Finally, the authoritative resource that serious cyclists have been waiting for has arrived. The perfect blend of science and application, Cycling Science takes you inside the sport, into the training room and research lab, and onto the course.
A remarkable achievement, Cycling Science features the following:
• Contributions from 43 top cycling scientists and coaches from around the world
• The latest thinking on the rider-machine interface, including topics such as bike fit, aerodynamics, biomechanics, and pedaling technique
• Information about environmental stressors, including heat, altitude, and air pollution
• A look at health issues such as on-bike and off-bike nutrition, common injuries, fatigue, overtraining, and recovery
• Help in planning training programs, including using a power meter, managing cycling data, off-the-bike training, cycling specific stretching, and mental training
• The latest coaching and racing techniques, including pacing theories, and strategies for road, track, MTB, BMX, and ultra-distance events
In this book, editors and cycling scientists Stephen Cheung, PhD, and Mikel Zabala, PhD, have assembled the latest information for serious cyclists.
Part I. The Cyclist
Chapter 1. The Cyclist’s Physique
Paolo Menaspà and Franco Impellizzeri
Chapter 2. Cycling Physiology and Genetics
Stephen S. Cheung
Part II. The Bike
Chapter 3. Bicycle Design
Larry Ruff
Chapter 4. Frame Materials and Geometry
Larry Ruff
Chapter 5. Saddle Biomechanics
Daniel Schade
Part III. The Human–Machine Interface
Chapter 6. Biomechanics of Cycling
Rodrigo Rico Bini
Chapter 7. The Science of Bike Fit
Rodrigo Rico Bini
Chapter 8. Bike Fit and Body Positioning
Todd M. Carver
Chapter 9. The Aerodynamic Rider
Andy Froncioni
Chapter 10. Pedaling Technique and Technology
Thomas Korff, Marco Arkesteijn, and Paul Barratt
Part IV. The Cycling Environment
Chapter 11. Dealing With Heat Stress
Stephen S. Cheung
Chapter 12. Air Pollution and Cyclists
Mike Koehle and Luisa Giles
Chapter 13. Altitude and Hypoxic Training
Randall L. Wilber
Chapter 14. Tackling the Hills
Hunter Allen
Part V. Nutrition and Ergogenics
Chapter 15. Cycling Nutrition
Dina Griffin
Chapter 16. Feeding During Cycling
Dina Griffin
Chapter 17. Hydration Science
Stacy Sims
Chapter 18. Doping’s Dark Past and a New Cycling Era
Mikel Zabala
Part VI. Cycling Health
Chapter 19. Epidemiology of Cycling Injuries
Victor Lun
Chapter 20. Managing Common Cycling Injuries
Victor Lun
Chapter 21. Fatigue and Overtraining
Romain Meeusen and Kevin De Pauw
Chapter 22. Recovery Interventions
Shona L. Halson and Nathan G. Versey
Part VII. Training Development and Assessment
Chapter 23. Long-Term Athlete Development
Kristen Dieffenbach
Chapter 24. Psychological Strategies for Team Building
Javier Horcajo and Mikel Zabala
Chapter 25. Motivation and Mental Training
Jim Taylor and Kate Bennett
Chapter 26. Assessing Cycling Fitness
James Hopker and Simon Jobson
Chapter 27. Designing Training Programs
Paul B. Laursen, Daniel J. Plews, and Rodney Siegel
Chapter 28. Training Periodization
Bent R. Rønnestad and Mikel Zabala
Chapter 29. Using a Power Meter
Hunter Allen
Chapter 30. Data Management for Cyclists
Dirk Friel
Part VIII. Preparing to Race
Chapter 31. Off-the-Bike Training
Bent R. Rønnestad
Chapter 32. Respiratory Training
A. William Sheel and Carli M. Peters
Chapter 33. Warming Up
Jose M. Muyor
Chapter 34. Stretching
Jose M. Muyor
Part IX. Racing Your Bike
Chapter 35. The Science of Pacing
Chris R. Abbiss
Chapter 36. Road Racing
Hunter Allen
Chapter 37. Mountain Biking
Howard T. Hurst
Chapter 38. Track Cycling
Chris R. Abbiss and Paolo Menaspà
Chapter 39. BMX
Manuel Mateo-March and Cristina Blasco-Lafarga
Chapter 40. Ultradistance
Beat Knechtle and Pantelis Theodoros Nilolaidis
Stephen Cheung, PhD, is the science and training editor for PezCycling News, focusing on translating latest scientific research into practical guidance for both cyclists and coaches. He coauthored Cutting-Edge Cycling (Human Kinetics, 2012) and has written more than 100 articles that cover respiratory training, altitude training, precooling and fatigue in the heat, hydration, optimal cadence, pacing strategies, jet lag, supplements, hypoxic stress, and the reliability of exercise testing protocols.
Cheung holds a Canada Research Chair in environmental ergonomics at Brock University, where his research focuses on the effects of thermal and altitude stress on human physiology and performance. The author of Advanced Environmental Exercise Physiology (Human Kinetics, 2010), Cheung helped to establish the sport science support network for the Canadian Sport Centre in Atlantic Canada and has consulted with world champion cyclists along with the Canadian national rowing and snowboard teams on specific sport performance projects. He has also served as a cycling official and as a board member of the Canadian Cycling Association. Cheung lives in Fonthill, Ontario.
Mikel Zabala, PhD, is director of the Cycling Research Center in Granada, Spain, and editor in chief of the Journal of Science and Cycling. His research interests are cycling performance and doping prevention. He is a senior lecturer on the faculty of sport sciences at the University of Granada, teaching students seeking advanced degrees in cycling. He has authored numerous scientific papers about cycling and training and coached a number of international professional cyclists, serving as performance director for the renowned MOVISTAR professional cycling team since 2012.
Beginning his career as a professional motocross rider and amateur bike racer, Zabala still competes as a masters cyclist. In 1999, he began working as a coach for the Spanish Cycling Federation and later served as manager of Spain’s national mountain biking team. He currently works with the Spanish Cycling Federation as a project director, coordinating their doping prevention efforts. In 2013, he was named director of teaching and research for the Spanish Cycling Federation.
"Cycling Science combines Stephen Cheung's immense knowledge about aerodynamics and training with the findings of the sport's top researchers and experts. If you want to know what it takes to ride faster, this is the book for you."
—Daniel Lloyd, Presenter at the Global Cycling Network, Former professional cyclist
"Cycling Science taps the leading minds in cycling training, fitness, and technology. A landmark work, it's beyond comprehensive and a must-have for anyone who wants to truly understand our amazing sport."
—Selene Yeager, USA Cycling certified coach, Bicycling magazine columnist
"Stephen and Mikel are known throughout the world as experts in the world of physiology, and they have brought together the world's experts for this book. An incredible compilation of knowledge that is sure to improve your cycling!"
—Hunter Allen, CEO and founder of Peaks Coaching Group, Coauthor of Cutting Edge Cycling and Training and Racing With a Power Meter
“Cycling Science is an informatively authoritative resource composed of contributions from 43 top cycling scientists and coaches from around the world that will hold immense appeal for both amateur and professional cyclists. A perfect blend of science and application, Cycling Science takes the sport into the training room and research lab, and then out onto the course. The 40 major articles comprising Cycling Science feature the latest thinking on the rider–machine interface; information about environmental stressors; a look at health issues; help in planning training programs; the latest coaching and racing techniques; and strategies for road, track, MTB, BMX, and ultradistance events. While unreservedly recommended for both community and academic library Contