lengthen, and on exhalation, the ribs return and the abdominal muscles shorten (Haas, 2010). It is often difficult for dancers to understand how to find the engagement of the core muscles to provide support and keep the ribs relaxed - sucking in the belly too much leads to inefficient breathing patterns and tension in the ribcage. The stability of the shoulder girdle is essential for lifting and partnering activities. Dance styles that use balance in inversion or frequently support the weight through the arms should ensure a strong and secure upper body. Regardless of whether the upper body is used for weight bearing, every dance style incorporates a specific and expressive use of the arms, often with intricate choreography, such as in classical Indian dance and flamenco, which need control.
The thoracic and especially the cervical spine are vulnerable if not kept in alignment. Any weight bearing on the head and loading on this part of the spine is risky. General advice in sport is that overextension of the cervical spine can cause many problems, including compression of intervertebral discs and pinching of arteries and nerves at the base of the skull. However, full neck and head rolls, now seen as a contraindicated movement, are still included in some dance vocabulary. For example, whipping the head (and hair) is commonly seen in commercial and street dance choreography. Given the repetitive nature of dance training, the implications are obvious. Teachers and choreographers should seriously consider the use of head rolls in their vocabulary and should never use them in warm-up, substituting simpler up-and-down or side-to-side head movements instead.
When the shoulder blades (scapulae) wing - that is, the internal border can be seen sticking out away from the body - this is associated with muscle imbalance, especially a tight pectoralis minor and weakness of the muscles mentioned earlier that assist scapular stabilisation. The same can be said for protracted (rolled forward) shoulders. The shoulder blades should also not be pinched together. Ideally they should lie flat against the ribcage. The cue ‘squeeze your shoulder blades together' to correct forward shoulders or kyphosis and to generally encourage upright posture or arm placement is unhelpful, and it can cause many repercussions in the upper spine. Another frequent misalignment is lifting the ribcage up and forwards, often as a compensation for an anterior pelvic tilt (Welsh, 2009). This can be a result of misunderstanding the cue ‘pull up'.
Dancers need to be able to lift the arms without disturbing the centre, losing balance or increasing tension in the shoulder or back (Franklin, 2012). Each dance genre requires a specific and precise styling of the arms in space or strength and control in weight bearing. As dance forms have developed, modern choreography has led to increased strain on the shoulders and arms, with the integration of more athletic and gymnastic movements and amount of floor work needing upper body support (Simmel, 2014). For many styles, the goal is to find a secure positioning of the arms in which the torso is also neutralised and stabilised (Clippinger, 2016).
One of the most common directions given to dancers is ‘hold the arms on the back.' The meaning behind this is to encourage the most efficient muscular action to stabilise the arms, so the technical directions should explain how to do this effectively. If the dancer does not understand the mechanics, the primary result is tension in the upper body. The muscles that connect the arms to the back are concerned with scapular stabilisation (the serratus anterior, the rhomboids, the lower trapezius and the latissimus dorsi). It has been observed that dancers tend to be weak in these areas (Haas, 2010). A balanced use of these muscles makes the arms feel like they are coming from the back (Howse & McCormack, 2009). Problems arise when excessive tension and stress in the trapezius causes lifting of the shoulders (scapular elevation), which makes an efficient use of the arms difficult. If the arms are held too far behind the body when they are out to the sides (for example, in second position, used in many styles), this can cause excessive arching of the lower back and protruding ribs. If they are too far forward, this results in a closing in of the chest and a kyphotic posture (Clippinger, 2016).
To conclude this section on common deviations from ideal alignment, fatigue postureshould also bementioned. This posture requires less energy to stand than normal, and is a common unconscious adaptation in all dancers, even those who are highly experienced (Clippinger, 2016). For example, the dancer rests on the ligaments in the hip joints by pushing the pelvis forward considerably (increasing the posterior tilt) and hanging back in the upper torso (see figure 2.13). It is relaxing for the muscles, but puts a strain on the overstretched hip joints because the body's centre of gravity runs behind the pelvis (Simmel, 2014).
Fatigue posture.
Similarly, it is quite common to see dancers alternating between different postures in a dance session, their everyday habitual stance and their dance alignment. Dance-specific posture is assumed during practice, but in the relaxed moments - for example, when listening to feedback, observing other dancers in class in moments of rest or even interacting socially in rehearsal - the dancer can slip into an unstable pose, reinforcing detrimental postural habits. This may involve sitting into the hips, leaning backwards in the upper torso, rounding the shoulders forward with the hands on the hips or shifting the weight habitually to one leg. Like all deviations, these habitual postures have detrimental effects. Teachers should bring these habits to the dancer's attention to encourage conscious employment of the necessary muscles (spinal extensors and hip flexors) at the appropriate level of contraction to remedy them. Conscious awareness of posture, even in normal movement such as sitting, standing or lying down, will help the dancer to maintain a healthy body that supports the demands of dance techniques more effectively.
It is also worth mentioning at this point that, for some dancers, regularly carrying their own kit and costumes in heavy dance bags can place added strain on the body, causing muscle imbalances and postural changes over time. Recommendations are to use bags that spread the load as evenly as possible, choose padded handles or shoulder straps or consider wheeled suitcases that allow a neutral standing posture to be maintained (SHAPE, 2002).
Dancers could be more aware of, and leaders should discourage, slipping into fatigueor relaxedposture, both in and out of the dance session. Slumping, sitting in the hips or habitually releasing the weight into one hip while resting places increased stress on ligaments and joints and does not support the development of good dancing alignment.
Common Upper Body Alignment Issues
- Shoulders: Rolled forward or elevated
- Shoulder blades: Winging out
- Ribcage: Lifted or protruding in front
- Arms: Held too high (lifted shoulders) or too far back
Alignment Cues for the Upper Body in Dancing
Problems in the body
- The front of the ribcage lifts up or pushes forwards and the shoulder blades pull back as the dancer tries to stand up straight. The abdominals cannot engage properly, and the dancer experiences difficulties with breathing effectively as well as reduced mobility and increased tension.
- The shoulders are raised and tense or rolled forward and the shoulder blades wing out.
- The arms are held too far behind the ribcage, causing excessive arching in the lower back and lifted ribs in front.
Helpful and unhelpful cues
- Avoid saying, 'open your chest', 'lift your chest', 'pull your shoulders back/down', ‘pinch your shoulder blades together' and 'push your arms down in the back.'
- Instead, encourage dancers to relax the lower ribs so that the shoulder girdle sits freely on top of the ribcage. They should relax the shoulder girdle at a point close to the spine rather than forcefully pushing the outer edges of the shoulder down. Prompt them to release the shoulder blades downward and outwards, as the shoulders widen to the sides, emphasising the scapular adductors and the thoracic spine extensors. Direct dancers to lightly pull the arms down before they are raised. With the arms held out to the sides, if the shoulder joint is centred, the hands should be visible out of the corners of the eyes.
Imagery tips
Encourage dancers to do the following:
- Imagine the shoulders suspended from the neck like the sails of a ship, with the spine as a mast and the shoulder girdle as a cross-beam suspended from it.
- Imagine the shoulder blades sliding down the back and crossing into the opposite trouser back pockets.
- Imagine your armpits are deep and soft. They are filled with small balloons that inflate as you inhale and deflate as you exhale.
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Principles and Components of Cooling Down
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually’.
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually'. Often the progressive intensity of a dance session means the highest physical intensity occurs at the end, which results in the dancer experiencing a high rate of blood flow around the body and a fast (sometimes near maximum) heart rate, with the metabolism and the nervous system in a heightened state of activity (see chapter 6 for more regarding the preferred versus the common intensities of session progression). To suddenly cease activity at this point is akin to slamming on the car brakes when you had been motoring along at full speed. Theory suggests that an effective cool-down can reduce injuries, in particular delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS (Harris & Elbourne, 2002; Laws, Marsh, & Wyon, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Olsen, Sjøhaug, van Beekvelt, & Mork, 2012), and can promote enhanced performance for subsequent bouts of activity (Hindle et al., 2012; Rey, Lago-Peñas, Casáis, & Lago-Ballesteros, 2012). A focused cool-down is also thought to relieve any mental tension that may have built up during the dance session (Alter, 2004).
Regardless of dance situation (class, rehearsal, competition or performance), cooling down appears less popular than warming up (Laws, 2005; Koutedakis, Pacy, Carson, & Dick, 1997). Perhaps this is in part due to the limited amount of research that has been conducted on the benefits of cooling down and to the somewhat contradictory nature of the findings. Many of the research papers have focused solely on the stretching aspect of a cool-down. A 2002 systematic literature review noted that stretching after activity reduced muscular soreness for up to 72 hours after activity, although the authors comment that, due to a small effect size, these findings might not be strong enough to promote practical application (Herbert & Gabriel, 2002). A more recent review reported a literature consensus that static stretching post exercise can reduce muscle soreness for 24 hours after the activity (Herbert, de Noronha, & Kamper, 2011). However, stretching is only one component of the cool-down. Other research has examined the positive effects of including an active element (e.g., a pulse reducer) to the cool-down, reporting beneficial outcomes for subsequent power activities (Rey et al., 2012).
Review papers continue to note that the effectiveness of a cool-down, as with warm-up, appears to depend on the intensity, duration and relative dynamic or static nature of the content, the order in which the sections are conducted, as well as the specificity of the cool-down content to the activity that has just been experienced (Herbert et al., 2011; Rey et al., 2012). Despite such inconclusive recommendations, a statistical relationship can be seen between injury rate and cool-down: For example, dancers who cool down after their sessions report lower injury rates (Laws, 2005; Malliou et al., 2007). These findings support common theories that propose that effective cooling down can bring multiple physiological, neurological and psychological benefits that promote reduced injury risk and enhanced performance.
In order to effectively recover from strenuous dance activity, dancers and teachers must understand the physiological demands that the dance session has just targeted. Therefore, when choosing the specific focus of the cool-down, they should consider the type, level of intensity and duration of the activity that has just taken place (for more on these aspects, see chapter 4). For example, an Irish dance class has quite a high physical intensity, and predominantly targets activation of the calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscle group. It also subjects the lower limb joints to repetitive impacts. In planning the cool-down, Irish dance teachers must consider how to counteract these actions in order to effectively balance out or neutralise the accumulative effects of the activity on the dancing body. However, similar to warming up, before considering such specificity, dance leaders must be aware of the general principles of cooling down. These principles include reducing the pulse rate, easing out the joints and stretching the muscles. Once teachers have understood these ideas, they can and should adapt the principles as the need arises.
© Photoshot/TIPS
A dancer engaging in static stretching as part of her cool-down after class. This is after she has completed the pulse reducer and joint easing sections.
Example of Active-Static Stretching
Breathe in, breathe out and commence a stretch with control and attention, moving deeper into the position until the initial point of stretch sensation but not pain. Hold the position, mindfully relaxing any unnecessary tension, for around 10 seconds. Breathe in again. On the out breath, work to gently increase the stretch. Again hold this position for up to 10 seconds. If possible, gently increase the stretch once more on a third breath in and out. Using anatomical imagery can support an increase in ROM, especially if flexibility is currently restricted. Visualise making space in the joints and releasing the muscle fibres, even if no actual movement or increase in ROM is possible. Combining imagery with the breath helps reduce unnecessary muscular tension. Imagine increasing ROM and muscular length for the full duration of the stretch, even if you are not able to achieve any additional movement. Finish the stretch by maintaining the final position for approximately 20 seconds, and then gently ease the body out of the position.
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Structure and Content of Individual Dance Sessions
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
The physiological or kinesiological viewpoint, as opposed to the skill acquisition emphasis, is not always taken into account. The components for each style may differ, but they all have (or should have) commonalities: warm-up and preparation, exercises that improve skills, specific elements that work towards dance movements in combination and attention to cooling down. In the recreational format, these specific parts might be less defined so that the focus is on having fun and enjoying the dancing (Kassing & Jay, 2003). In this case it is usual to see combinations of steps linked together to form longer sequences, practised in each session so that the learning time is reduced, and saving time for more doing. The variability for vocational and professional dancers is likely to be greater. In creative classes, the focus is more on exploration and discovery of movement potential through open tasks rather than on prescribed exercises.
In general, whatever the purpose of the dance session, progression can be thought of as the preparation, the practice or training and the recovery (see figure 6.3). Different types of activity can be inserted into this progression to ensure a logical arrangement that minimises stress on the body.
In all styles, the basis for the construction of a safe and effective session is a logical progression of suitable exercises and activities guided by a clear methodology. Dance leaders must have the ability to devise exercises that make sense and fit together (White, 1996). The template for dance leaders is based on movement principles that make anatomical, kinesiological and physical sense, and it is the leaders' responsibility to highlight these principles to their participants and indicate clearly how they should be applied (Berardi, 2005). Tradition has a substantial influence on methodology, particularly for the more formal, established styles. On the other hand, a word-of-mouth or mimicry (passing on by copying) type of approach can also communicate newer, less codified sub-styles.
Much of the research into dance class structure has been undertaken with classical ballet, precisely because it is one of the oldest, most recognisable forms, with little practice variation. Because of all the attention and the employment of new technology and physical assessment techniques, some of the actions that have long been an integral part of the ballet vocabulary have come into question. Examples of these are included in the Contraindicated Movements and Actions section later in this chapter. Although some of the most readily available dance science research is based on the classical ballet form, it is especially important for emerging styles to take note of any exploratory research in order to create viable, safe and effective training plans. Dancers, students and especially dance leaders in all genres should be open to new ideas and prepared to investigate their own stylistic vocabulary and session structure. Gaining knowledge in order to make informed decisions will help prevent risks and allow the styles to continue to develop safely.
The basis for determining the sequencing and progression of dance content is the choice of movements (vocabulary), the amount of repetition and the location of the specific movements in the scan of the whole session. Whether a class, rehearsal or supplementary workout, each session should be built on principles that progressively develop the dancer's technique, skills or fitness. A well-designed structure that helps dancers acquire both vocabulary and skills and improve physiological components is the key to training effectively (Kassing & Jay, 2003). An understanding of the energy systems required for performance in different dance styles would also be helpful (the mixture of aerobic and anaerobic demands). Certain skills are common to many styles, for example, alignment, motor control, co-ordination and balance. The foundation for the basic skills in each genre must be set in place before more complex and sophisticated vocabulary and combinations can be attempted (Mainwaring & Krasnow, 2010).
Each part of the dance session has specific demands. The selection of appropriate activities for each stage depends on the purpose, the skills to be learned and the people doing the learning.
The structure of almost any dance class can be distilled down into the following template:
- Generic warm-up, followed by a style-specific warm-up
- Preparatory exercises to introduce and break down stylistic movement patterns, actions and sensibilities (often emphasising alignment and technical concepts)
- Progressive exercises that specifically address dancers' physical capacities for that style (for example, the development of required strength and flexibility)
- The actual dancing: combinations of movements that move through space, using different orientations, levels, speeds, intensities and dynamic movement qualities, and test the dancers' knowledge, understanding, adaptability and readiness for performance (which means ability to dance successfully in the style rather than being on stage)
- Cool-down
However, this template needs to be applied by considering the context of the session. The first question to ask when planning a dance session is to determine its purpose. Is it a creative class, a recreational session, a rehearsal towards a performance, a warm-up or one of a daily set of training classes? The level of difficulty of material and the physiological demands to be made will need to be determined with this purpose in mind.
The priority in planning is to consider the participants: their reason for dancing, their ability level and their age. The key point to remember is not simply to teach the session effectively but to teach effectively to the specific people in the session.It is important not to judge all dancers by their ability to achieve perfect technique or their intention to work towards achieving it. For example, adult participants in social settings may consider enjoyment and interaction more important than achieving technical perfection in their motivation to dance, while children may be more engaged by creative, expressive movement than formalised techniques (Gibbons, 2007).
Unique population groups are directly addressed in chapter 10, but there are broad theoretical questions to ask in determining the basic dance material (Gibbons, 2007):
- What is the aim of the session (training, social)?
- What is the ability level of the group (for example, in terms of degrees of strength, flexibility and cardiorespiratory capacity)?
- Are there unique considerations for the group (age, sex, life stage, ability or disability)?
- How does the class contribute to the overall amount of dance practice?
In planning their sessions from a physiological perspective, dance leaders could take the lead from sports and consider a training needs analysis (Kenney et al., 2012). This can be adapted to fit the dance session by asking:
- Which muscles will be used, or need to be trained?
- How will they be used or trained?
- Which energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) are involved in the dance style?
- Which are the primary sites of concerns for injury prevention?
Depending on these needs, the dance leader then needs to logically select:
- The exercises that will be performed
- The order that they will be performed in
- The number of times they are to be repeated to produce a training effect and avoid fatigue
- The amount of rest between each exercise or set of exercises
Examination of the preceding questions and points will inform the overall structure of the session. This can be broken down into several stages: in very simple terms, the beginning, middle and end. While this seems quite obvious, there can sometimes be a blurring of activities that sit most comfortably and efficiently within each stage. The beginning of the session will include the warm-up and preparatory exercises and activities. The body of the class will increase in difficulty and demand to develop the specific skills for each style, working towards a peak of activity, the actual dancing, which brings together the preparatory and developmental work in combinations, sequences and routines. Following this peak, the demand will reduce and the material will focus on a cool-down and recovery. This pattern may be contrary to the structure of many dance sessions, where it is common to see a more or less gradual and consistent progression of intensity that culminates in a peak at the very end. Rather than sustaining or increasing the intensity throughout a session (see common practice, figure 6.4a), the dance leader could include periodic short rest and recovery periods, working towards the peak in activity (the big dancing combinations) before bringing down the intensity earlier in the session (recommended practice, figure 6.4b). A session that takes into account pacing and recovery by following the recommended pattern will be more beneficial for dancers. This is discussed further in the section End of the Session later in this chapter. The Repetition section earlier in this chapter provides some guidelines as to the type of activities that might be appropriate in order to follow this pattern.
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Common deviations from ideal alignment
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely.
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely. On inhalation, the ribs widen and the abdominal muscles lengthen, and on exhalation, the ribs return and the abdominal muscles shorten (Haas, 2010). It is often difficult for dancers to understand how to find the engagement of the core muscles to provide support and keep the ribs relaxed - sucking in the belly too much leads to inefficient breathing patterns and tension in the ribcage. The stability of the shoulder girdle is essential for lifting and partnering activities. Dance styles that use balance in inversion or frequently support the weight through the arms should ensure a strong and secure upper body. Regardless of whether the upper body is used for weight bearing, every dance style incorporates a specific and expressive use of the arms, often with intricate choreography, such as in classical Indian dance and flamenco, which need control.
The thoracic and especially the cervical spine are vulnerable if not kept in alignment. Any weight bearing on the head and loading on this part of the spine is risky. General advice in sport is that overextension of the cervical spine can cause many problems, including compression of intervertebral discs and pinching of arteries and nerves at the base of the skull. However, full neck and head rolls, now seen as a contraindicated movement, are still included in some dance vocabulary. For example, whipping the head (and hair) is commonly seen in commercial and street dance choreography. Given the repetitive nature of dance training, the implications are obvious. Teachers and choreographers should seriously consider the use of head rolls in their vocabulary and should never use them in warm-up, substituting simpler up-and-down or side-to-side head movements instead.
When the shoulder blades (scapulae) wing - that is, the internal border can be seen sticking out away from the body - this is associated with muscle imbalance, especially a tight pectoralis minor and weakness of the muscles mentioned earlier that assist scapular stabilisation. The same can be said for protracted (rolled forward) shoulders. The shoulder blades should also not be pinched together. Ideally they should lie flat against the ribcage. The cue ‘squeeze your shoulder blades together' to correct forward shoulders or kyphosis and to generally encourage upright posture or arm placement is unhelpful, and it can cause many repercussions in the upper spine. Another frequent misalignment is lifting the ribcage up and forwards, often as a compensation for an anterior pelvic tilt (Welsh, 2009). This can be a result of misunderstanding the cue ‘pull up'.
Dancers need to be able to lift the arms without disturbing the centre, losing balance or increasing tension in the shoulder or back (Franklin, 2012). Each dance genre requires a specific and precise styling of the arms in space or strength and control in weight bearing. As dance forms have developed, modern choreography has led to increased strain on the shoulders and arms, with the integration of more athletic and gymnastic movements and amount of floor work needing upper body support (Simmel, 2014). For many styles, the goal is to find a secure positioning of the arms in which the torso is also neutralised and stabilised (Clippinger, 2016).
One of the most common directions given to dancers is ‘hold the arms on the back.' The meaning behind this is to encourage the most efficient muscular action to stabilise the arms, so the technical directions should explain how to do this effectively. If the dancer does not understand the mechanics, the primary result is tension in the upper body. The muscles that connect the arms to the back are concerned with scapular stabilisation (the serratus anterior, the rhomboids, the lower trapezius and the latissimus dorsi). It has been observed that dancers tend to be weak in these areas (Haas, 2010). A balanced use of these muscles makes the arms feel like they are coming from the back (Howse & McCormack, 2009). Problems arise when excessive tension and stress in the trapezius causes lifting of the shoulders (scapular elevation), which makes an efficient use of the arms difficult. If the arms are held too far behind the body when they are out to the sides (for example, in second position, used in many styles), this can cause excessive arching of the lower back and protruding ribs. If they are too far forward, this results in a closing in of the chest and a kyphotic posture (Clippinger, 2016).
To conclude this section on common deviations from ideal alignment, fatigue postureshould also bementioned. This posture requires less energy to stand than normal, and is a common unconscious adaptation in all dancers, even those who are highly experienced (Clippinger, 2016). For example, the dancer rests on the ligaments in the hip joints by pushing the pelvis forward considerably (increasing the posterior tilt) and hanging back in the upper torso (see figure 2.13). It is relaxing for the muscles, but puts a strain on the overstretched hip joints because the body's centre of gravity runs behind the pelvis (Simmel, 2014).
Fatigue posture.
Similarly, it is quite common to see dancers alternating between different postures in a dance session, their everyday habitual stance and their dance alignment. Dance-specific posture is assumed during practice, but in the relaxed moments - for example, when listening to feedback, observing other dancers in class in moments of rest or even interacting socially in rehearsal - the dancer can slip into an unstable pose, reinforcing detrimental postural habits. This may involve sitting into the hips, leaning backwards in the upper torso, rounding the shoulders forward with the hands on the hips or shifting the weight habitually to one leg. Like all deviations, these habitual postures have detrimental effects. Teachers should bring these habits to the dancer's attention to encourage conscious employment of the necessary muscles (spinal extensors and hip flexors) at the appropriate level of contraction to remedy them. Conscious awareness of posture, even in normal movement such as sitting, standing or lying down, will help the dancer to maintain a healthy body that supports the demands of dance techniques more effectively.
It is also worth mentioning at this point that, for some dancers, regularly carrying their own kit and costumes in heavy dance bags can place added strain on the body, causing muscle imbalances and postural changes over time. Recommendations are to use bags that spread the load as evenly as possible, choose padded handles or shoulder straps or consider wheeled suitcases that allow a neutral standing posture to be maintained (SHAPE, 2002).
Dancers could be more aware of, and leaders should discourage, slipping into fatigueor relaxedposture, both in and out of the dance session. Slumping, sitting in the hips or habitually releasing the weight into one hip while resting places increased stress on ligaments and joints and does not support the development of good dancing alignment.
Common Upper Body Alignment Issues
- Shoulders: Rolled forward or elevated
- Shoulder blades: Winging out
- Ribcage: Lifted or protruding in front
- Arms: Held too high (lifted shoulders) or too far back
Alignment Cues for the Upper Body in Dancing
Problems in the body
- The front of the ribcage lifts up or pushes forwards and the shoulder blades pull back as the dancer tries to stand up straight. The abdominals cannot engage properly, and the dancer experiences difficulties with breathing effectively as well as reduced mobility and increased tension.
- The shoulders are raised and tense or rolled forward and the shoulder blades wing out.
- The arms are held too far behind the ribcage, causing excessive arching in the lower back and lifted ribs in front.
Helpful and unhelpful cues
- Avoid saying, 'open your chest', 'lift your chest', 'pull your shoulders back/down', ‘pinch your shoulder blades together' and 'push your arms down in the back.'
- Instead, encourage dancers to relax the lower ribs so that the shoulder girdle sits freely on top of the ribcage. They should relax the shoulder girdle at a point close to the spine rather than forcefully pushing the outer edges of the shoulder down. Prompt them to release the shoulder blades downward and outwards, as the shoulders widen to the sides, emphasising the scapular adductors and the thoracic spine extensors. Direct dancers to lightly pull the arms down before they are raised. With the arms held out to the sides, if the shoulder joint is centred, the hands should be visible out of the corners of the eyes.
Imagery tips
Encourage dancers to do the following:
- Imagine the shoulders suspended from the neck like the sails of a ship, with the spine as a mast and the shoulder girdle as a cross-beam suspended from it.
- Imagine the shoulder blades sliding down the back and crossing into the opposite trouser back pockets.
- Imagine your armpits are deep and soft. They are filled with small balloons that inflate as you inhale and deflate as you exhale.
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Principles and Components of Cooling Down
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually’.
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually'. Often the progressive intensity of a dance session means the highest physical intensity occurs at the end, which results in the dancer experiencing a high rate of blood flow around the body and a fast (sometimes near maximum) heart rate, with the metabolism and the nervous system in a heightened state of activity (see chapter 6 for more regarding the preferred versus the common intensities of session progression). To suddenly cease activity at this point is akin to slamming on the car brakes when you had been motoring along at full speed. Theory suggests that an effective cool-down can reduce injuries, in particular delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS (Harris & Elbourne, 2002; Laws, Marsh, & Wyon, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Olsen, Sjøhaug, van Beekvelt, & Mork, 2012), and can promote enhanced performance for subsequent bouts of activity (Hindle et al., 2012; Rey, Lago-Peñas, Casáis, & Lago-Ballesteros, 2012). A focused cool-down is also thought to relieve any mental tension that may have built up during the dance session (Alter, 2004).
Regardless of dance situation (class, rehearsal, competition or performance), cooling down appears less popular than warming up (Laws, 2005; Koutedakis, Pacy, Carson, & Dick, 1997). Perhaps this is in part due to the limited amount of research that has been conducted on the benefits of cooling down and to the somewhat contradictory nature of the findings. Many of the research papers have focused solely on the stretching aspect of a cool-down. A 2002 systematic literature review noted that stretching after activity reduced muscular soreness for up to 72 hours after activity, although the authors comment that, due to a small effect size, these findings might not be strong enough to promote practical application (Herbert & Gabriel, 2002). A more recent review reported a literature consensus that static stretching post exercise can reduce muscle soreness for 24 hours after the activity (Herbert, de Noronha, & Kamper, 2011). However, stretching is only one component of the cool-down. Other research has examined the positive effects of including an active element (e.g., a pulse reducer) to the cool-down, reporting beneficial outcomes for subsequent power activities (Rey et al., 2012).
Review papers continue to note that the effectiveness of a cool-down, as with warm-up, appears to depend on the intensity, duration and relative dynamic or static nature of the content, the order in which the sections are conducted, as well as the specificity of the cool-down content to the activity that has just been experienced (Herbert et al., 2011; Rey et al., 2012). Despite such inconclusive recommendations, a statistical relationship can be seen between injury rate and cool-down: For example, dancers who cool down after their sessions report lower injury rates (Laws, 2005; Malliou et al., 2007). These findings support common theories that propose that effective cooling down can bring multiple physiological, neurological and psychological benefits that promote reduced injury risk and enhanced performance.
In order to effectively recover from strenuous dance activity, dancers and teachers must understand the physiological demands that the dance session has just targeted. Therefore, when choosing the specific focus of the cool-down, they should consider the type, level of intensity and duration of the activity that has just taken place (for more on these aspects, see chapter 4). For example, an Irish dance class has quite a high physical intensity, and predominantly targets activation of the calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscle group. It also subjects the lower limb joints to repetitive impacts. In planning the cool-down, Irish dance teachers must consider how to counteract these actions in order to effectively balance out or neutralise the accumulative effects of the activity on the dancing body. However, similar to warming up, before considering such specificity, dance leaders must be aware of the general principles of cooling down. These principles include reducing the pulse rate, easing out the joints and stretching the muscles. Once teachers have understood these ideas, they can and should adapt the principles as the need arises.
© Photoshot/TIPS
A dancer engaging in static stretching as part of her cool-down after class. This is after she has completed the pulse reducer and joint easing sections.
Example of Active-Static Stretching
Breathe in, breathe out and commence a stretch with control and attention, moving deeper into the position until the initial point of stretch sensation but not pain. Hold the position, mindfully relaxing any unnecessary tension, for around 10 seconds. Breathe in again. On the out breath, work to gently increase the stretch. Again hold this position for up to 10 seconds. If possible, gently increase the stretch once more on a third breath in and out. Using anatomical imagery can support an increase in ROM, especially if flexibility is currently restricted. Visualise making space in the joints and releasing the muscle fibres, even if no actual movement or increase in ROM is possible. Combining imagery with the breath helps reduce unnecessary muscular tension. Imagine increasing ROM and muscular length for the full duration of the stretch, even if you are not able to achieve any additional movement. Finish the stretch by maintaining the final position for approximately 20 seconds, and then gently ease the body out of the position.
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Structure and Content of Individual Dance Sessions
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
The physiological or kinesiological viewpoint, as opposed to the skill acquisition emphasis, is not always taken into account. The components for each style may differ, but they all have (or should have) commonalities: warm-up and preparation, exercises that improve skills, specific elements that work towards dance movements in combination and attention to cooling down. In the recreational format, these specific parts might be less defined so that the focus is on having fun and enjoying the dancing (Kassing & Jay, 2003). In this case it is usual to see combinations of steps linked together to form longer sequences, practised in each session so that the learning time is reduced, and saving time for more doing. The variability for vocational and professional dancers is likely to be greater. In creative classes, the focus is more on exploration and discovery of movement potential through open tasks rather than on prescribed exercises.
In general, whatever the purpose of the dance session, progression can be thought of as the preparation, the practice or training and the recovery (see figure 6.3). Different types of activity can be inserted into this progression to ensure a logical arrangement that minimises stress on the body.
In all styles, the basis for the construction of a safe and effective session is a logical progression of suitable exercises and activities guided by a clear methodology. Dance leaders must have the ability to devise exercises that make sense and fit together (White, 1996). The template for dance leaders is based on movement principles that make anatomical, kinesiological and physical sense, and it is the leaders' responsibility to highlight these principles to their participants and indicate clearly how they should be applied (Berardi, 2005). Tradition has a substantial influence on methodology, particularly for the more formal, established styles. On the other hand, a word-of-mouth or mimicry (passing on by copying) type of approach can also communicate newer, less codified sub-styles.
Much of the research into dance class structure has been undertaken with classical ballet, precisely because it is one of the oldest, most recognisable forms, with little practice variation. Because of all the attention and the employment of new technology and physical assessment techniques, some of the actions that have long been an integral part of the ballet vocabulary have come into question. Examples of these are included in the Contraindicated Movements and Actions section later in this chapter. Although some of the most readily available dance science research is based on the classical ballet form, it is especially important for emerging styles to take note of any exploratory research in order to create viable, safe and effective training plans. Dancers, students and especially dance leaders in all genres should be open to new ideas and prepared to investigate their own stylistic vocabulary and session structure. Gaining knowledge in order to make informed decisions will help prevent risks and allow the styles to continue to develop safely.
The basis for determining the sequencing and progression of dance content is the choice of movements (vocabulary), the amount of repetition and the location of the specific movements in the scan of the whole session. Whether a class, rehearsal or supplementary workout, each session should be built on principles that progressively develop the dancer's technique, skills or fitness. A well-designed structure that helps dancers acquire both vocabulary and skills and improve physiological components is the key to training effectively (Kassing & Jay, 2003). An understanding of the energy systems required for performance in different dance styles would also be helpful (the mixture of aerobic and anaerobic demands). Certain skills are common to many styles, for example, alignment, motor control, co-ordination and balance. The foundation for the basic skills in each genre must be set in place before more complex and sophisticated vocabulary and combinations can be attempted (Mainwaring & Krasnow, 2010).
Each part of the dance session has specific demands. The selection of appropriate activities for each stage depends on the purpose, the skills to be learned and the people doing the learning.
The structure of almost any dance class can be distilled down into the following template:
- Generic warm-up, followed by a style-specific warm-up
- Preparatory exercises to introduce and break down stylistic movement patterns, actions and sensibilities (often emphasising alignment and technical concepts)
- Progressive exercises that specifically address dancers' physical capacities for that style (for example, the development of required strength and flexibility)
- The actual dancing: combinations of movements that move through space, using different orientations, levels, speeds, intensities and dynamic movement qualities, and test the dancers' knowledge, understanding, adaptability and readiness for performance (which means ability to dance successfully in the style rather than being on stage)
- Cool-down
However, this template needs to be applied by considering the context of the session. The first question to ask when planning a dance session is to determine its purpose. Is it a creative class, a recreational session, a rehearsal towards a performance, a warm-up or one of a daily set of training classes? The level of difficulty of material and the physiological demands to be made will need to be determined with this purpose in mind.
The priority in planning is to consider the participants: their reason for dancing, their ability level and their age. The key point to remember is not simply to teach the session effectively but to teach effectively to the specific people in the session.It is important not to judge all dancers by their ability to achieve perfect technique or their intention to work towards achieving it. For example, adult participants in social settings may consider enjoyment and interaction more important than achieving technical perfection in their motivation to dance, while children may be more engaged by creative, expressive movement than formalised techniques (Gibbons, 2007).
Unique population groups are directly addressed in chapter 10, but there are broad theoretical questions to ask in determining the basic dance material (Gibbons, 2007):
- What is the aim of the session (training, social)?
- What is the ability level of the group (for example, in terms of degrees of strength, flexibility and cardiorespiratory capacity)?
- Are there unique considerations for the group (age, sex, life stage, ability or disability)?
- How does the class contribute to the overall amount of dance practice?
In planning their sessions from a physiological perspective, dance leaders could take the lead from sports and consider a training needs analysis (Kenney et al., 2012). This can be adapted to fit the dance session by asking:
- Which muscles will be used, or need to be trained?
- How will they be used or trained?
- Which energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) are involved in the dance style?
- Which are the primary sites of concerns for injury prevention?
Depending on these needs, the dance leader then needs to logically select:
- The exercises that will be performed
- The order that they will be performed in
- The number of times they are to be repeated to produce a training effect and avoid fatigue
- The amount of rest between each exercise or set of exercises
Examination of the preceding questions and points will inform the overall structure of the session. This can be broken down into several stages: in very simple terms, the beginning, middle and end. While this seems quite obvious, there can sometimes be a blurring of activities that sit most comfortably and efficiently within each stage. The beginning of the session will include the warm-up and preparatory exercises and activities. The body of the class will increase in difficulty and demand to develop the specific skills for each style, working towards a peak of activity, the actual dancing, which brings together the preparatory and developmental work in combinations, sequences and routines. Following this peak, the demand will reduce and the material will focus on a cool-down and recovery. This pattern may be contrary to the structure of many dance sessions, where it is common to see a more or less gradual and consistent progression of intensity that culminates in a peak at the very end. Rather than sustaining or increasing the intensity throughout a session (see common practice, figure 6.4a), the dance leader could include periodic short rest and recovery periods, working towards the peak in activity (the big dancing combinations) before bringing down the intensity earlier in the session (recommended practice, figure 6.4b). A session that takes into account pacing and recovery by following the recommended pattern will be more beneficial for dancers. This is discussed further in the section End of the Session later in this chapter. The Repetition section earlier in this chapter provides some guidelines as to the type of activities that might be appropriate in order to follow this pattern.
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Common deviations from ideal alignment
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely.
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely. On inhalation, the ribs widen and the abdominal muscles lengthen, and on exhalation, the ribs return and the abdominal muscles shorten (Haas, 2010). It is often difficult for dancers to understand how to find the engagement of the core muscles to provide support and keep the ribs relaxed - sucking in the belly too much leads to inefficient breathing patterns and tension in the ribcage. The stability of the shoulder girdle is essential for lifting and partnering activities. Dance styles that use balance in inversion or frequently support the weight through the arms should ensure a strong and secure upper body. Regardless of whether the upper body is used for weight bearing, every dance style incorporates a specific and expressive use of the arms, often with intricate choreography, such as in classical Indian dance and flamenco, which need control.
The thoracic and especially the cervical spine are vulnerable if not kept in alignment. Any weight bearing on the head and loading on this part of the spine is risky. General advice in sport is that overextension of the cervical spine can cause many problems, including compression of intervertebral discs and pinching of arteries and nerves at the base of the skull. However, full neck and head rolls, now seen as a contraindicated movement, are still included in some dance vocabulary. For example, whipping the head (and hair) is commonly seen in commercial and street dance choreography. Given the repetitive nature of dance training, the implications are obvious. Teachers and choreographers should seriously consider the use of head rolls in their vocabulary and should never use them in warm-up, substituting simpler up-and-down or side-to-side head movements instead.
When the shoulder blades (scapulae) wing - that is, the internal border can be seen sticking out away from the body - this is associated with muscle imbalance, especially a tight pectoralis minor and weakness of the muscles mentioned earlier that assist scapular stabilisation. The same can be said for protracted (rolled forward) shoulders. The shoulder blades should also not be pinched together. Ideally they should lie flat against the ribcage. The cue ‘squeeze your shoulder blades together' to correct forward shoulders or kyphosis and to generally encourage upright posture or arm placement is unhelpful, and it can cause many repercussions in the upper spine. Another frequent misalignment is lifting the ribcage up and forwards, often as a compensation for an anterior pelvic tilt (Welsh, 2009). This can be a result of misunderstanding the cue ‘pull up'.
Dancers need to be able to lift the arms without disturbing the centre, losing balance or increasing tension in the shoulder or back (Franklin, 2012). Each dance genre requires a specific and precise styling of the arms in space or strength and control in weight bearing. As dance forms have developed, modern choreography has led to increased strain on the shoulders and arms, with the integration of more athletic and gymnastic movements and amount of floor work needing upper body support (Simmel, 2014). For many styles, the goal is to find a secure positioning of the arms in which the torso is also neutralised and stabilised (Clippinger, 2016).
One of the most common directions given to dancers is ‘hold the arms on the back.' The meaning behind this is to encourage the most efficient muscular action to stabilise the arms, so the technical directions should explain how to do this effectively. If the dancer does not understand the mechanics, the primary result is tension in the upper body. The muscles that connect the arms to the back are concerned with scapular stabilisation (the serratus anterior, the rhomboids, the lower trapezius and the latissimus dorsi). It has been observed that dancers tend to be weak in these areas (Haas, 2010). A balanced use of these muscles makes the arms feel like they are coming from the back (Howse & McCormack, 2009). Problems arise when excessive tension and stress in the trapezius causes lifting of the shoulders (scapular elevation), which makes an efficient use of the arms difficult. If the arms are held too far behind the body when they are out to the sides (for example, in second position, used in many styles), this can cause excessive arching of the lower back and protruding ribs. If they are too far forward, this results in a closing in of the chest and a kyphotic posture (Clippinger, 2016).
To conclude this section on common deviations from ideal alignment, fatigue postureshould also bementioned. This posture requires less energy to stand than normal, and is a common unconscious adaptation in all dancers, even those who are highly experienced (Clippinger, 2016). For example, the dancer rests on the ligaments in the hip joints by pushing the pelvis forward considerably (increasing the posterior tilt) and hanging back in the upper torso (see figure 2.13). It is relaxing for the muscles, but puts a strain on the overstretched hip joints because the body's centre of gravity runs behind the pelvis (Simmel, 2014).
Fatigue posture.
Similarly, it is quite common to see dancers alternating between different postures in a dance session, their everyday habitual stance and their dance alignment. Dance-specific posture is assumed during practice, but in the relaxed moments - for example, when listening to feedback, observing other dancers in class in moments of rest or even interacting socially in rehearsal - the dancer can slip into an unstable pose, reinforcing detrimental postural habits. This may involve sitting into the hips, leaning backwards in the upper torso, rounding the shoulders forward with the hands on the hips or shifting the weight habitually to one leg. Like all deviations, these habitual postures have detrimental effects. Teachers should bring these habits to the dancer's attention to encourage conscious employment of the necessary muscles (spinal extensors and hip flexors) at the appropriate level of contraction to remedy them. Conscious awareness of posture, even in normal movement such as sitting, standing or lying down, will help the dancer to maintain a healthy body that supports the demands of dance techniques more effectively.
It is also worth mentioning at this point that, for some dancers, regularly carrying their own kit and costumes in heavy dance bags can place added strain on the body, causing muscle imbalances and postural changes over time. Recommendations are to use bags that spread the load as evenly as possible, choose padded handles or shoulder straps or consider wheeled suitcases that allow a neutral standing posture to be maintained (SHAPE, 2002).
Dancers could be more aware of, and leaders should discourage, slipping into fatigueor relaxedposture, both in and out of the dance session. Slumping, sitting in the hips or habitually releasing the weight into one hip while resting places increased stress on ligaments and joints and does not support the development of good dancing alignment.
Common Upper Body Alignment Issues
- Shoulders: Rolled forward or elevated
- Shoulder blades: Winging out
- Ribcage: Lifted or protruding in front
- Arms: Held too high (lifted shoulders) or too far back
Alignment Cues for the Upper Body in Dancing
Problems in the body
- The front of the ribcage lifts up or pushes forwards and the shoulder blades pull back as the dancer tries to stand up straight. The abdominals cannot engage properly, and the dancer experiences difficulties with breathing effectively as well as reduced mobility and increased tension.
- The shoulders are raised and tense or rolled forward and the shoulder blades wing out.
- The arms are held too far behind the ribcage, causing excessive arching in the lower back and lifted ribs in front.
Helpful and unhelpful cues
- Avoid saying, 'open your chest', 'lift your chest', 'pull your shoulders back/down', ‘pinch your shoulder blades together' and 'push your arms down in the back.'
- Instead, encourage dancers to relax the lower ribs so that the shoulder girdle sits freely on top of the ribcage. They should relax the shoulder girdle at a point close to the spine rather than forcefully pushing the outer edges of the shoulder down. Prompt them to release the shoulder blades downward and outwards, as the shoulders widen to the sides, emphasising the scapular adductors and the thoracic spine extensors. Direct dancers to lightly pull the arms down before they are raised. With the arms held out to the sides, if the shoulder joint is centred, the hands should be visible out of the corners of the eyes.
Imagery tips
Encourage dancers to do the following:
- Imagine the shoulders suspended from the neck like the sails of a ship, with the spine as a mast and the shoulder girdle as a cross-beam suspended from it.
- Imagine the shoulder blades sliding down the back and crossing into the opposite trouser back pockets.
- Imagine your armpits are deep and soft. They are filled with small balloons that inflate as you inhale and deflate as you exhale.
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Principles and Components of Cooling Down
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually’.
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually'. Often the progressive intensity of a dance session means the highest physical intensity occurs at the end, which results in the dancer experiencing a high rate of blood flow around the body and a fast (sometimes near maximum) heart rate, with the metabolism and the nervous system in a heightened state of activity (see chapter 6 for more regarding the preferred versus the common intensities of session progression). To suddenly cease activity at this point is akin to slamming on the car brakes when you had been motoring along at full speed. Theory suggests that an effective cool-down can reduce injuries, in particular delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS (Harris & Elbourne, 2002; Laws, Marsh, & Wyon, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Olsen, Sjøhaug, van Beekvelt, & Mork, 2012), and can promote enhanced performance for subsequent bouts of activity (Hindle et al., 2012; Rey, Lago-Peñas, Casáis, & Lago-Ballesteros, 2012). A focused cool-down is also thought to relieve any mental tension that may have built up during the dance session (Alter, 2004).
Regardless of dance situation (class, rehearsal, competition or performance), cooling down appears less popular than warming up (Laws, 2005; Koutedakis, Pacy, Carson, & Dick, 1997). Perhaps this is in part due to the limited amount of research that has been conducted on the benefits of cooling down and to the somewhat contradictory nature of the findings. Many of the research papers have focused solely on the stretching aspect of a cool-down. A 2002 systematic literature review noted that stretching after activity reduced muscular soreness for up to 72 hours after activity, although the authors comment that, due to a small effect size, these findings might not be strong enough to promote practical application (Herbert & Gabriel, 2002). A more recent review reported a literature consensus that static stretching post exercise can reduce muscle soreness for 24 hours after the activity (Herbert, de Noronha, & Kamper, 2011). However, stretching is only one component of the cool-down. Other research has examined the positive effects of including an active element (e.g., a pulse reducer) to the cool-down, reporting beneficial outcomes for subsequent power activities (Rey et al., 2012).
Review papers continue to note that the effectiveness of a cool-down, as with warm-up, appears to depend on the intensity, duration and relative dynamic or static nature of the content, the order in which the sections are conducted, as well as the specificity of the cool-down content to the activity that has just been experienced (Herbert et al., 2011; Rey et al., 2012). Despite such inconclusive recommendations, a statistical relationship can be seen between injury rate and cool-down: For example, dancers who cool down after their sessions report lower injury rates (Laws, 2005; Malliou et al., 2007). These findings support common theories that propose that effective cooling down can bring multiple physiological, neurological and psychological benefits that promote reduced injury risk and enhanced performance.
In order to effectively recover from strenuous dance activity, dancers and teachers must understand the physiological demands that the dance session has just targeted. Therefore, when choosing the specific focus of the cool-down, they should consider the type, level of intensity and duration of the activity that has just taken place (for more on these aspects, see chapter 4). For example, an Irish dance class has quite a high physical intensity, and predominantly targets activation of the calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscle group. It also subjects the lower limb joints to repetitive impacts. In planning the cool-down, Irish dance teachers must consider how to counteract these actions in order to effectively balance out or neutralise the accumulative effects of the activity on the dancing body. However, similar to warming up, before considering such specificity, dance leaders must be aware of the general principles of cooling down. These principles include reducing the pulse rate, easing out the joints and stretching the muscles. Once teachers have understood these ideas, they can and should adapt the principles as the need arises.
© Photoshot/TIPS
A dancer engaging in static stretching as part of her cool-down after class. This is after she has completed the pulse reducer and joint easing sections.
Example of Active-Static Stretching
Breathe in, breathe out and commence a stretch with control and attention, moving deeper into the position until the initial point of stretch sensation but not pain. Hold the position, mindfully relaxing any unnecessary tension, for around 10 seconds. Breathe in again. On the out breath, work to gently increase the stretch. Again hold this position for up to 10 seconds. If possible, gently increase the stretch once more on a third breath in and out. Using anatomical imagery can support an increase in ROM, especially if flexibility is currently restricted. Visualise making space in the joints and releasing the muscle fibres, even if no actual movement or increase in ROM is possible. Combining imagery with the breath helps reduce unnecessary muscular tension. Imagine increasing ROM and muscular length for the full duration of the stretch, even if you are not able to achieve any additional movement. Finish the stretch by maintaining the final position for approximately 20 seconds, and then gently ease the body out of the position.
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Structure and Content of Individual Dance Sessions
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
The physiological or kinesiological viewpoint, as opposed to the skill acquisition emphasis, is not always taken into account. The components for each style may differ, but they all have (or should have) commonalities: warm-up and preparation, exercises that improve skills, specific elements that work towards dance movements in combination and attention to cooling down. In the recreational format, these specific parts might be less defined so that the focus is on having fun and enjoying the dancing (Kassing & Jay, 2003). In this case it is usual to see combinations of steps linked together to form longer sequences, practised in each session so that the learning time is reduced, and saving time for more doing. The variability for vocational and professional dancers is likely to be greater. In creative classes, the focus is more on exploration and discovery of movement potential through open tasks rather than on prescribed exercises.
In general, whatever the purpose of the dance session, progression can be thought of as the preparation, the practice or training and the recovery (see figure 6.3). Different types of activity can be inserted into this progression to ensure a logical arrangement that minimises stress on the body.
In all styles, the basis for the construction of a safe and effective session is a logical progression of suitable exercises and activities guided by a clear methodology. Dance leaders must have the ability to devise exercises that make sense and fit together (White, 1996). The template for dance leaders is based on movement principles that make anatomical, kinesiological and physical sense, and it is the leaders' responsibility to highlight these principles to their participants and indicate clearly how they should be applied (Berardi, 2005). Tradition has a substantial influence on methodology, particularly for the more formal, established styles. On the other hand, a word-of-mouth or mimicry (passing on by copying) type of approach can also communicate newer, less codified sub-styles.
Much of the research into dance class structure has been undertaken with classical ballet, precisely because it is one of the oldest, most recognisable forms, with little practice variation. Because of all the attention and the employment of new technology and physical assessment techniques, some of the actions that have long been an integral part of the ballet vocabulary have come into question. Examples of these are included in the Contraindicated Movements and Actions section later in this chapter. Although some of the most readily available dance science research is based on the classical ballet form, it is especially important for emerging styles to take note of any exploratory research in order to create viable, safe and effective training plans. Dancers, students and especially dance leaders in all genres should be open to new ideas and prepared to investigate their own stylistic vocabulary and session structure. Gaining knowledge in order to make informed decisions will help prevent risks and allow the styles to continue to develop safely.
The basis for determining the sequencing and progression of dance content is the choice of movements (vocabulary), the amount of repetition and the location of the specific movements in the scan of the whole session. Whether a class, rehearsal or supplementary workout, each session should be built on principles that progressively develop the dancer's technique, skills or fitness. A well-designed structure that helps dancers acquire both vocabulary and skills and improve physiological components is the key to training effectively (Kassing & Jay, 2003). An understanding of the energy systems required for performance in different dance styles would also be helpful (the mixture of aerobic and anaerobic demands). Certain skills are common to many styles, for example, alignment, motor control, co-ordination and balance. The foundation for the basic skills in each genre must be set in place before more complex and sophisticated vocabulary and combinations can be attempted (Mainwaring & Krasnow, 2010).
Each part of the dance session has specific demands. The selection of appropriate activities for each stage depends on the purpose, the skills to be learned and the people doing the learning.
The structure of almost any dance class can be distilled down into the following template:
- Generic warm-up, followed by a style-specific warm-up
- Preparatory exercises to introduce and break down stylistic movement patterns, actions and sensibilities (often emphasising alignment and technical concepts)
- Progressive exercises that specifically address dancers' physical capacities for that style (for example, the development of required strength and flexibility)
- The actual dancing: combinations of movements that move through space, using different orientations, levels, speeds, intensities and dynamic movement qualities, and test the dancers' knowledge, understanding, adaptability and readiness for performance (which means ability to dance successfully in the style rather than being on stage)
- Cool-down
However, this template needs to be applied by considering the context of the session. The first question to ask when planning a dance session is to determine its purpose. Is it a creative class, a recreational session, a rehearsal towards a performance, a warm-up or one of a daily set of training classes? The level of difficulty of material and the physiological demands to be made will need to be determined with this purpose in mind.
The priority in planning is to consider the participants: their reason for dancing, their ability level and their age. The key point to remember is not simply to teach the session effectively but to teach effectively to the specific people in the session.It is important not to judge all dancers by their ability to achieve perfect technique or their intention to work towards achieving it. For example, adult participants in social settings may consider enjoyment and interaction more important than achieving technical perfection in their motivation to dance, while children may be more engaged by creative, expressive movement than formalised techniques (Gibbons, 2007).
Unique population groups are directly addressed in chapter 10, but there are broad theoretical questions to ask in determining the basic dance material (Gibbons, 2007):
- What is the aim of the session (training, social)?
- What is the ability level of the group (for example, in terms of degrees of strength, flexibility and cardiorespiratory capacity)?
- Are there unique considerations for the group (age, sex, life stage, ability or disability)?
- How does the class contribute to the overall amount of dance practice?
In planning their sessions from a physiological perspective, dance leaders could take the lead from sports and consider a training needs analysis (Kenney et al., 2012). This can be adapted to fit the dance session by asking:
- Which muscles will be used, or need to be trained?
- How will they be used or trained?
- Which energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) are involved in the dance style?
- Which are the primary sites of concerns for injury prevention?
Depending on these needs, the dance leader then needs to logically select:
- The exercises that will be performed
- The order that they will be performed in
- The number of times they are to be repeated to produce a training effect and avoid fatigue
- The amount of rest between each exercise or set of exercises
Examination of the preceding questions and points will inform the overall structure of the session. This can be broken down into several stages: in very simple terms, the beginning, middle and end. While this seems quite obvious, there can sometimes be a blurring of activities that sit most comfortably and efficiently within each stage. The beginning of the session will include the warm-up and preparatory exercises and activities. The body of the class will increase in difficulty and demand to develop the specific skills for each style, working towards a peak of activity, the actual dancing, which brings together the preparatory and developmental work in combinations, sequences and routines. Following this peak, the demand will reduce and the material will focus on a cool-down and recovery. This pattern may be contrary to the structure of many dance sessions, where it is common to see a more or less gradual and consistent progression of intensity that culminates in a peak at the very end. Rather than sustaining or increasing the intensity throughout a session (see common practice, figure 6.4a), the dance leader could include periodic short rest and recovery periods, working towards the peak in activity (the big dancing combinations) before bringing down the intensity earlier in the session (recommended practice, figure 6.4b). A session that takes into account pacing and recovery by following the recommended pattern will be more beneficial for dancers. This is discussed further in the section End of the Session later in this chapter. The Repetition section earlier in this chapter provides some guidelines as to the type of activities that might be appropriate in order to follow this pattern.
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Common deviations from ideal alignment
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely.
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely. On inhalation, the ribs widen and the abdominal muscles lengthen, and on exhalation, the ribs return and the abdominal muscles shorten (Haas, 2010). It is often difficult for dancers to understand how to find the engagement of the core muscles to provide support and keep the ribs relaxed - sucking in the belly too much leads to inefficient breathing patterns and tension in the ribcage. The stability of the shoulder girdle is essential for lifting and partnering activities. Dance styles that use balance in inversion or frequently support the weight through the arms should ensure a strong and secure upper body. Regardless of whether the upper body is used for weight bearing, every dance style incorporates a specific and expressive use of the arms, often with intricate choreography, such as in classical Indian dance and flamenco, which need control.
The thoracic and especially the cervical spine are vulnerable if not kept in alignment. Any weight bearing on the head and loading on this part of the spine is risky. General advice in sport is that overextension of the cervical spine can cause many problems, including compression of intervertebral discs and pinching of arteries and nerves at the base of the skull. However, full neck and head rolls, now seen as a contraindicated movement, are still included in some dance vocabulary. For example, whipping the head (and hair) is commonly seen in commercial and street dance choreography. Given the repetitive nature of dance training, the implications are obvious. Teachers and choreographers should seriously consider the use of head rolls in their vocabulary and should never use them in warm-up, substituting simpler up-and-down or side-to-side head movements instead.
When the shoulder blades (scapulae) wing - that is, the internal border can be seen sticking out away from the body - this is associated with muscle imbalance, especially a tight pectoralis minor and weakness of the muscles mentioned earlier that assist scapular stabilisation. The same can be said for protracted (rolled forward) shoulders. The shoulder blades should also not be pinched together. Ideally they should lie flat against the ribcage. The cue ‘squeeze your shoulder blades together' to correct forward shoulders or kyphosis and to generally encourage upright posture or arm placement is unhelpful, and it can cause many repercussions in the upper spine. Another frequent misalignment is lifting the ribcage up and forwards, often as a compensation for an anterior pelvic tilt (Welsh, 2009). This can be a result of misunderstanding the cue ‘pull up'.
Dancers need to be able to lift the arms without disturbing the centre, losing balance or increasing tension in the shoulder or back (Franklin, 2012). Each dance genre requires a specific and precise styling of the arms in space or strength and control in weight bearing. As dance forms have developed, modern choreography has led to increased strain on the shoulders and arms, with the integration of more athletic and gymnastic movements and amount of floor work needing upper body support (Simmel, 2014). For many styles, the goal is to find a secure positioning of the arms in which the torso is also neutralised and stabilised (Clippinger, 2016).
One of the most common directions given to dancers is ‘hold the arms on the back.' The meaning behind this is to encourage the most efficient muscular action to stabilise the arms, so the technical directions should explain how to do this effectively. If the dancer does not understand the mechanics, the primary result is tension in the upper body. The muscles that connect the arms to the back are concerned with scapular stabilisation (the serratus anterior, the rhomboids, the lower trapezius and the latissimus dorsi). It has been observed that dancers tend to be weak in these areas (Haas, 2010). A balanced use of these muscles makes the arms feel like they are coming from the back (Howse & McCormack, 2009). Problems arise when excessive tension and stress in the trapezius causes lifting of the shoulders (scapular elevation), which makes an efficient use of the arms difficult. If the arms are held too far behind the body when they are out to the sides (for example, in second position, used in many styles), this can cause excessive arching of the lower back and protruding ribs. If they are too far forward, this results in a closing in of the chest and a kyphotic posture (Clippinger, 2016).
To conclude this section on common deviations from ideal alignment, fatigue postureshould also bementioned. This posture requires less energy to stand than normal, and is a common unconscious adaptation in all dancers, even those who are highly experienced (Clippinger, 2016). For example, the dancer rests on the ligaments in the hip joints by pushing the pelvis forward considerably (increasing the posterior tilt) and hanging back in the upper torso (see figure 2.13). It is relaxing for the muscles, but puts a strain on the overstretched hip joints because the body's centre of gravity runs behind the pelvis (Simmel, 2014).
Fatigue posture.
Similarly, it is quite common to see dancers alternating between different postures in a dance session, their everyday habitual stance and their dance alignment. Dance-specific posture is assumed during practice, but in the relaxed moments - for example, when listening to feedback, observing other dancers in class in moments of rest or even interacting socially in rehearsal - the dancer can slip into an unstable pose, reinforcing detrimental postural habits. This may involve sitting into the hips, leaning backwards in the upper torso, rounding the shoulders forward with the hands on the hips or shifting the weight habitually to one leg. Like all deviations, these habitual postures have detrimental effects. Teachers should bring these habits to the dancer's attention to encourage conscious employment of the necessary muscles (spinal extensors and hip flexors) at the appropriate level of contraction to remedy them. Conscious awareness of posture, even in normal movement such as sitting, standing or lying down, will help the dancer to maintain a healthy body that supports the demands of dance techniques more effectively.
It is also worth mentioning at this point that, for some dancers, regularly carrying their own kit and costumes in heavy dance bags can place added strain on the body, causing muscle imbalances and postural changes over time. Recommendations are to use bags that spread the load as evenly as possible, choose padded handles or shoulder straps or consider wheeled suitcases that allow a neutral standing posture to be maintained (SHAPE, 2002).
Dancers could be more aware of, and leaders should discourage, slipping into fatigueor relaxedposture, both in and out of the dance session. Slumping, sitting in the hips or habitually releasing the weight into one hip while resting places increased stress on ligaments and joints and does not support the development of good dancing alignment.
Common Upper Body Alignment Issues
- Shoulders: Rolled forward or elevated
- Shoulder blades: Winging out
- Ribcage: Lifted or protruding in front
- Arms: Held too high (lifted shoulders) or too far back
Alignment Cues for the Upper Body in Dancing
Problems in the body
- The front of the ribcage lifts up or pushes forwards and the shoulder blades pull back as the dancer tries to stand up straight. The abdominals cannot engage properly, and the dancer experiences difficulties with breathing effectively as well as reduced mobility and increased tension.
- The shoulders are raised and tense or rolled forward and the shoulder blades wing out.
- The arms are held too far behind the ribcage, causing excessive arching in the lower back and lifted ribs in front.
Helpful and unhelpful cues
- Avoid saying, 'open your chest', 'lift your chest', 'pull your shoulders back/down', ‘pinch your shoulder blades together' and 'push your arms down in the back.'
- Instead, encourage dancers to relax the lower ribs so that the shoulder girdle sits freely on top of the ribcage. They should relax the shoulder girdle at a point close to the spine rather than forcefully pushing the outer edges of the shoulder down. Prompt them to release the shoulder blades downward and outwards, as the shoulders widen to the sides, emphasising the scapular adductors and the thoracic spine extensors. Direct dancers to lightly pull the arms down before they are raised. With the arms held out to the sides, if the shoulder joint is centred, the hands should be visible out of the corners of the eyes.
Imagery tips
Encourage dancers to do the following:
- Imagine the shoulders suspended from the neck like the sails of a ship, with the spine as a mast and the shoulder girdle as a cross-beam suspended from it.
- Imagine the shoulder blades sliding down the back and crossing into the opposite trouser back pockets.
- Imagine your armpits are deep and soft. They are filled with small balloons that inflate as you inhale and deflate as you exhale.
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Principles and Components of Cooling Down
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually’.
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually'. Often the progressive intensity of a dance session means the highest physical intensity occurs at the end, which results in the dancer experiencing a high rate of blood flow around the body and a fast (sometimes near maximum) heart rate, with the metabolism and the nervous system in a heightened state of activity (see chapter 6 for more regarding the preferred versus the common intensities of session progression). To suddenly cease activity at this point is akin to slamming on the car brakes when you had been motoring along at full speed. Theory suggests that an effective cool-down can reduce injuries, in particular delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS (Harris & Elbourne, 2002; Laws, Marsh, & Wyon, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Olsen, Sjøhaug, van Beekvelt, & Mork, 2012), and can promote enhanced performance for subsequent bouts of activity (Hindle et al., 2012; Rey, Lago-Peñas, Casáis, & Lago-Ballesteros, 2012). A focused cool-down is also thought to relieve any mental tension that may have built up during the dance session (Alter, 2004).
Regardless of dance situation (class, rehearsal, competition or performance), cooling down appears less popular than warming up (Laws, 2005; Koutedakis, Pacy, Carson, & Dick, 1997). Perhaps this is in part due to the limited amount of research that has been conducted on the benefits of cooling down and to the somewhat contradictory nature of the findings. Many of the research papers have focused solely on the stretching aspect of a cool-down. A 2002 systematic literature review noted that stretching after activity reduced muscular soreness for up to 72 hours after activity, although the authors comment that, due to a small effect size, these findings might not be strong enough to promote practical application (Herbert & Gabriel, 2002). A more recent review reported a literature consensus that static stretching post exercise can reduce muscle soreness for 24 hours after the activity (Herbert, de Noronha, & Kamper, 2011). However, stretching is only one component of the cool-down. Other research has examined the positive effects of including an active element (e.g., a pulse reducer) to the cool-down, reporting beneficial outcomes for subsequent power activities (Rey et al., 2012).
Review papers continue to note that the effectiveness of a cool-down, as with warm-up, appears to depend on the intensity, duration and relative dynamic or static nature of the content, the order in which the sections are conducted, as well as the specificity of the cool-down content to the activity that has just been experienced (Herbert et al., 2011; Rey et al., 2012). Despite such inconclusive recommendations, a statistical relationship can be seen between injury rate and cool-down: For example, dancers who cool down after their sessions report lower injury rates (Laws, 2005; Malliou et al., 2007). These findings support common theories that propose that effective cooling down can bring multiple physiological, neurological and psychological benefits that promote reduced injury risk and enhanced performance.
In order to effectively recover from strenuous dance activity, dancers and teachers must understand the physiological demands that the dance session has just targeted. Therefore, when choosing the specific focus of the cool-down, they should consider the type, level of intensity and duration of the activity that has just taken place (for more on these aspects, see chapter 4). For example, an Irish dance class has quite a high physical intensity, and predominantly targets activation of the calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscle group. It also subjects the lower limb joints to repetitive impacts. In planning the cool-down, Irish dance teachers must consider how to counteract these actions in order to effectively balance out or neutralise the accumulative effects of the activity on the dancing body. However, similar to warming up, before considering such specificity, dance leaders must be aware of the general principles of cooling down. These principles include reducing the pulse rate, easing out the joints and stretching the muscles. Once teachers have understood these ideas, they can and should adapt the principles as the need arises.
© Photoshot/TIPS
A dancer engaging in static stretching as part of her cool-down after class. This is after she has completed the pulse reducer and joint easing sections.
Example of Active-Static Stretching
Breathe in, breathe out and commence a stretch with control and attention, moving deeper into the position until the initial point of stretch sensation but not pain. Hold the position, mindfully relaxing any unnecessary tension, for around 10 seconds. Breathe in again. On the out breath, work to gently increase the stretch. Again hold this position for up to 10 seconds. If possible, gently increase the stretch once more on a third breath in and out. Using anatomical imagery can support an increase in ROM, especially if flexibility is currently restricted. Visualise making space in the joints and releasing the muscle fibres, even if no actual movement or increase in ROM is possible. Combining imagery with the breath helps reduce unnecessary muscular tension. Imagine increasing ROM and muscular length for the full duration of the stretch, even if you are not able to achieve any additional movement. Finish the stretch by maintaining the final position for approximately 20 seconds, and then gently ease the body out of the position.
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Structure and Content of Individual Dance Sessions
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
The physiological or kinesiological viewpoint, as opposed to the skill acquisition emphasis, is not always taken into account. The components for each style may differ, but they all have (or should have) commonalities: warm-up and preparation, exercises that improve skills, specific elements that work towards dance movements in combination and attention to cooling down. In the recreational format, these specific parts might be less defined so that the focus is on having fun and enjoying the dancing (Kassing & Jay, 2003). In this case it is usual to see combinations of steps linked together to form longer sequences, practised in each session so that the learning time is reduced, and saving time for more doing. The variability for vocational and professional dancers is likely to be greater. In creative classes, the focus is more on exploration and discovery of movement potential through open tasks rather than on prescribed exercises.
In general, whatever the purpose of the dance session, progression can be thought of as the preparation, the practice or training and the recovery (see figure 6.3). Different types of activity can be inserted into this progression to ensure a logical arrangement that minimises stress on the body.
In all styles, the basis for the construction of a safe and effective session is a logical progression of suitable exercises and activities guided by a clear methodology. Dance leaders must have the ability to devise exercises that make sense and fit together (White, 1996). The template for dance leaders is based on movement principles that make anatomical, kinesiological and physical sense, and it is the leaders' responsibility to highlight these principles to their participants and indicate clearly how they should be applied (Berardi, 2005). Tradition has a substantial influence on methodology, particularly for the more formal, established styles. On the other hand, a word-of-mouth or mimicry (passing on by copying) type of approach can also communicate newer, less codified sub-styles.
Much of the research into dance class structure has been undertaken with classical ballet, precisely because it is one of the oldest, most recognisable forms, with little practice variation. Because of all the attention and the employment of new technology and physical assessment techniques, some of the actions that have long been an integral part of the ballet vocabulary have come into question. Examples of these are included in the Contraindicated Movements and Actions section later in this chapter. Although some of the most readily available dance science research is based on the classical ballet form, it is especially important for emerging styles to take note of any exploratory research in order to create viable, safe and effective training plans. Dancers, students and especially dance leaders in all genres should be open to new ideas and prepared to investigate their own stylistic vocabulary and session structure. Gaining knowledge in order to make informed decisions will help prevent risks and allow the styles to continue to develop safely.
The basis for determining the sequencing and progression of dance content is the choice of movements (vocabulary), the amount of repetition and the location of the specific movements in the scan of the whole session. Whether a class, rehearsal or supplementary workout, each session should be built on principles that progressively develop the dancer's technique, skills or fitness. A well-designed structure that helps dancers acquire both vocabulary and skills and improve physiological components is the key to training effectively (Kassing & Jay, 2003). An understanding of the energy systems required for performance in different dance styles would also be helpful (the mixture of aerobic and anaerobic demands). Certain skills are common to many styles, for example, alignment, motor control, co-ordination and balance. The foundation for the basic skills in each genre must be set in place before more complex and sophisticated vocabulary and combinations can be attempted (Mainwaring & Krasnow, 2010).
Each part of the dance session has specific demands. The selection of appropriate activities for each stage depends on the purpose, the skills to be learned and the people doing the learning.
The structure of almost any dance class can be distilled down into the following template:
- Generic warm-up, followed by a style-specific warm-up
- Preparatory exercises to introduce and break down stylistic movement patterns, actions and sensibilities (often emphasising alignment and technical concepts)
- Progressive exercises that specifically address dancers' physical capacities for that style (for example, the development of required strength and flexibility)
- The actual dancing: combinations of movements that move through space, using different orientations, levels, speeds, intensities and dynamic movement qualities, and test the dancers' knowledge, understanding, adaptability and readiness for performance (which means ability to dance successfully in the style rather than being on stage)
- Cool-down
However, this template needs to be applied by considering the context of the session. The first question to ask when planning a dance session is to determine its purpose. Is it a creative class, a recreational session, a rehearsal towards a performance, a warm-up or one of a daily set of training classes? The level of difficulty of material and the physiological demands to be made will need to be determined with this purpose in mind.
The priority in planning is to consider the participants: their reason for dancing, their ability level and their age. The key point to remember is not simply to teach the session effectively but to teach effectively to the specific people in the session.It is important not to judge all dancers by their ability to achieve perfect technique or their intention to work towards achieving it. For example, adult participants in social settings may consider enjoyment and interaction more important than achieving technical perfection in their motivation to dance, while children may be more engaged by creative, expressive movement than formalised techniques (Gibbons, 2007).
Unique population groups are directly addressed in chapter 10, but there are broad theoretical questions to ask in determining the basic dance material (Gibbons, 2007):
- What is the aim of the session (training, social)?
- What is the ability level of the group (for example, in terms of degrees of strength, flexibility and cardiorespiratory capacity)?
- Are there unique considerations for the group (age, sex, life stage, ability or disability)?
- How does the class contribute to the overall amount of dance practice?
In planning their sessions from a physiological perspective, dance leaders could take the lead from sports and consider a training needs analysis (Kenney et al., 2012). This can be adapted to fit the dance session by asking:
- Which muscles will be used, or need to be trained?
- How will they be used or trained?
- Which energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) are involved in the dance style?
- Which are the primary sites of concerns for injury prevention?
Depending on these needs, the dance leader then needs to logically select:
- The exercises that will be performed
- The order that they will be performed in
- The number of times they are to be repeated to produce a training effect and avoid fatigue
- The amount of rest between each exercise or set of exercises
Examination of the preceding questions and points will inform the overall structure of the session. This can be broken down into several stages: in very simple terms, the beginning, middle and end. While this seems quite obvious, there can sometimes be a blurring of activities that sit most comfortably and efficiently within each stage. The beginning of the session will include the warm-up and preparatory exercises and activities. The body of the class will increase in difficulty and demand to develop the specific skills for each style, working towards a peak of activity, the actual dancing, which brings together the preparatory and developmental work in combinations, sequences and routines. Following this peak, the demand will reduce and the material will focus on a cool-down and recovery. This pattern may be contrary to the structure of many dance sessions, where it is common to see a more or less gradual and consistent progression of intensity that culminates in a peak at the very end. Rather than sustaining or increasing the intensity throughout a session (see common practice, figure 6.4a), the dance leader could include periodic short rest and recovery periods, working towards the peak in activity (the big dancing combinations) before bringing down the intensity earlier in the session (recommended practice, figure 6.4b). A session that takes into account pacing and recovery by following the recommended pattern will be more beneficial for dancers. This is discussed further in the section End of the Session later in this chapter. The Repetition section earlier in this chapter provides some guidelines as to the type of activities that might be appropriate in order to follow this pattern.
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Common deviations from ideal alignment
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely.
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely. On inhalation, the ribs widen and the abdominal muscles lengthen, and on exhalation, the ribs return and the abdominal muscles shorten (Haas, 2010). It is often difficult for dancers to understand how to find the engagement of the core muscles to provide support and keep the ribs relaxed - sucking in the belly too much leads to inefficient breathing patterns and tension in the ribcage. The stability of the shoulder girdle is essential for lifting and partnering activities. Dance styles that use balance in inversion or frequently support the weight through the arms should ensure a strong and secure upper body. Regardless of whether the upper body is used for weight bearing, every dance style incorporates a specific and expressive use of the arms, often with intricate choreography, such as in classical Indian dance and flamenco, which need control.
The thoracic and especially the cervical spine are vulnerable if not kept in alignment. Any weight bearing on the head and loading on this part of the spine is risky. General advice in sport is that overextension of the cervical spine can cause many problems, including compression of intervertebral discs and pinching of arteries and nerves at the base of the skull. However, full neck and head rolls, now seen as a contraindicated movement, are still included in some dance vocabulary. For example, whipping the head (and hair) is commonly seen in commercial and street dance choreography. Given the repetitive nature of dance training, the implications are obvious. Teachers and choreographers should seriously consider the use of head rolls in their vocabulary and should never use them in warm-up, substituting simpler up-and-down or side-to-side head movements instead.
When the shoulder blades (scapulae) wing - that is, the internal border can be seen sticking out away from the body - this is associated with muscle imbalance, especially a tight pectoralis minor and weakness of the muscles mentioned earlier that assist scapular stabilisation. The same can be said for protracted (rolled forward) shoulders. The shoulder blades should also not be pinched together. Ideally they should lie flat against the ribcage. The cue ‘squeeze your shoulder blades together' to correct forward shoulders or kyphosis and to generally encourage upright posture or arm placement is unhelpful, and it can cause many repercussions in the upper spine. Another frequent misalignment is lifting the ribcage up and forwards, often as a compensation for an anterior pelvic tilt (Welsh, 2009). This can be a result of misunderstanding the cue ‘pull up'.
Dancers need to be able to lift the arms without disturbing the centre, losing balance or increasing tension in the shoulder or back (Franklin, 2012). Each dance genre requires a specific and precise styling of the arms in space or strength and control in weight bearing. As dance forms have developed, modern choreography has led to increased strain on the shoulders and arms, with the integration of more athletic and gymnastic movements and amount of floor work needing upper body support (Simmel, 2014). For many styles, the goal is to find a secure positioning of the arms in which the torso is also neutralised and stabilised (Clippinger, 2016).
One of the most common directions given to dancers is ‘hold the arms on the back.' The meaning behind this is to encourage the most efficient muscular action to stabilise the arms, so the technical directions should explain how to do this effectively. If the dancer does not understand the mechanics, the primary result is tension in the upper body. The muscles that connect the arms to the back are concerned with scapular stabilisation (the serratus anterior, the rhomboids, the lower trapezius and the latissimus dorsi). It has been observed that dancers tend to be weak in these areas (Haas, 2010). A balanced use of these muscles makes the arms feel like they are coming from the back (Howse & McCormack, 2009). Problems arise when excessive tension and stress in the trapezius causes lifting of the shoulders (scapular elevation), which makes an efficient use of the arms difficult. If the arms are held too far behind the body when they are out to the sides (for example, in second position, used in many styles), this can cause excessive arching of the lower back and protruding ribs. If they are too far forward, this results in a closing in of the chest and a kyphotic posture (Clippinger, 2016).
To conclude this section on common deviations from ideal alignment, fatigue postureshould also bementioned. This posture requires less energy to stand than normal, and is a common unconscious adaptation in all dancers, even those who are highly experienced (Clippinger, 2016). For example, the dancer rests on the ligaments in the hip joints by pushing the pelvis forward considerably (increasing the posterior tilt) and hanging back in the upper torso (see figure 2.13). It is relaxing for the muscles, but puts a strain on the overstretched hip joints because the body's centre of gravity runs behind the pelvis (Simmel, 2014).
Fatigue posture.
Similarly, it is quite common to see dancers alternating between different postures in a dance session, their everyday habitual stance and their dance alignment. Dance-specific posture is assumed during practice, but in the relaxed moments - for example, when listening to feedback, observing other dancers in class in moments of rest or even interacting socially in rehearsal - the dancer can slip into an unstable pose, reinforcing detrimental postural habits. This may involve sitting into the hips, leaning backwards in the upper torso, rounding the shoulders forward with the hands on the hips or shifting the weight habitually to one leg. Like all deviations, these habitual postures have detrimental effects. Teachers should bring these habits to the dancer's attention to encourage conscious employment of the necessary muscles (spinal extensors and hip flexors) at the appropriate level of contraction to remedy them. Conscious awareness of posture, even in normal movement such as sitting, standing or lying down, will help the dancer to maintain a healthy body that supports the demands of dance techniques more effectively.
It is also worth mentioning at this point that, for some dancers, regularly carrying their own kit and costumes in heavy dance bags can place added strain on the body, causing muscle imbalances and postural changes over time. Recommendations are to use bags that spread the load as evenly as possible, choose padded handles or shoulder straps or consider wheeled suitcases that allow a neutral standing posture to be maintained (SHAPE, 2002).
Dancers could be more aware of, and leaders should discourage, slipping into fatigueor relaxedposture, both in and out of the dance session. Slumping, sitting in the hips or habitually releasing the weight into one hip while resting places increased stress on ligaments and joints and does not support the development of good dancing alignment.
Common Upper Body Alignment Issues
- Shoulders: Rolled forward or elevated
- Shoulder blades: Winging out
- Ribcage: Lifted or protruding in front
- Arms: Held too high (lifted shoulders) or too far back
Alignment Cues for the Upper Body in Dancing
Problems in the body
- The front of the ribcage lifts up or pushes forwards and the shoulder blades pull back as the dancer tries to stand up straight. The abdominals cannot engage properly, and the dancer experiences difficulties with breathing effectively as well as reduced mobility and increased tension.
- The shoulders are raised and tense or rolled forward and the shoulder blades wing out.
- The arms are held too far behind the ribcage, causing excessive arching in the lower back and lifted ribs in front.
Helpful and unhelpful cues
- Avoid saying, 'open your chest', 'lift your chest', 'pull your shoulders back/down', ‘pinch your shoulder blades together' and 'push your arms down in the back.'
- Instead, encourage dancers to relax the lower ribs so that the shoulder girdle sits freely on top of the ribcage. They should relax the shoulder girdle at a point close to the spine rather than forcefully pushing the outer edges of the shoulder down. Prompt them to release the shoulder blades downward and outwards, as the shoulders widen to the sides, emphasising the scapular adductors and the thoracic spine extensors. Direct dancers to lightly pull the arms down before they are raised. With the arms held out to the sides, if the shoulder joint is centred, the hands should be visible out of the corners of the eyes.
Imagery tips
Encourage dancers to do the following:
- Imagine the shoulders suspended from the neck like the sails of a ship, with the spine as a mast and the shoulder girdle as a cross-beam suspended from it.
- Imagine the shoulder blades sliding down the back and crossing into the opposite trouser back pockets.
- Imagine your armpits are deep and soft. They are filled with small balloons that inflate as you inhale and deflate as you exhale.
Save
Learn more about Safe Dance Practice.
Principles and Components of Cooling Down
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually’.
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually'. Often the progressive intensity of a dance session means the highest physical intensity occurs at the end, which results in the dancer experiencing a high rate of blood flow around the body and a fast (sometimes near maximum) heart rate, with the metabolism and the nervous system in a heightened state of activity (see chapter 6 for more regarding the preferred versus the common intensities of session progression). To suddenly cease activity at this point is akin to slamming on the car brakes when you had been motoring along at full speed. Theory suggests that an effective cool-down can reduce injuries, in particular delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS (Harris & Elbourne, 2002; Laws, Marsh, & Wyon, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Olsen, Sjøhaug, van Beekvelt, & Mork, 2012), and can promote enhanced performance for subsequent bouts of activity (Hindle et al., 2012; Rey, Lago-Peñas, Casáis, & Lago-Ballesteros, 2012). A focused cool-down is also thought to relieve any mental tension that may have built up during the dance session (Alter, 2004).
Regardless of dance situation (class, rehearsal, competition or performance), cooling down appears less popular than warming up (Laws, 2005; Koutedakis, Pacy, Carson, & Dick, 1997). Perhaps this is in part due to the limited amount of research that has been conducted on the benefits of cooling down and to the somewhat contradictory nature of the findings. Many of the research papers have focused solely on the stretching aspect of a cool-down. A 2002 systematic literature review noted that stretching after activity reduced muscular soreness for up to 72 hours after activity, although the authors comment that, due to a small effect size, these findings might not be strong enough to promote practical application (Herbert & Gabriel, 2002). A more recent review reported a literature consensus that static stretching post exercise can reduce muscle soreness for 24 hours after the activity (Herbert, de Noronha, & Kamper, 2011). However, stretching is only one component of the cool-down. Other research has examined the positive effects of including an active element (e.g., a pulse reducer) to the cool-down, reporting beneficial outcomes for subsequent power activities (Rey et al., 2012).
Review papers continue to note that the effectiveness of a cool-down, as with warm-up, appears to depend on the intensity, duration and relative dynamic or static nature of the content, the order in which the sections are conducted, as well as the specificity of the cool-down content to the activity that has just been experienced (Herbert et al., 2011; Rey et al., 2012). Despite such inconclusive recommendations, a statistical relationship can be seen between injury rate and cool-down: For example, dancers who cool down after their sessions report lower injury rates (Laws, 2005; Malliou et al., 2007). These findings support common theories that propose that effective cooling down can bring multiple physiological, neurological and psychological benefits that promote reduced injury risk and enhanced performance.
In order to effectively recover from strenuous dance activity, dancers and teachers must understand the physiological demands that the dance session has just targeted. Therefore, when choosing the specific focus of the cool-down, they should consider the type, level of intensity and duration of the activity that has just taken place (for more on these aspects, see chapter 4). For example, an Irish dance class has quite a high physical intensity, and predominantly targets activation of the calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscle group. It also subjects the lower limb joints to repetitive impacts. In planning the cool-down, Irish dance teachers must consider how to counteract these actions in order to effectively balance out or neutralise the accumulative effects of the activity on the dancing body. However, similar to warming up, before considering such specificity, dance leaders must be aware of the general principles of cooling down. These principles include reducing the pulse rate, easing out the joints and stretching the muscles. Once teachers have understood these ideas, they can and should adapt the principles as the need arises.
© Photoshot/TIPS
A dancer engaging in static stretching as part of her cool-down after class. This is after she has completed the pulse reducer and joint easing sections.
Example of Active-Static Stretching
Breathe in, breathe out and commence a stretch with control and attention, moving deeper into the position until the initial point of stretch sensation but not pain. Hold the position, mindfully relaxing any unnecessary tension, for around 10 seconds. Breathe in again. On the out breath, work to gently increase the stretch. Again hold this position for up to 10 seconds. If possible, gently increase the stretch once more on a third breath in and out. Using anatomical imagery can support an increase in ROM, especially if flexibility is currently restricted. Visualise making space in the joints and releasing the muscle fibres, even if no actual movement or increase in ROM is possible. Combining imagery with the breath helps reduce unnecessary muscular tension. Imagine increasing ROM and muscular length for the full duration of the stretch, even if you are not able to achieve any additional movement. Finish the stretch by maintaining the final position for approximately 20 seconds, and then gently ease the body out of the position.
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Structure and Content of Individual Dance Sessions
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
The physiological or kinesiological viewpoint, as opposed to the skill acquisition emphasis, is not always taken into account. The components for each style may differ, but they all have (or should have) commonalities: warm-up and preparation, exercises that improve skills, specific elements that work towards dance movements in combination and attention to cooling down. In the recreational format, these specific parts might be less defined so that the focus is on having fun and enjoying the dancing (Kassing & Jay, 2003). In this case it is usual to see combinations of steps linked together to form longer sequences, practised in each session so that the learning time is reduced, and saving time for more doing. The variability for vocational and professional dancers is likely to be greater. In creative classes, the focus is more on exploration and discovery of movement potential through open tasks rather than on prescribed exercises.
In general, whatever the purpose of the dance session, progression can be thought of as the preparation, the practice or training and the recovery (see figure 6.3). Different types of activity can be inserted into this progression to ensure a logical arrangement that minimises stress on the body.
In all styles, the basis for the construction of a safe and effective session is a logical progression of suitable exercises and activities guided by a clear methodology. Dance leaders must have the ability to devise exercises that make sense and fit together (White, 1996). The template for dance leaders is based on movement principles that make anatomical, kinesiological and physical sense, and it is the leaders' responsibility to highlight these principles to their participants and indicate clearly how they should be applied (Berardi, 2005). Tradition has a substantial influence on methodology, particularly for the more formal, established styles. On the other hand, a word-of-mouth or mimicry (passing on by copying) type of approach can also communicate newer, less codified sub-styles.
Much of the research into dance class structure has been undertaken with classical ballet, precisely because it is one of the oldest, most recognisable forms, with little practice variation. Because of all the attention and the employment of new technology and physical assessment techniques, some of the actions that have long been an integral part of the ballet vocabulary have come into question. Examples of these are included in the Contraindicated Movements and Actions section later in this chapter. Although some of the most readily available dance science research is based on the classical ballet form, it is especially important for emerging styles to take note of any exploratory research in order to create viable, safe and effective training plans. Dancers, students and especially dance leaders in all genres should be open to new ideas and prepared to investigate their own stylistic vocabulary and session structure. Gaining knowledge in order to make informed decisions will help prevent risks and allow the styles to continue to develop safely.
The basis for determining the sequencing and progression of dance content is the choice of movements (vocabulary), the amount of repetition and the location of the specific movements in the scan of the whole session. Whether a class, rehearsal or supplementary workout, each session should be built on principles that progressively develop the dancer's technique, skills or fitness. A well-designed structure that helps dancers acquire both vocabulary and skills and improve physiological components is the key to training effectively (Kassing & Jay, 2003). An understanding of the energy systems required for performance in different dance styles would also be helpful (the mixture of aerobic and anaerobic demands). Certain skills are common to many styles, for example, alignment, motor control, co-ordination and balance. The foundation for the basic skills in each genre must be set in place before more complex and sophisticated vocabulary and combinations can be attempted (Mainwaring & Krasnow, 2010).
Each part of the dance session has specific demands. The selection of appropriate activities for each stage depends on the purpose, the skills to be learned and the people doing the learning.
The structure of almost any dance class can be distilled down into the following template:
- Generic warm-up, followed by a style-specific warm-up
- Preparatory exercises to introduce and break down stylistic movement patterns, actions and sensibilities (often emphasising alignment and technical concepts)
- Progressive exercises that specifically address dancers' physical capacities for that style (for example, the development of required strength and flexibility)
- The actual dancing: combinations of movements that move through space, using different orientations, levels, speeds, intensities and dynamic movement qualities, and test the dancers' knowledge, understanding, adaptability and readiness for performance (which means ability to dance successfully in the style rather than being on stage)
- Cool-down
However, this template needs to be applied by considering the context of the session. The first question to ask when planning a dance session is to determine its purpose. Is it a creative class, a recreational session, a rehearsal towards a performance, a warm-up or one of a daily set of training classes? The level of difficulty of material and the physiological demands to be made will need to be determined with this purpose in mind.
The priority in planning is to consider the participants: their reason for dancing, their ability level and their age. The key point to remember is not simply to teach the session effectively but to teach effectively to the specific people in the session.It is important not to judge all dancers by their ability to achieve perfect technique or their intention to work towards achieving it. For example, adult participants in social settings may consider enjoyment and interaction more important than achieving technical perfection in their motivation to dance, while children may be more engaged by creative, expressive movement than formalised techniques (Gibbons, 2007).
Unique population groups are directly addressed in chapter 10, but there are broad theoretical questions to ask in determining the basic dance material (Gibbons, 2007):
- What is the aim of the session (training, social)?
- What is the ability level of the group (for example, in terms of degrees of strength, flexibility and cardiorespiratory capacity)?
- Are there unique considerations for the group (age, sex, life stage, ability or disability)?
- How does the class contribute to the overall amount of dance practice?
In planning their sessions from a physiological perspective, dance leaders could take the lead from sports and consider a training needs analysis (Kenney et al., 2012). This can be adapted to fit the dance session by asking:
- Which muscles will be used, or need to be trained?
- How will they be used or trained?
- Which energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) are involved in the dance style?
- Which are the primary sites of concerns for injury prevention?
Depending on these needs, the dance leader then needs to logically select:
- The exercises that will be performed
- The order that they will be performed in
- The number of times they are to be repeated to produce a training effect and avoid fatigue
- The amount of rest between each exercise or set of exercises
Examination of the preceding questions and points will inform the overall structure of the session. This can be broken down into several stages: in very simple terms, the beginning, middle and end. While this seems quite obvious, there can sometimes be a blurring of activities that sit most comfortably and efficiently within each stage. The beginning of the session will include the warm-up and preparatory exercises and activities. The body of the class will increase in difficulty and demand to develop the specific skills for each style, working towards a peak of activity, the actual dancing, which brings together the preparatory and developmental work in combinations, sequences and routines. Following this peak, the demand will reduce and the material will focus on a cool-down and recovery. This pattern may be contrary to the structure of many dance sessions, where it is common to see a more or less gradual and consistent progression of intensity that culminates in a peak at the very end. Rather than sustaining or increasing the intensity throughout a session (see common practice, figure 6.4a), the dance leader could include periodic short rest and recovery periods, working towards the peak in activity (the big dancing combinations) before bringing down the intensity earlier in the session (recommended practice, figure 6.4b). A session that takes into account pacing and recovery by following the recommended pattern will be more beneficial for dancers. This is discussed further in the section End of the Session later in this chapter. The Repetition section earlier in this chapter provides some guidelines as to the type of activities that might be appropriate in order to follow this pattern.
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Common deviations from ideal alignment
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely.
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely. On inhalation, the ribs widen and the abdominal muscles lengthen, and on exhalation, the ribs return and the abdominal muscles shorten (Haas, 2010). It is often difficult for dancers to understand how to find the engagement of the core muscles to provide support and keep the ribs relaxed - sucking in the belly too much leads to inefficient breathing patterns and tension in the ribcage. The stability of the shoulder girdle is essential for lifting and partnering activities. Dance styles that use balance in inversion or frequently support the weight through the arms should ensure a strong and secure upper body. Regardless of whether the upper body is used for weight bearing, every dance style incorporates a specific and expressive use of the arms, often with intricate choreography, such as in classical Indian dance and flamenco, which need control.
The thoracic and especially the cervical spine are vulnerable if not kept in alignment. Any weight bearing on the head and loading on this part of the spine is risky. General advice in sport is that overextension of the cervical spine can cause many problems, including compression of intervertebral discs and pinching of arteries and nerves at the base of the skull. However, full neck and head rolls, now seen as a contraindicated movement, are still included in some dance vocabulary. For example, whipping the head (and hair) is commonly seen in commercial and street dance choreography. Given the repetitive nature of dance training, the implications are obvious. Teachers and choreographers should seriously consider the use of head rolls in their vocabulary and should never use them in warm-up, substituting simpler up-and-down or side-to-side head movements instead.
When the shoulder blades (scapulae) wing - that is, the internal border can be seen sticking out away from the body - this is associated with muscle imbalance, especially a tight pectoralis minor and weakness of the muscles mentioned earlier that assist scapular stabilisation. The same can be said for protracted (rolled forward) shoulders. The shoulder blades should also not be pinched together. Ideally they should lie flat against the ribcage. The cue ‘squeeze your shoulder blades together' to correct forward shoulders or kyphosis and to generally encourage upright posture or arm placement is unhelpful, and it can cause many repercussions in the upper spine. Another frequent misalignment is lifting the ribcage up and forwards, often as a compensation for an anterior pelvic tilt (Welsh, 2009). This can be a result of misunderstanding the cue ‘pull up'.
Dancers need to be able to lift the arms without disturbing the centre, losing balance or increasing tension in the shoulder or back (Franklin, 2012). Each dance genre requires a specific and precise styling of the arms in space or strength and control in weight bearing. As dance forms have developed, modern choreography has led to increased strain on the shoulders and arms, with the integration of more athletic and gymnastic movements and amount of floor work needing upper body support (Simmel, 2014). For many styles, the goal is to find a secure positioning of the arms in which the torso is also neutralised and stabilised (Clippinger, 2016).
One of the most common directions given to dancers is ‘hold the arms on the back.' The meaning behind this is to encourage the most efficient muscular action to stabilise the arms, so the technical directions should explain how to do this effectively. If the dancer does not understand the mechanics, the primary result is tension in the upper body. The muscles that connect the arms to the back are concerned with scapular stabilisation (the serratus anterior, the rhomboids, the lower trapezius and the latissimus dorsi). It has been observed that dancers tend to be weak in these areas (Haas, 2010). A balanced use of these muscles makes the arms feel like they are coming from the back (Howse & McCormack, 2009). Problems arise when excessive tension and stress in the trapezius causes lifting of the shoulders (scapular elevation), which makes an efficient use of the arms difficult. If the arms are held too far behind the body when they are out to the sides (for example, in second position, used in many styles), this can cause excessive arching of the lower back and protruding ribs. If they are too far forward, this results in a closing in of the chest and a kyphotic posture (Clippinger, 2016).
To conclude this section on common deviations from ideal alignment, fatigue postureshould also bementioned. This posture requires less energy to stand than normal, and is a common unconscious adaptation in all dancers, even those who are highly experienced (Clippinger, 2016). For example, the dancer rests on the ligaments in the hip joints by pushing the pelvis forward considerably (increasing the posterior tilt) and hanging back in the upper torso (see figure 2.13). It is relaxing for the muscles, but puts a strain on the overstretched hip joints because the body's centre of gravity runs behind the pelvis (Simmel, 2014).
Fatigue posture.
Similarly, it is quite common to see dancers alternating between different postures in a dance session, their everyday habitual stance and their dance alignment. Dance-specific posture is assumed during practice, but in the relaxed moments - for example, when listening to feedback, observing other dancers in class in moments of rest or even interacting socially in rehearsal - the dancer can slip into an unstable pose, reinforcing detrimental postural habits. This may involve sitting into the hips, leaning backwards in the upper torso, rounding the shoulders forward with the hands on the hips or shifting the weight habitually to one leg. Like all deviations, these habitual postures have detrimental effects. Teachers should bring these habits to the dancer's attention to encourage conscious employment of the necessary muscles (spinal extensors and hip flexors) at the appropriate level of contraction to remedy them. Conscious awareness of posture, even in normal movement such as sitting, standing or lying down, will help the dancer to maintain a healthy body that supports the demands of dance techniques more effectively.
It is also worth mentioning at this point that, for some dancers, regularly carrying their own kit and costumes in heavy dance bags can place added strain on the body, causing muscle imbalances and postural changes over time. Recommendations are to use bags that spread the load as evenly as possible, choose padded handles or shoulder straps or consider wheeled suitcases that allow a neutral standing posture to be maintained (SHAPE, 2002).
Dancers could be more aware of, and leaders should discourage, slipping into fatigueor relaxedposture, both in and out of the dance session. Slumping, sitting in the hips or habitually releasing the weight into one hip while resting places increased stress on ligaments and joints and does not support the development of good dancing alignment.
Common Upper Body Alignment Issues
- Shoulders: Rolled forward or elevated
- Shoulder blades: Winging out
- Ribcage: Lifted or protruding in front
- Arms: Held too high (lifted shoulders) or too far back
Alignment Cues for the Upper Body in Dancing
Problems in the body
- The front of the ribcage lifts up or pushes forwards and the shoulder blades pull back as the dancer tries to stand up straight. The abdominals cannot engage properly, and the dancer experiences difficulties with breathing effectively as well as reduced mobility and increased tension.
- The shoulders are raised and tense or rolled forward and the shoulder blades wing out.
- The arms are held too far behind the ribcage, causing excessive arching in the lower back and lifted ribs in front.
Helpful and unhelpful cues
- Avoid saying, 'open your chest', 'lift your chest', 'pull your shoulders back/down', ‘pinch your shoulder blades together' and 'push your arms down in the back.'
- Instead, encourage dancers to relax the lower ribs so that the shoulder girdle sits freely on top of the ribcage. They should relax the shoulder girdle at a point close to the spine rather than forcefully pushing the outer edges of the shoulder down. Prompt them to release the shoulder blades downward and outwards, as the shoulders widen to the sides, emphasising the scapular adductors and the thoracic spine extensors. Direct dancers to lightly pull the arms down before they are raised. With the arms held out to the sides, if the shoulder joint is centred, the hands should be visible out of the corners of the eyes.
Imagery tips
Encourage dancers to do the following:
- Imagine the shoulders suspended from the neck like the sails of a ship, with the spine as a mast and the shoulder girdle as a cross-beam suspended from it.
- Imagine the shoulder blades sliding down the back and crossing into the opposite trouser back pockets.
- Imagine your armpits are deep and soft. They are filled with small balloons that inflate as you inhale and deflate as you exhale.
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Principles and Components of Cooling Down
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually’.
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually'. Often the progressive intensity of a dance session means the highest physical intensity occurs at the end, which results in the dancer experiencing a high rate of blood flow around the body and a fast (sometimes near maximum) heart rate, with the metabolism and the nervous system in a heightened state of activity (see chapter 6 for more regarding the preferred versus the common intensities of session progression). To suddenly cease activity at this point is akin to slamming on the car brakes when you had been motoring along at full speed. Theory suggests that an effective cool-down can reduce injuries, in particular delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS (Harris & Elbourne, 2002; Laws, Marsh, & Wyon, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Olsen, Sjøhaug, van Beekvelt, & Mork, 2012), and can promote enhanced performance for subsequent bouts of activity (Hindle et al., 2012; Rey, Lago-Peñas, Casáis, & Lago-Ballesteros, 2012). A focused cool-down is also thought to relieve any mental tension that may have built up during the dance session (Alter, 2004).
Regardless of dance situation (class, rehearsal, competition or performance), cooling down appears less popular than warming up (Laws, 2005; Koutedakis, Pacy, Carson, & Dick, 1997). Perhaps this is in part due to the limited amount of research that has been conducted on the benefits of cooling down and to the somewhat contradictory nature of the findings. Many of the research papers have focused solely on the stretching aspect of a cool-down. A 2002 systematic literature review noted that stretching after activity reduced muscular soreness for up to 72 hours after activity, although the authors comment that, due to a small effect size, these findings might not be strong enough to promote practical application (Herbert & Gabriel, 2002). A more recent review reported a literature consensus that static stretching post exercise can reduce muscle soreness for 24 hours after the activity (Herbert, de Noronha, & Kamper, 2011). However, stretching is only one component of the cool-down. Other research has examined the positive effects of including an active element (e.g., a pulse reducer) to the cool-down, reporting beneficial outcomes for subsequent power activities (Rey et al., 2012).
Review papers continue to note that the effectiveness of a cool-down, as with warm-up, appears to depend on the intensity, duration and relative dynamic or static nature of the content, the order in which the sections are conducted, as well as the specificity of the cool-down content to the activity that has just been experienced (Herbert et al., 2011; Rey et al., 2012). Despite such inconclusive recommendations, a statistical relationship can be seen between injury rate and cool-down: For example, dancers who cool down after their sessions report lower injury rates (Laws, 2005; Malliou et al., 2007). These findings support common theories that propose that effective cooling down can bring multiple physiological, neurological and psychological benefits that promote reduced injury risk and enhanced performance.
In order to effectively recover from strenuous dance activity, dancers and teachers must understand the physiological demands that the dance session has just targeted. Therefore, when choosing the specific focus of the cool-down, they should consider the type, level of intensity and duration of the activity that has just taken place (for more on these aspects, see chapter 4). For example, an Irish dance class has quite a high physical intensity, and predominantly targets activation of the calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscle group. It also subjects the lower limb joints to repetitive impacts. In planning the cool-down, Irish dance teachers must consider how to counteract these actions in order to effectively balance out or neutralise the accumulative effects of the activity on the dancing body. However, similar to warming up, before considering such specificity, dance leaders must be aware of the general principles of cooling down. These principles include reducing the pulse rate, easing out the joints and stretching the muscles. Once teachers have understood these ideas, they can and should adapt the principles as the need arises.
© Photoshot/TIPS
A dancer engaging in static stretching as part of her cool-down after class. This is after she has completed the pulse reducer and joint easing sections.
Example of Active-Static Stretching
Breathe in, breathe out and commence a stretch with control and attention, moving deeper into the position until the initial point of stretch sensation but not pain. Hold the position, mindfully relaxing any unnecessary tension, for around 10 seconds. Breathe in again. On the out breath, work to gently increase the stretch. Again hold this position for up to 10 seconds. If possible, gently increase the stretch once more on a third breath in and out. Using anatomical imagery can support an increase in ROM, especially if flexibility is currently restricted. Visualise making space in the joints and releasing the muscle fibres, even if no actual movement or increase in ROM is possible. Combining imagery with the breath helps reduce unnecessary muscular tension. Imagine increasing ROM and muscular length for the full duration of the stretch, even if you are not able to achieve any additional movement. Finish the stretch by maintaining the final position for approximately 20 seconds, and then gently ease the body out of the position.
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Structure and Content of Individual Dance Sessions
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
The physiological or kinesiological viewpoint, as opposed to the skill acquisition emphasis, is not always taken into account. The components for each style may differ, but they all have (or should have) commonalities: warm-up and preparation, exercises that improve skills, specific elements that work towards dance movements in combination and attention to cooling down. In the recreational format, these specific parts might be less defined so that the focus is on having fun and enjoying the dancing (Kassing & Jay, 2003). In this case it is usual to see combinations of steps linked together to form longer sequences, practised in each session so that the learning time is reduced, and saving time for more doing. The variability for vocational and professional dancers is likely to be greater. In creative classes, the focus is more on exploration and discovery of movement potential through open tasks rather than on prescribed exercises.
In general, whatever the purpose of the dance session, progression can be thought of as the preparation, the practice or training and the recovery (see figure 6.3). Different types of activity can be inserted into this progression to ensure a logical arrangement that minimises stress on the body.
In all styles, the basis for the construction of a safe and effective session is a logical progression of suitable exercises and activities guided by a clear methodology. Dance leaders must have the ability to devise exercises that make sense and fit together (White, 1996). The template for dance leaders is based on movement principles that make anatomical, kinesiological and physical sense, and it is the leaders' responsibility to highlight these principles to their participants and indicate clearly how they should be applied (Berardi, 2005). Tradition has a substantial influence on methodology, particularly for the more formal, established styles. On the other hand, a word-of-mouth or mimicry (passing on by copying) type of approach can also communicate newer, less codified sub-styles.
Much of the research into dance class structure has been undertaken with classical ballet, precisely because it is one of the oldest, most recognisable forms, with little practice variation. Because of all the attention and the employment of new technology and physical assessment techniques, some of the actions that have long been an integral part of the ballet vocabulary have come into question. Examples of these are included in the Contraindicated Movements and Actions section later in this chapter. Although some of the most readily available dance science research is based on the classical ballet form, it is especially important for emerging styles to take note of any exploratory research in order to create viable, safe and effective training plans. Dancers, students and especially dance leaders in all genres should be open to new ideas and prepared to investigate their own stylistic vocabulary and session structure. Gaining knowledge in order to make informed decisions will help prevent risks and allow the styles to continue to develop safely.
The basis for determining the sequencing and progression of dance content is the choice of movements (vocabulary), the amount of repetition and the location of the specific movements in the scan of the whole session. Whether a class, rehearsal or supplementary workout, each session should be built on principles that progressively develop the dancer's technique, skills or fitness. A well-designed structure that helps dancers acquire both vocabulary and skills and improve physiological components is the key to training effectively (Kassing & Jay, 2003). An understanding of the energy systems required for performance in different dance styles would also be helpful (the mixture of aerobic and anaerobic demands). Certain skills are common to many styles, for example, alignment, motor control, co-ordination and balance. The foundation for the basic skills in each genre must be set in place before more complex and sophisticated vocabulary and combinations can be attempted (Mainwaring & Krasnow, 2010).
Each part of the dance session has specific demands. The selection of appropriate activities for each stage depends on the purpose, the skills to be learned and the people doing the learning.
The structure of almost any dance class can be distilled down into the following template:
- Generic warm-up, followed by a style-specific warm-up
- Preparatory exercises to introduce and break down stylistic movement patterns, actions and sensibilities (often emphasising alignment and technical concepts)
- Progressive exercises that specifically address dancers' physical capacities for that style (for example, the development of required strength and flexibility)
- The actual dancing: combinations of movements that move through space, using different orientations, levels, speeds, intensities and dynamic movement qualities, and test the dancers' knowledge, understanding, adaptability and readiness for performance (which means ability to dance successfully in the style rather than being on stage)
- Cool-down
However, this template needs to be applied by considering the context of the session. The first question to ask when planning a dance session is to determine its purpose. Is it a creative class, a recreational session, a rehearsal towards a performance, a warm-up or one of a daily set of training classes? The level of difficulty of material and the physiological demands to be made will need to be determined with this purpose in mind.
The priority in planning is to consider the participants: their reason for dancing, their ability level and their age. The key point to remember is not simply to teach the session effectively but to teach effectively to the specific people in the session.It is important not to judge all dancers by their ability to achieve perfect technique or their intention to work towards achieving it. For example, adult participants in social settings may consider enjoyment and interaction more important than achieving technical perfection in their motivation to dance, while children may be more engaged by creative, expressive movement than formalised techniques (Gibbons, 2007).
Unique population groups are directly addressed in chapter 10, but there are broad theoretical questions to ask in determining the basic dance material (Gibbons, 2007):
- What is the aim of the session (training, social)?
- What is the ability level of the group (for example, in terms of degrees of strength, flexibility and cardiorespiratory capacity)?
- Are there unique considerations for the group (age, sex, life stage, ability or disability)?
- How does the class contribute to the overall amount of dance practice?
In planning their sessions from a physiological perspective, dance leaders could take the lead from sports and consider a training needs analysis (Kenney et al., 2012). This can be adapted to fit the dance session by asking:
- Which muscles will be used, or need to be trained?
- How will they be used or trained?
- Which energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) are involved in the dance style?
- Which are the primary sites of concerns for injury prevention?
Depending on these needs, the dance leader then needs to logically select:
- The exercises that will be performed
- The order that they will be performed in
- The number of times they are to be repeated to produce a training effect and avoid fatigue
- The amount of rest between each exercise or set of exercises
Examination of the preceding questions and points will inform the overall structure of the session. This can be broken down into several stages: in very simple terms, the beginning, middle and end. While this seems quite obvious, there can sometimes be a blurring of activities that sit most comfortably and efficiently within each stage. The beginning of the session will include the warm-up and preparatory exercises and activities. The body of the class will increase in difficulty and demand to develop the specific skills for each style, working towards a peak of activity, the actual dancing, which brings together the preparatory and developmental work in combinations, sequences and routines. Following this peak, the demand will reduce and the material will focus on a cool-down and recovery. This pattern may be contrary to the structure of many dance sessions, where it is common to see a more or less gradual and consistent progression of intensity that culminates in a peak at the very end. Rather than sustaining or increasing the intensity throughout a session (see common practice, figure 6.4a), the dance leader could include periodic short rest and recovery periods, working towards the peak in activity (the big dancing combinations) before bringing down the intensity earlier in the session (recommended practice, figure 6.4b). A session that takes into account pacing and recovery by following the recommended pattern will be more beneficial for dancers. This is discussed further in the section End of the Session later in this chapter. The Repetition section earlier in this chapter provides some guidelines as to the type of activities that might be appropriate in order to follow this pattern.
Learn more about Safe Dance Practice.
Common deviations from ideal alignment
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely.
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely. On inhalation, the ribs widen and the abdominal muscles lengthen, and on exhalation, the ribs return and the abdominal muscles shorten (Haas, 2010). It is often difficult for dancers to understand how to find the engagement of the core muscles to provide support and keep the ribs relaxed - sucking in the belly too much leads to inefficient breathing patterns and tension in the ribcage. The stability of the shoulder girdle is essential for lifting and partnering activities. Dance styles that use balance in inversion or frequently support the weight through the arms should ensure a strong and secure upper body. Regardless of whether the upper body is used for weight bearing, every dance style incorporates a specific and expressive use of the arms, often with intricate choreography, such as in classical Indian dance and flamenco, which need control.
The thoracic and especially the cervical spine are vulnerable if not kept in alignment. Any weight bearing on the head and loading on this part of the spine is risky. General advice in sport is that overextension of the cervical spine can cause many problems, including compression of intervertebral discs and pinching of arteries and nerves at the base of the skull. However, full neck and head rolls, now seen as a contraindicated movement, are still included in some dance vocabulary. For example, whipping the head (and hair) is commonly seen in commercial and street dance choreography. Given the repetitive nature of dance training, the implications are obvious. Teachers and choreographers should seriously consider the use of head rolls in their vocabulary and should never use them in warm-up, substituting simpler up-and-down or side-to-side head movements instead.
When the shoulder blades (scapulae) wing - that is, the internal border can be seen sticking out away from the body - this is associated with muscle imbalance, especially a tight pectoralis minor and weakness of the muscles mentioned earlier that assist scapular stabilisation. The same can be said for protracted (rolled forward) shoulders. The shoulder blades should also not be pinched together. Ideally they should lie flat against the ribcage. The cue ‘squeeze your shoulder blades together' to correct forward shoulders or kyphosis and to generally encourage upright posture or arm placement is unhelpful, and it can cause many repercussions in the upper spine. Another frequent misalignment is lifting the ribcage up and forwards, often as a compensation for an anterior pelvic tilt (Welsh, 2009). This can be a result of misunderstanding the cue ‘pull up'.
Dancers need to be able to lift the arms without disturbing the centre, losing balance or increasing tension in the shoulder or back (Franklin, 2012). Each dance genre requires a specific and precise styling of the arms in space or strength and control in weight bearing. As dance forms have developed, modern choreography has led to increased strain on the shoulders and arms, with the integration of more athletic and gymnastic movements and amount of floor work needing upper body support (Simmel, 2014). For many styles, the goal is to find a secure positioning of the arms in which the torso is also neutralised and stabilised (Clippinger, 2016).
One of the most common directions given to dancers is ‘hold the arms on the back.' The meaning behind this is to encourage the most efficient muscular action to stabilise the arms, so the technical directions should explain how to do this effectively. If the dancer does not understand the mechanics, the primary result is tension in the upper body. The muscles that connect the arms to the back are concerned with scapular stabilisation (the serratus anterior, the rhomboids, the lower trapezius and the latissimus dorsi). It has been observed that dancers tend to be weak in these areas (Haas, 2010). A balanced use of these muscles makes the arms feel like they are coming from the back (Howse & McCormack, 2009). Problems arise when excessive tension and stress in the trapezius causes lifting of the shoulders (scapular elevation), which makes an efficient use of the arms difficult. If the arms are held too far behind the body when they are out to the sides (for example, in second position, used in many styles), this can cause excessive arching of the lower back and protruding ribs. If they are too far forward, this results in a closing in of the chest and a kyphotic posture (Clippinger, 2016).
To conclude this section on common deviations from ideal alignment, fatigue postureshould also bementioned. This posture requires less energy to stand than normal, and is a common unconscious adaptation in all dancers, even those who are highly experienced (Clippinger, 2016). For example, the dancer rests on the ligaments in the hip joints by pushing the pelvis forward considerably (increasing the posterior tilt) and hanging back in the upper torso (see figure 2.13). It is relaxing for the muscles, but puts a strain on the overstretched hip joints because the body's centre of gravity runs behind the pelvis (Simmel, 2014).
Fatigue posture.
Similarly, it is quite common to see dancers alternating between different postures in a dance session, their everyday habitual stance and their dance alignment. Dance-specific posture is assumed during practice, but in the relaxed moments - for example, when listening to feedback, observing other dancers in class in moments of rest or even interacting socially in rehearsal - the dancer can slip into an unstable pose, reinforcing detrimental postural habits. This may involve sitting into the hips, leaning backwards in the upper torso, rounding the shoulders forward with the hands on the hips or shifting the weight habitually to one leg. Like all deviations, these habitual postures have detrimental effects. Teachers should bring these habits to the dancer's attention to encourage conscious employment of the necessary muscles (spinal extensors and hip flexors) at the appropriate level of contraction to remedy them. Conscious awareness of posture, even in normal movement such as sitting, standing or lying down, will help the dancer to maintain a healthy body that supports the demands of dance techniques more effectively.
It is also worth mentioning at this point that, for some dancers, regularly carrying their own kit and costumes in heavy dance bags can place added strain on the body, causing muscle imbalances and postural changes over time. Recommendations are to use bags that spread the load as evenly as possible, choose padded handles or shoulder straps or consider wheeled suitcases that allow a neutral standing posture to be maintained (SHAPE, 2002).
Dancers could be more aware of, and leaders should discourage, slipping into fatigueor relaxedposture, both in and out of the dance session. Slumping, sitting in the hips or habitually releasing the weight into one hip while resting places increased stress on ligaments and joints and does not support the development of good dancing alignment.
Common Upper Body Alignment Issues
- Shoulders: Rolled forward or elevated
- Shoulder blades: Winging out
- Ribcage: Lifted or protruding in front
- Arms: Held too high (lifted shoulders) or too far back
Alignment Cues for the Upper Body in Dancing
Problems in the body
- The front of the ribcage lifts up or pushes forwards and the shoulder blades pull back as the dancer tries to stand up straight. The abdominals cannot engage properly, and the dancer experiences difficulties with breathing effectively as well as reduced mobility and increased tension.
- The shoulders are raised and tense or rolled forward and the shoulder blades wing out.
- The arms are held too far behind the ribcage, causing excessive arching in the lower back and lifted ribs in front.
Helpful and unhelpful cues
- Avoid saying, 'open your chest', 'lift your chest', 'pull your shoulders back/down', ‘pinch your shoulder blades together' and 'push your arms down in the back.'
- Instead, encourage dancers to relax the lower ribs so that the shoulder girdle sits freely on top of the ribcage. They should relax the shoulder girdle at a point close to the spine rather than forcefully pushing the outer edges of the shoulder down. Prompt them to release the shoulder blades downward and outwards, as the shoulders widen to the sides, emphasising the scapular adductors and the thoracic spine extensors. Direct dancers to lightly pull the arms down before they are raised. With the arms held out to the sides, if the shoulder joint is centred, the hands should be visible out of the corners of the eyes.
Imagery tips
Encourage dancers to do the following:
- Imagine the shoulders suspended from the neck like the sails of a ship, with the spine as a mast and the shoulder girdle as a cross-beam suspended from it.
- Imagine the shoulder blades sliding down the back and crossing into the opposite trouser back pockets.
- Imagine your armpits are deep and soft. They are filled with small balloons that inflate as you inhale and deflate as you exhale.
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Principles and Components of Cooling Down
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually’.
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually'. Often the progressive intensity of a dance session means the highest physical intensity occurs at the end, which results in the dancer experiencing a high rate of blood flow around the body and a fast (sometimes near maximum) heart rate, with the metabolism and the nervous system in a heightened state of activity (see chapter 6 for more regarding the preferred versus the common intensities of session progression). To suddenly cease activity at this point is akin to slamming on the car brakes when you had been motoring along at full speed. Theory suggests that an effective cool-down can reduce injuries, in particular delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS (Harris & Elbourne, 2002; Laws, Marsh, & Wyon, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Olsen, Sjøhaug, van Beekvelt, & Mork, 2012), and can promote enhanced performance for subsequent bouts of activity (Hindle et al., 2012; Rey, Lago-Peñas, Casáis, & Lago-Ballesteros, 2012). A focused cool-down is also thought to relieve any mental tension that may have built up during the dance session (Alter, 2004).
Regardless of dance situation (class, rehearsal, competition or performance), cooling down appears less popular than warming up (Laws, 2005; Koutedakis, Pacy, Carson, & Dick, 1997). Perhaps this is in part due to the limited amount of research that has been conducted on the benefits of cooling down and to the somewhat contradictory nature of the findings. Many of the research papers have focused solely on the stretching aspect of a cool-down. A 2002 systematic literature review noted that stretching after activity reduced muscular soreness for up to 72 hours after activity, although the authors comment that, due to a small effect size, these findings might not be strong enough to promote practical application (Herbert & Gabriel, 2002). A more recent review reported a literature consensus that static stretching post exercise can reduce muscle soreness for 24 hours after the activity (Herbert, de Noronha, & Kamper, 2011). However, stretching is only one component of the cool-down. Other research has examined the positive effects of including an active element (e.g., a pulse reducer) to the cool-down, reporting beneficial outcomes for subsequent power activities (Rey et al., 2012).
Review papers continue to note that the effectiveness of a cool-down, as with warm-up, appears to depend on the intensity, duration and relative dynamic or static nature of the content, the order in which the sections are conducted, as well as the specificity of the cool-down content to the activity that has just been experienced (Herbert et al., 2011; Rey et al., 2012). Despite such inconclusive recommendations, a statistical relationship can be seen between injury rate and cool-down: For example, dancers who cool down after their sessions report lower injury rates (Laws, 2005; Malliou et al., 2007). These findings support common theories that propose that effective cooling down can bring multiple physiological, neurological and psychological benefits that promote reduced injury risk and enhanced performance.
In order to effectively recover from strenuous dance activity, dancers and teachers must understand the physiological demands that the dance session has just targeted. Therefore, when choosing the specific focus of the cool-down, they should consider the type, level of intensity and duration of the activity that has just taken place (for more on these aspects, see chapter 4). For example, an Irish dance class has quite a high physical intensity, and predominantly targets activation of the calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscle group. It also subjects the lower limb joints to repetitive impacts. In planning the cool-down, Irish dance teachers must consider how to counteract these actions in order to effectively balance out or neutralise the accumulative effects of the activity on the dancing body. However, similar to warming up, before considering such specificity, dance leaders must be aware of the general principles of cooling down. These principles include reducing the pulse rate, easing out the joints and stretching the muscles. Once teachers have understood these ideas, they can and should adapt the principles as the need arises.
© Photoshot/TIPS
A dancer engaging in static stretching as part of her cool-down after class. This is after she has completed the pulse reducer and joint easing sections.
Example of Active-Static Stretching
Breathe in, breathe out and commence a stretch with control and attention, moving deeper into the position until the initial point of stretch sensation but not pain. Hold the position, mindfully relaxing any unnecessary tension, for around 10 seconds. Breathe in again. On the out breath, work to gently increase the stretch. Again hold this position for up to 10 seconds. If possible, gently increase the stretch once more on a third breath in and out. Using anatomical imagery can support an increase in ROM, especially if flexibility is currently restricted. Visualise making space in the joints and releasing the muscle fibres, even if no actual movement or increase in ROM is possible. Combining imagery with the breath helps reduce unnecessary muscular tension. Imagine increasing ROM and muscular length for the full duration of the stretch, even if you are not able to achieve any additional movement. Finish the stretch by maintaining the final position for approximately 20 seconds, and then gently ease the body out of the position.
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Structure and Content of Individual Dance Sessions
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
The physiological or kinesiological viewpoint, as opposed to the skill acquisition emphasis, is not always taken into account. The components for each style may differ, but they all have (or should have) commonalities: warm-up and preparation, exercises that improve skills, specific elements that work towards dance movements in combination and attention to cooling down. In the recreational format, these specific parts might be less defined so that the focus is on having fun and enjoying the dancing (Kassing & Jay, 2003). In this case it is usual to see combinations of steps linked together to form longer sequences, practised in each session so that the learning time is reduced, and saving time for more doing. The variability for vocational and professional dancers is likely to be greater. In creative classes, the focus is more on exploration and discovery of movement potential through open tasks rather than on prescribed exercises.
In general, whatever the purpose of the dance session, progression can be thought of as the preparation, the practice or training and the recovery (see figure 6.3). Different types of activity can be inserted into this progression to ensure a logical arrangement that minimises stress on the body.
In all styles, the basis for the construction of a safe and effective session is a logical progression of suitable exercises and activities guided by a clear methodology. Dance leaders must have the ability to devise exercises that make sense and fit together (White, 1996). The template for dance leaders is based on movement principles that make anatomical, kinesiological and physical sense, and it is the leaders' responsibility to highlight these principles to their participants and indicate clearly how they should be applied (Berardi, 2005). Tradition has a substantial influence on methodology, particularly for the more formal, established styles. On the other hand, a word-of-mouth or mimicry (passing on by copying) type of approach can also communicate newer, less codified sub-styles.
Much of the research into dance class structure has been undertaken with classical ballet, precisely because it is one of the oldest, most recognisable forms, with little practice variation. Because of all the attention and the employment of new technology and physical assessment techniques, some of the actions that have long been an integral part of the ballet vocabulary have come into question. Examples of these are included in the Contraindicated Movements and Actions section later in this chapter. Although some of the most readily available dance science research is based on the classical ballet form, it is especially important for emerging styles to take note of any exploratory research in order to create viable, safe and effective training plans. Dancers, students and especially dance leaders in all genres should be open to new ideas and prepared to investigate their own stylistic vocabulary and session structure. Gaining knowledge in order to make informed decisions will help prevent risks and allow the styles to continue to develop safely.
The basis for determining the sequencing and progression of dance content is the choice of movements (vocabulary), the amount of repetition and the location of the specific movements in the scan of the whole session. Whether a class, rehearsal or supplementary workout, each session should be built on principles that progressively develop the dancer's technique, skills or fitness. A well-designed structure that helps dancers acquire both vocabulary and skills and improve physiological components is the key to training effectively (Kassing & Jay, 2003). An understanding of the energy systems required for performance in different dance styles would also be helpful (the mixture of aerobic and anaerobic demands). Certain skills are common to many styles, for example, alignment, motor control, co-ordination and balance. The foundation for the basic skills in each genre must be set in place before more complex and sophisticated vocabulary and combinations can be attempted (Mainwaring & Krasnow, 2010).
Each part of the dance session has specific demands. The selection of appropriate activities for each stage depends on the purpose, the skills to be learned and the people doing the learning.
The structure of almost any dance class can be distilled down into the following template:
- Generic warm-up, followed by a style-specific warm-up
- Preparatory exercises to introduce and break down stylistic movement patterns, actions and sensibilities (often emphasising alignment and technical concepts)
- Progressive exercises that specifically address dancers' physical capacities for that style (for example, the development of required strength and flexibility)
- The actual dancing: combinations of movements that move through space, using different orientations, levels, speeds, intensities and dynamic movement qualities, and test the dancers' knowledge, understanding, adaptability and readiness for performance (which means ability to dance successfully in the style rather than being on stage)
- Cool-down
However, this template needs to be applied by considering the context of the session. The first question to ask when planning a dance session is to determine its purpose. Is it a creative class, a recreational session, a rehearsal towards a performance, a warm-up or one of a daily set of training classes? The level of difficulty of material and the physiological demands to be made will need to be determined with this purpose in mind.
The priority in planning is to consider the participants: their reason for dancing, their ability level and their age. The key point to remember is not simply to teach the session effectively but to teach effectively to the specific people in the session.It is important not to judge all dancers by their ability to achieve perfect technique or their intention to work towards achieving it. For example, adult participants in social settings may consider enjoyment and interaction more important than achieving technical perfection in their motivation to dance, while children may be more engaged by creative, expressive movement than formalised techniques (Gibbons, 2007).
Unique population groups are directly addressed in chapter 10, but there are broad theoretical questions to ask in determining the basic dance material (Gibbons, 2007):
- What is the aim of the session (training, social)?
- What is the ability level of the group (for example, in terms of degrees of strength, flexibility and cardiorespiratory capacity)?
- Are there unique considerations for the group (age, sex, life stage, ability or disability)?
- How does the class contribute to the overall amount of dance practice?
In planning their sessions from a physiological perspective, dance leaders could take the lead from sports and consider a training needs analysis (Kenney et al., 2012). This can be adapted to fit the dance session by asking:
- Which muscles will be used, or need to be trained?
- How will they be used or trained?
- Which energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) are involved in the dance style?
- Which are the primary sites of concerns for injury prevention?
Depending on these needs, the dance leader then needs to logically select:
- The exercises that will be performed
- The order that they will be performed in
- The number of times they are to be repeated to produce a training effect and avoid fatigue
- The amount of rest between each exercise or set of exercises
Examination of the preceding questions and points will inform the overall structure of the session. This can be broken down into several stages: in very simple terms, the beginning, middle and end. While this seems quite obvious, there can sometimes be a blurring of activities that sit most comfortably and efficiently within each stage. The beginning of the session will include the warm-up and preparatory exercises and activities. The body of the class will increase in difficulty and demand to develop the specific skills for each style, working towards a peak of activity, the actual dancing, which brings together the preparatory and developmental work in combinations, sequences and routines. Following this peak, the demand will reduce and the material will focus on a cool-down and recovery. This pattern may be contrary to the structure of many dance sessions, where it is common to see a more or less gradual and consistent progression of intensity that culminates in a peak at the very end. Rather than sustaining or increasing the intensity throughout a session (see common practice, figure 6.4a), the dance leader could include periodic short rest and recovery periods, working towards the peak in activity (the big dancing combinations) before bringing down the intensity earlier in the session (recommended practice, figure 6.4b). A session that takes into account pacing and recovery by following the recommended pattern will be more beneficial for dancers. This is discussed further in the section End of the Session later in this chapter. The Repetition section earlier in this chapter provides some guidelines as to the type of activities that might be appropriate in order to follow this pattern.
Learn more about Safe Dance Practice.
Common deviations from ideal alignment
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely.
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely. On inhalation, the ribs widen and the abdominal muscles lengthen, and on exhalation, the ribs return and the abdominal muscles shorten (Haas, 2010). It is often difficult for dancers to understand how to find the engagement of the core muscles to provide support and keep the ribs relaxed - sucking in the belly too much leads to inefficient breathing patterns and tension in the ribcage. The stability of the shoulder girdle is essential for lifting and partnering activities. Dance styles that use balance in inversion or frequently support the weight through the arms should ensure a strong and secure upper body. Regardless of whether the upper body is used for weight bearing, every dance style incorporates a specific and expressive use of the arms, often with intricate choreography, such as in classical Indian dance and flamenco, which need control.
The thoracic and especially the cervical spine are vulnerable if not kept in alignment. Any weight bearing on the head and loading on this part of the spine is risky. General advice in sport is that overextension of the cervical spine can cause many problems, including compression of intervertebral discs and pinching of arteries and nerves at the base of the skull. However, full neck and head rolls, now seen as a contraindicated movement, are still included in some dance vocabulary. For example, whipping the head (and hair) is commonly seen in commercial and street dance choreography. Given the repetitive nature of dance training, the implications are obvious. Teachers and choreographers should seriously consider the use of head rolls in their vocabulary and should never use them in warm-up, substituting simpler up-and-down or side-to-side head movements instead.
When the shoulder blades (scapulae) wing - that is, the internal border can be seen sticking out away from the body - this is associated with muscle imbalance, especially a tight pectoralis minor and weakness of the muscles mentioned earlier that assist scapular stabilisation. The same can be said for protracted (rolled forward) shoulders. The shoulder blades should also not be pinched together. Ideally they should lie flat against the ribcage. The cue ‘squeeze your shoulder blades together' to correct forward shoulders or kyphosis and to generally encourage upright posture or arm placement is unhelpful, and it can cause many repercussions in the upper spine. Another frequent misalignment is lifting the ribcage up and forwards, often as a compensation for an anterior pelvic tilt (Welsh, 2009). This can be a result of misunderstanding the cue ‘pull up'.
Dancers need to be able to lift the arms without disturbing the centre, losing balance or increasing tension in the shoulder or back (Franklin, 2012). Each dance genre requires a specific and precise styling of the arms in space or strength and control in weight bearing. As dance forms have developed, modern choreography has led to increased strain on the shoulders and arms, with the integration of more athletic and gymnastic movements and amount of floor work needing upper body support (Simmel, 2014). For many styles, the goal is to find a secure positioning of the arms in which the torso is also neutralised and stabilised (Clippinger, 2016).
One of the most common directions given to dancers is ‘hold the arms on the back.' The meaning behind this is to encourage the most efficient muscular action to stabilise the arms, so the technical directions should explain how to do this effectively. If the dancer does not understand the mechanics, the primary result is tension in the upper body. The muscles that connect the arms to the back are concerned with scapular stabilisation (the serratus anterior, the rhomboids, the lower trapezius and the latissimus dorsi). It has been observed that dancers tend to be weak in these areas (Haas, 2010). A balanced use of these muscles makes the arms feel like they are coming from the back (Howse & McCormack, 2009). Problems arise when excessive tension and stress in the trapezius causes lifting of the shoulders (scapular elevation), which makes an efficient use of the arms difficult. If the arms are held too far behind the body when they are out to the sides (for example, in second position, used in many styles), this can cause excessive arching of the lower back and protruding ribs. If they are too far forward, this results in a closing in of the chest and a kyphotic posture (Clippinger, 2016).
To conclude this section on common deviations from ideal alignment, fatigue postureshould also bementioned. This posture requires less energy to stand than normal, and is a common unconscious adaptation in all dancers, even those who are highly experienced (Clippinger, 2016). For example, the dancer rests on the ligaments in the hip joints by pushing the pelvis forward considerably (increasing the posterior tilt) and hanging back in the upper torso (see figure 2.13). It is relaxing for the muscles, but puts a strain on the overstretched hip joints because the body's centre of gravity runs behind the pelvis (Simmel, 2014).
Fatigue posture.
Similarly, it is quite common to see dancers alternating between different postures in a dance session, their everyday habitual stance and their dance alignment. Dance-specific posture is assumed during practice, but in the relaxed moments - for example, when listening to feedback, observing other dancers in class in moments of rest or even interacting socially in rehearsal - the dancer can slip into an unstable pose, reinforcing detrimental postural habits. This may involve sitting into the hips, leaning backwards in the upper torso, rounding the shoulders forward with the hands on the hips or shifting the weight habitually to one leg. Like all deviations, these habitual postures have detrimental effects. Teachers should bring these habits to the dancer's attention to encourage conscious employment of the necessary muscles (spinal extensors and hip flexors) at the appropriate level of contraction to remedy them. Conscious awareness of posture, even in normal movement such as sitting, standing or lying down, will help the dancer to maintain a healthy body that supports the demands of dance techniques more effectively.
It is also worth mentioning at this point that, for some dancers, regularly carrying their own kit and costumes in heavy dance bags can place added strain on the body, causing muscle imbalances and postural changes over time. Recommendations are to use bags that spread the load as evenly as possible, choose padded handles or shoulder straps or consider wheeled suitcases that allow a neutral standing posture to be maintained (SHAPE, 2002).
Dancers could be more aware of, and leaders should discourage, slipping into fatigueor relaxedposture, both in and out of the dance session. Slumping, sitting in the hips or habitually releasing the weight into one hip while resting places increased stress on ligaments and joints and does not support the development of good dancing alignment.
Common Upper Body Alignment Issues
- Shoulders: Rolled forward or elevated
- Shoulder blades: Winging out
- Ribcage: Lifted or protruding in front
- Arms: Held too high (lifted shoulders) or too far back
Alignment Cues for the Upper Body in Dancing
Problems in the body
- The front of the ribcage lifts up or pushes forwards and the shoulder blades pull back as the dancer tries to stand up straight. The abdominals cannot engage properly, and the dancer experiences difficulties with breathing effectively as well as reduced mobility and increased tension.
- The shoulders are raised and tense or rolled forward and the shoulder blades wing out.
- The arms are held too far behind the ribcage, causing excessive arching in the lower back and lifted ribs in front.
Helpful and unhelpful cues
- Avoid saying, 'open your chest', 'lift your chest', 'pull your shoulders back/down', ‘pinch your shoulder blades together' and 'push your arms down in the back.'
- Instead, encourage dancers to relax the lower ribs so that the shoulder girdle sits freely on top of the ribcage. They should relax the shoulder girdle at a point close to the spine rather than forcefully pushing the outer edges of the shoulder down. Prompt them to release the shoulder blades downward and outwards, as the shoulders widen to the sides, emphasising the scapular adductors and the thoracic spine extensors. Direct dancers to lightly pull the arms down before they are raised. With the arms held out to the sides, if the shoulder joint is centred, the hands should be visible out of the corners of the eyes.
Imagery tips
Encourage dancers to do the following:
- Imagine the shoulders suspended from the neck like the sails of a ship, with the spine as a mast and the shoulder girdle as a cross-beam suspended from it.
- Imagine the shoulder blades sliding down the back and crossing into the opposite trouser back pockets.
- Imagine your armpits are deep and soft. They are filled with small balloons that inflate as you inhale and deflate as you exhale.
Save
Learn more about Safe Dance Practice.
Principles and Components of Cooling Down
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually’.
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually'. Often the progressive intensity of a dance session means the highest physical intensity occurs at the end, which results in the dancer experiencing a high rate of blood flow around the body and a fast (sometimes near maximum) heart rate, with the metabolism and the nervous system in a heightened state of activity (see chapter 6 for more regarding the preferred versus the common intensities of session progression). To suddenly cease activity at this point is akin to slamming on the car brakes when you had been motoring along at full speed. Theory suggests that an effective cool-down can reduce injuries, in particular delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS (Harris & Elbourne, 2002; Laws, Marsh, & Wyon, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Olsen, Sjøhaug, van Beekvelt, & Mork, 2012), and can promote enhanced performance for subsequent bouts of activity (Hindle et al., 2012; Rey, Lago-Peñas, Casáis, & Lago-Ballesteros, 2012). A focused cool-down is also thought to relieve any mental tension that may have built up during the dance session (Alter, 2004).
Regardless of dance situation (class, rehearsal, competition or performance), cooling down appears less popular than warming up (Laws, 2005; Koutedakis, Pacy, Carson, & Dick, 1997). Perhaps this is in part due to the limited amount of research that has been conducted on the benefits of cooling down and to the somewhat contradictory nature of the findings. Many of the research papers have focused solely on the stretching aspect of a cool-down. A 2002 systematic literature review noted that stretching after activity reduced muscular soreness for up to 72 hours after activity, although the authors comment that, due to a small effect size, these findings might not be strong enough to promote practical application (Herbert & Gabriel, 2002). A more recent review reported a literature consensus that static stretching post exercise can reduce muscle soreness for 24 hours after the activity (Herbert, de Noronha, & Kamper, 2011). However, stretching is only one component of the cool-down. Other research has examined the positive effects of including an active element (e.g., a pulse reducer) to the cool-down, reporting beneficial outcomes for subsequent power activities (Rey et al., 2012).
Review papers continue to note that the effectiveness of a cool-down, as with warm-up, appears to depend on the intensity, duration and relative dynamic or static nature of the content, the order in which the sections are conducted, as well as the specificity of the cool-down content to the activity that has just been experienced (Herbert et al., 2011; Rey et al., 2012). Despite such inconclusive recommendations, a statistical relationship can be seen between injury rate and cool-down: For example, dancers who cool down after their sessions report lower injury rates (Laws, 2005; Malliou et al., 2007). These findings support common theories that propose that effective cooling down can bring multiple physiological, neurological and psychological benefits that promote reduced injury risk and enhanced performance.
In order to effectively recover from strenuous dance activity, dancers and teachers must understand the physiological demands that the dance session has just targeted. Therefore, when choosing the specific focus of the cool-down, they should consider the type, level of intensity and duration of the activity that has just taken place (for more on these aspects, see chapter 4). For example, an Irish dance class has quite a high physical intensity, and predominantly targets activation of the calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscle group. It also subjects the lower limb joints to repetitive impacts. In planning the cool-down, Irish dance teachers must consider how to counteract these actions in order to effectively balance out or neutralise the accumulative effects of the activity on the dancing body. However, similar to warming up, before considering such specificity, dance leaders must be aware of the general principles of cooling down. These principles include reducing the pulse rate, easing out the joints and stretching the muscles. Once teachers have understood these ideas, they can and should adapt the principles as the need arises.
© Photoshot/TIPS
A dancer engaging in static stretching as part of her cool-down after class. This is after she has completed the pulse reducer and joint easing sections.
Example of Active-Static Stretching
Breathe in, breathe out and commence a stretch with control and attention, moving deeper into the position until the initial point of stretch sensation but not pain. Hold the position, mindfully relaxing any unnecessary tension, for around 10 seconds. Breathe in again. On the out breath, work to gently increase the stretch. Again hold this position for up to 10 seconds. If possible, gently increase the stretch once more on a third breath in and out. Using anatomical imagery can support an increase in ROM, especially if flexibility is currently restricted. Visualise making space in the joints and releasing the muscle fibres, even if no actual movement or increase in ROM is possible. Combining imagery with the breath helps reduce unnecessary muscular tension. Imagine increasing ROM and muscular length for the full duration of the stretch, even if you are not able to achieve any additional movement. Finish the stretch by maintaining the final position for approximately 20 seconds, and then gently ease the body out of the position.
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Structure and Content of Individual Dance Sessions
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
The physiological or kinesiological viewpoint, as opposed to the skill acquisition emphasis, is not always taken into account. The components for each style may differ, but they all have (or should have) commonalities: warm-up and preparation, exercises that improve skills, specific elements that work towards dance movements in combination and attention to cooling down. In the recreational format, these specific parts might be less defined so that the focus is on having fun and enjoying the dancing (Kassing & Jay, 2003). In this case it is usual to see combinations of steps linked together to form longer sequences, practised in each session so that the learning time is reduced, and saving time for more doing. The variability for vocational and professional dancers is likely to be greater. In creative classes, the focus is more on exploration and discovery of movement potential through open tasks rather than on prescribed exercises.
In general, whatever the purpose of the dance session, progression can be thought of as the preparation, the practice or training and the recovery (see figure 6.3). Different types of activity can be inserted into this progression to ensure a logical arrangement that minimises stress on the body.
In all styles, the basis for the construction of a safe and effective session is a logical progression of suitable exercises and activities guided by a clear methodology. Dance leaders must have the ability to devise exercises that make sense and fit together (White, 1996). The template for dance leaders is based on movement principles that make anatomical, kinesiological and physical sense, and it is the leaders' responsibility to highlight these principles to their participants and indicate clearly how they should be applied (Berardi, 2005). Tradition has a substantial influence on methodology, particularly for the more formal, established styles. On the other hand, a word-of-mouth or mimicry (passing on by copying) type of approach can also communicate newer, less codified sub-styles.
Much of the research into dance class structure has been undertaken with classical ballet, precisely because it is one of the oldest, most recognisable forms, with little practice variation. Because of all the attention and the employment of new technology and physical assessment techniques, some of the actions that have long been an integral part of the ballet vocabulary have come into question. Examples of these are included in the Contraindicated Movements and Actions section later in this chapter. Although some of the most readily available dance science research is based on the classical ballet form, it is especially important for emerging styles to take note of any exploratory research in order to create viable, safe and effective training plans. Dancers, students and especially dance leaders in all genres should be open to new ideas and prepared to investigate their own stylistic vocabulary and session structure. Gaining knowledge in order to make informed decisions will help prevent risks and allow the styles to continue to develop safely.
The basis for determining the sequencing and progression of dance content is the choice of movements (vocabulary), the amount of repetition and the location of the specific movements in the scan of the whole session. Whether a class, rehearsal or supplementary workout, each session should be built on principles that progressively develop the dancer's technique, skills or fitness. A well-designed structure that helps dancers acquire both vocabulary and skills and improve physiological components is the key to training effectively (Kassing & Jay, 2003). An understanding of the energy systems required for performance in different dance styles would also be helpful (the mixture of aerobic and anaerobic demands). Certain skills are common to many styles, for example, alignment, motor control, co-ordination and balance. The foundation for the basic skills in each genre must be set in place before more complex and sophisticated vocabulary and combinations can be attempted (Mainwaring & Krasnow, 2010).
Each part of the dance session has specific demands. The selection of appropriate activities for each stage depends on the purpose, the skills to be learned and the people doing the learning.
The structure of almost any dance class can be distilled down into the following template:
- Generic warm-up, followed by a style-specific warm-up
- Preparatory exercises to introduce and break down stylistic movement patterns, actions and sensibilities (often emphasising alignment and technical concepts)
- Progressive exercises that specifically address dancers' physical capacities for that style (for example, the development of required strength and flexibility)
- The actual dancing: combinations of movements that move through space, using different orientations, levels, speeds, intensities and dynamic movement qualities, and test the dancers' knowledge, understanding, adaptability and readiness for performance (which means ability to dance successfully in the style rather than being on stage)
- Cool-down
However, this template needs to be applied by considering the context of the session. The first question to ask when planning a dance session is to determine its purpose. Is it a creative class, a recreational session, a rehearsal towards a performance, a warm-up or one of a daily set of training classes? The level of difficulty of material and the physiological demands to be made will need to be determined with this purpose in mind.
The priority in planning is to consider the participants: their reason for dancing, their ability level and their age. The key point to remember is not simply to teach the session effectively but to teach effectively to the specific people in the session.It is important not to judge all dancers by their ability to achieve perfect technique or their intention to work towards achieving it. For example, adult participants in social settings may consider enjoyment and interaction more important than achieving technical perfection in their motivation to dance, while children may be more engaged by creative, expressive movement than formalised techniques (Gibbons, 2007).
Unique population groups are directly addressed in chapter 10, but there are broad theoretical questions to ask in determining the basic dance material (Gibbons, 2007):
- What is the aim of the session (training, social)?
- What is the ability level of the group (for example, in terms of degrees of strength, flexibility and cardiorespiratory capacity)?
- Are there unique considerations for the group (age, sex, life stage, ability or disability)?
- How does the class contribute to the overall amount of dance practice?
In planning their sessions from a physiological perspective, dance leaders could take the lead from sports and consider a training needs analysis (Kenney et al., 2012). This can be adapted to fit the dance session by asking:
- Which muscles will be used, or need to be trained?
- How will they be used or trained?
- Which energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) are involved in the dance style?
- Which are the primary sites of concerns for injury prevention?
Depending on these needs, the dance leader then needs to logically select:
- The exercises that will be performed
- The order that they will be performed in
- The number of times they are to be repeated to produce a training effect and avoid fatigue
- The amount of rest between each exercise or set of exercises
Examination of the preceding questions and points will inform the overall structure of the session. This can be broken down into several stages: in very simple terms, the beginning, middle and end. While this seems quite obvious, there can sometimes be a blurring of activities that sit most comfortably and efficiently within each stage. The beginning of the session will include the warm-up and preparatory exercises and activities. The body of the class will increase in difficulty and demand to develop the specific skills for each style, working towards a peak of activity, the actual dancing, which brings together the preparatory and developmental work in combinations, sequences and routines. Following this peak, the demand will reduce and the material will focus on a cool-down and recovery. This pattern may be contrary to the structure of many dance sessions, where it is common to see a more or less gradual and consistent progression of intensity that culminates in a peak at the very end. Rather than sustaining or increasing the intensity throughout a session (see common practice, figure 6.4a), the dance leader could include periodic short rest and recovery periods, working towards the peak in activity (the big dancing combinations) before bringing down the intensity earlier in the session (recommended practice, figure 6.4b). A session that takes into account pacing and recovery by following the recommended pattern will be more beneficial for dancers. This is discussed further in the section End of the Session later in this chapter. The Repetition section earlier in this chapter provides some guidelines as to the type of activities that might be appropriate in order to follow this pattern.
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Common deviations from ideal alignment
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely.
The ribcage sits directly above the pelvis in efficient alignment. The shoulders should be horizontally level and relaxed, with the arms able to hang freely. On inhalation, the ribs widen and the abdominal muscles lengthen, and on exhalation, the ribs return and the abdominal muscles shorten (Haas, 2010). It is often difficult for dancers to understand how to find the engagement of the core muscles to provide support and keep the ribs relaxed - sucking in the belly too much leads to inefficient breathing patterns and tension in the ribcage. The stability of the shoulder girdle is essential for lifting and partnering activities. Dance styles that use balance in inversion or frequently support the weight through the arms should ensure a strong and secure upper body. Regardless of whether the upper body is used for weight bearing, every dance style incorporates a specific and expressive use of the arms, often with intricate choreography, such as in classical Indian dance and flamenco, which need control.
The thoracic and especially the cervical spine are vulnerable if not kept in alignment. Any weight bearing on the head and loading on this part of the spine is risky. General advice in sport is that overextension of the cervical spine can cause many problems, including compression of intervertebral discs and pinching of arteries and nerves at the base of the skull. However, full neck and head rolls, now seen as a contraindicated movement, are still included in some dance vocabulary. For example, whipping the head (and hair) is commonly seen in commercial and street dance choreography. Given the repetitive nature of dance training, the implications are obvious. Teachers and choreographers should seriously consider the use of head rolls in their vocabulary and should never use them in warm-up, substituting simpler up-and-down or side-to-side head movements instead.
When the shoulder blades (scapulae) wing - that is, the internal border can be seen sticking out away from the body - this is associated with muscle imbalance, especially a tight pectoralis minor and weakness of the muscles mentioned earlier that assist scapular stabilisation. The same can be said for protracted (rolled forward) shoulders. The shoulder blades should also not be pinched together. Ideally they should lie flat against the ribcage. The cue ‘squeeze your shoulder blades together' to correct forward shoulders or kyphosis and to generally encourage upright posture or arm placement is unhelpful, and it can cause many repercussions in the upper spine. Another frequent misalignment is lifting the ribcage up and forwards, often as a compensation for an anterior pelvic tilt (Welsh, 2009). This can be a result of misunderstanding the cue ‘pull up'.
Dancers need to be able to lift the arms without disturbing the centre, losing balance or increasing tension in the shoulder or back (Franklin, 2012). Each dance genre requires a specific and precise styling of the arms in space or strength and control in weight bearing. As dance forms have developed, modern choreography has led to increased strain on the shoulders and arms, with the integration of more athletic and gymnastic movements and amount of floor work needing upper body support (Simmel, 2014). For many styles, the goal is to find a secure positioning of the arms in which the torso is also neutralised and stabilised (Clippinger, 2016).
One of the most common directions given to dancers is ‘hold the arms on the back.' The meaning behind this is to encourage the most efficient muscular action to stabilise the arms, so the technical directions should explain how to do this effectively. If the dancer does not understand the mechanics, the primary result is tension in the upper body. The muscles that connect the arms to the back are concerned with scapular stabilisation (the serratus anterior, the rhomboids, the lower trapezius and the latissimus dorsi). It has been observed that dancers tend to be weak in these areas (Haas, 2010). A balanced use of these muscles makes the arms feel like they are coming from the back (Howse & McCormack, 2009). Problems arise when excessive tension and stress in the trapezius causes lifting of the shoulders (scapular elevation), which makes an efficient use of the arms difficult. If the arms are held too far behind the body when they are out to the sides (for example, in second position, used in many styles), this can cause excessive arching of the lower back and protruding ribs. If they are too far forward, this results in a closing in of the chest and a kyphotic posture (Clippinger, 2016).
To conclude this section on common deviations from ideal alignment, fatigue postureshould also bementioned. This posture requires less energy to stand than normal, and is a common unconscious adaptation in all dancers, even those who are highly experienced (Clippinger, 2016). For example, the dancer rests on the ligaments in the hip joints by pushing the pelvis forward considerably (increasing the posterior tilt) and hanging back in the upper torso (see figure 2.13). It is relaxing for the muscles, but puts a strain on the overstretched hip joints because the body's centre of gravity runs behind the pelvis (Simmel, 2014).
Fatigue posture.
Similarly, it is quite common to see dancers alternating between different postures in a dance session, their everyday habitual stance and their dance alignment. Dance-specific posture is assumed during practice, but in the relaxed moments - for example, when listening to feedback, observing other dancers in class in moments of rest or even interacting socially in rehearsal - the dancer can slip into an unstable pose, reinforcing detrimental postural habits. This may involve sitting into the hips, leaning backwards in the upper torso, rounding the shoulders forward with the hands on the hips or shifting the weight habitually to one leg. Like all deviations, these habitual postures have detrimental effects. Teachers should bring these habits to the dancer's attention to encourage conscious employment of the necessary muscles (spinal extensors and hip flexors) at the appropriate level of contraction to remedy them. Conscious awareness of posture, even in normal movement such as sitting, standing or lying down, will help the dancer to maintain a healthy body that supports the demands of dance techniques more effectively.
It is also worth mentioning at this point that, for some dancers, regularly carrying their own kit and costumes in heavy dance bags can place added strain on the body, causing muscle imbalances and postural changes over time. Recommendations are to use bags that spread the load as evenly as possible, choose padded handles or shoulder straps or consider wheeled suitcases that allow a neutral standing posture to be maintained (SHAPE, 2002).
Dancers could be more aware of, and leaders should discourage, slipping into fatigueor relaxedposture, both in and out of the dance session. Slumping, sitting in the hips or habitually releasing the weight into one hip while resting places increased stress on ligaments and joints and does not support the development of good dancing alignment.
Common Upper Body Alignment Issues
- Shoulders: Rolled forward or elevated
- Shoulder blades: Winging out
- Ribcage: Lifted or protruding in front
- Arms: Held too high (lifted shoulders) or too far back
Alignment Cues for the Upper Body in Dancing
Problems in the body
- The front of the ribcage lifts up or pushes forwards and the shoulder blades pull back as the dancer tries to stand up straight. The abdominals cannot engage properly, and the dancer experiences difficulties with breathing effectively as well as reduced mobility and increased tension.
- The shoulders are raised and tense or rolled forward and the shoulder blades wing out.
- The arms are held too far behind the ribcage, causing excessive arching in the lower back and lifted ribs in front.
Helpful and unhelpful cues
- Avoid saying, 'open your chest', 'lift your chest', 'pull your shoulders back/down', ‘pinch your shoulder blades together' and 'push your arms down in the back.'
- Instead, encourage dancers to relax the lower ribs so that the shoulder girdle sits freely on top of the ribcage. They should relax the shoulder girdle at a point close to the spine rather than forcefully pushing the outer edges of the shoulder down. Prompt them to release the shoulder blades downward and outwards, as the shoulders widen to the sides, emphasising the scapular adductors and the thoracic spine extensors. Direct dancers to lightly pull the arms down before they are raised. With the arms held out to the sides, if the shoulder joint is centred, the hands should be visible out of the corners of the eyes.
Imagery tips
Encourage dancers to do the following:
- Imagine the shoulders suspended from the neck like the sails of a ship, with the spine as a mast and the shoulder girdle as a cross-beam suspended from it.
- Imagine the shoulder blades sliding down the back and crossing into the opposite trouser back pockets.
- Imagine your armpits are deep and soft. They are filled with small balloons that inflate as you inhale and deflate as you exhale.
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Principles and Components of Cooling Down
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually’.
The purpose of a cool-down is to gradually return the body to its normal functioning; again the key word here is ‘gradually'. Often the progressive intensity of a dance session means the highest physical intensity occurs at the end, which results in the dancer experiencing a high rate of blood flow around the body and a fast (sometimes near maximum) heart rate, with the metabolism and the nervous system in a heightened state of activity (see chapter 6 for more regarding the preferred versus the common intensities of session progression). To suddenly cease activity at this point is akin to slamming on the car brakes when you had been motoring along at full speed. Theory suggests that an effective cool-down can reduce injuries, in particular delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS (Harris & Elbourne, 2002; Laws, Marsh, & Wyon, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Olsen, Sjøhaug, van Beekvelt, & Mork, 2012), and can promote enhanced performance for subsequent bouts of activity (Hindle et al., 2012; Rey, Lago-Peñas, Casáis, & Lago-Ballesteros, 2012). A focused cool-down is also thought to relieve any mental tension that may have built up during the dance session (Alter, 2004).
Regardless of dance situation (class, rehearsal, competition or performance), cooling down appears less popular than warming up (Laws, 2005; Koutedakis, Pacy, Carson, & Dick, 1997). Perhaps this is in part due to the limited amount of research that has been conducted on the benefits of cooling down and to the somewhat contradictory nature of the findings. Many of the research papers have focused solely on the stretching aspect of a cool-down. A 2002 systematic literature review noted that stretching after activity reduced muscular soreness for up to 72 hours after activity, although the authors comment that, due to a small effect size, these findings might not be strong enough to promote practical application (Herbert & Gabriel, 2002). A more recent review reported a literature consensus that static stretching post exercise can reduce muscle soreness for 24 hours after the activity (Herbert, de Noronha, & Kamper, 2011). However, stretching is only one component of the cool-down. Other research has examined the positive effects of including an active element (e.g., a pulse reducer) to the cool-down, reporting beneficial outcomes for subsequent power activities (Rey et al., 2012).
Review papers continue to note that the effectiveness of a cool-down, as with warm-up, appears to depend on the intensity, duration and relative dynamic or static nature of the content, the order in which the sections are conducted, as well as the specificity of the cool-down content to the activity that has just been experienced (Herbert et al., 2011; Rey et al., 2012). Despite such inconclusive recommendations, a statistical relationship can be seen between injury rate and cool-down: For example, dancers who cool down after their sessions report lower injury rates (Laws, 2005; Malliou et al., 2007). These findings support common theories that propose that effective cooling down can bring multiple physiological, neurological and psychological benefits that promote reduced injury risk and enhanced performance.
In order to effectively recover from strenuous dance activity, dancers and teachers must understand the physiological demands that the dance session has just targeted. Therefore, when choosing the specific focus of the cool-down, they should consider the type, level of intensity and duration of the activity that has just taken place (for more on these aspects, see chapter 4). For example, an Irish dance class has quite a high physical intensity, and predominantly targets activation of the calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscle group. It also subjects the lower limb joints to repetitive impacts. In planning the cool-down, Irish dance teachers must consider how to counteract these actions in order to effectively balance out or neutralise the accumulative effects of the activity on the dancing body. However, similar to warming up, before considering such specificity, dance leaders must be aware of the general principles of cooling down. These principles include reducing the pulse rate, easing out the joints and stretching the muscles. Once teachers have understood these ideas, they can and should adapt the principles as the need arises.
© Photoshot/TIPS
A dancer engaging in static stretching as part of her cool-down after class. This is after she has completed the pulse reducer and joint easing sections.
Example of Active-Static Stretching
Breathe in, breathe out and commence a stretch with control and attention, moving deeper into the position until the initial point of stretch sensation but not pain. Hold the position, mindfully relaxing any unnecessary tension, for around 10 seconds. Breathe in again. On the out breath, work to gently increase the stretch. Again hold this position for up to 10 seconds. If possible, gently increase the stretch once more on a third breath in and out. Using anatomical imagery can support an increase in ROM, especially if flexibility is currently restricted. Visualise making space in the joints and releasing the muscle fibres, even if no actual movement or increase in ROM is possible. Combining imagery with the breath helps reduce unnecessary muscular tension. Imagine increasing ROM and muscular length for the full duration of the stretch, even if you are not able to achieve any additional movement. Finish the stretch by maintaining the final position for approximately 20 seconds, and then gently ease the body out of the position.
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Structure and Content of Individual Dance Sessions
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
Formal research on dance session progression and sequencing in general, let alone for specific genres, is comparatively limited, although class plans, guides to styles, vocabularies, glossaries and how-to tutorials are abundant, both in print and online.
The physiological or kinesiological viewpoint, as opposed to the skill acquisition emphasis, is not always taken into account. The components for each style may differ, but they all have (or should have) commonalities: warm-up and preparation, exercises that improve skills, specific elements that work towards dance movements in combination and attention to cooling down. In the recreational format, these specific parts might be less defined so that the focus is on having fun and enjoying the dancing (Kassing & Jay, 2003). In this case it is usual to see combinations of steps linked together to form longer sequences, practised in each session so that the learning time is reduced, and saving time for more doing. The variability for vocational and professional dancers is likely to be greater. In creative classes, the focus is more on exploration and discovery of movement potential through open tasks rather than on prescribed exercises.
In general, whatever the purpose of the dance session, progression can be thought of as the preparation, the practice or training and the recovery (see figure 6.3). Different types of activity can be inserted into this progression to ensure a logical arrangement that minimises stress on the body.
In all styles, the basis for the construction of a safe and effective session is a logical progression of suitable exercises and activities guided by a clear methodology. Dance leaders must have the ability to devise exercises that make sense and fit together (White, 1996). The template for dance leaders is based on movement principles that make anatomical, kinesiological and physical sense, and it is the leaders' responsibility to highlight these principles to their participants and indicate clearly how they should be applied (Berardi, 2005). Tradition has a substantial influence on methodology, particularly for the more formal, established styles. On the other hand, a word-of-mouth or mimicry (passing on by copying) type of approach can also communicate newer, less codified sub-styles.
Much of the research into dance class structure has been undertaken with classical ballet, precisely because it is one of the oldest, most recognisable forms, with little practice variation. Because of all the attention and the employment of new technology and physical assessment techniques, some of the actions that have long been an integral part of the ballet vocabulary have come into question. Examples of these are included in the Contraindicated Movements and Actions section later in this chapter. Although some of the most readily available dance science research is based on the classical ballet form, it is especially important for emerging styles to take note of any exploratory research in order to create viable, safe and effective training plans. Dancers, students and especially dance leaders in all genres should be open to new ideas and prepared to investigate their own stylistic vocabulary and session structure. Gaining knowledge in order to make informed decisions will help prevent risks and allow the styles to continue to develop safely.
The basis for determining the sequencing and progression of dance content is the choice of movements (vocabulary), the amount of repetition and the location of the specific movements in the scan of the whole session. Whether a class, rehearsal or supplementary workout, each session should be built on principles that progressively develop the dancer's technique, skills or fitness. A well-designed structure that helps dancers acquire both vocabulary and skills and improve physiological components is the key to training effectively (Kassing & Jay, 2003). An understanding of the energy systems required for performance in different dance styles would also be helpful (the mixture of aerobic and anaerobic demands). Certain skills are common to many styles, for example, alignment, motor control, co-ordination and balance. The foundation for the basic skills in each genre must be set in place before more complex and sophisticated vocabulary and combinations can be attempted (Mainwaring & Krasnow, 2010).
Each part of the dance session has specific demands. The selection of appropriate activities for each stage depends on the purpose, the skills to be learned and the people doing the learning.
The structure of almost any dance class can be distilled down into the following template:
- Generic warm-up, followed by a style-specific warm-up
- Preparatory exercises to introduce and break down stylistic movement patterns, actions and sensibilities (often emphasising alignment and technical concepts)
- Progressive exercises that specifically address dancers' physical capacities for that style (for example, the development of required strength and flexibility)
- The actual dancing: combinations of movements that move through space, using different orientations, levels, speeds, intensities and dynamic movement qualities, and test the dancers' knowledge, understanding, adaptability and readiness for performance (which means ability to dance successfully in the style rather than being on stage)
- Cool-down
However, this template needs to be applied by considering the context of the session. The first question to ask when planning a dance session is to determine its purpose. Is it a creative class, a recreational session, a rehearsal towards a performance, a warm-up or one of a daily set of training classes? The level of difficulty of material and the physiological demands to be made will need to be determined with this purpose in mind.
The priority in planning is to consider the participants: their reason for dancing, their ability level and their age. The key point to remember is not simply to teach the session effectively but to teach effectively to the specific people in the session.It is important not to judge all dancers by their ability to achieve perfect technique or their intention to work towards achieving it. For example, adult participants in social settings may consider enjoyment and interaction more important than achieving technical perfection in their motivation to dance, while children may be more engaged by creative, expressive movement than formalised techniques (Gibbons, 2007).
Unique population groups are directly addressed in chapter 10, but there are broad theoretical questions to ask in determining the basic dance material (Gibbons, 2007):
- What is the aim of the session (training, social)?
- What is the ability level of the group (for example, in terms of degrees of strength, flexibility and cardiorespiratory capacity)?
- Are there unique considerations for the group (age, sex, life stage, ability or disability)?
- How does the class contribute to the overall amount of dance practice?
In planning their sessions from a physiological perspective, dance leaders could take the lead from sports and consider a training needs analysis (Kenney et al., 2012). This can be adapted to fit the dance session by asking:
- Which muscles will be used, or need to be trained?
- How will they be used or trained?
- Which energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) are involved in the dance style?
- Which are the primary sites of concerns for injury prevention?
Depending on these needs, the dance leader then needs to logically select:
- The exercises that will be performed
- The order that they will be performed in
- The number of times they are to be repeated to produce a training effect and avoid fatigue
- The amount of rest between each exercise or set of exercises
Examination of the preceding questions and points will inform the overall structure of the session. This can be broken down into several stages: in very simple terms, the beginning, middle and end. While this seems quite obvious, there can sometimes be a blurring of activities that sit most comfortably and efficiently within each stage. The beginning of the session will include the warm-up and preparatory exercises and activities. The body of the class will increase in difficulty and demand to develop the specific skills for each style, working towards a peak of activity, the actual dancing, which brings together the preparatory and developmental work in combinations, sequences and routines. Following this peak, the demand will reduce and the material will focus on a cool-down and recovery. This pattern may be contrary to the structure of many dance sessions, where it is common to see a more or less gradual and consistent progression of intensity that culminates in a peak at the very end. Rather than sustaining or increasing the intensity throughout a session (see common practice, figure 6.4a), the dance leader could include periodic short rest and recovery periods, working towards the peak in activity (the big dancing combinations) before bringing down the intensity earlier in the session (recommended practice, figure 6.4b). A session that takes into account pacing and recovery by following the recommended pattern will be more beneficial for dancers. This is discussed further in the section End of the Session later in this chapter. The Repetition section earlier in this chapter provides some guidelines as to the type of activities that might be appropriate in order to follow this pattern.
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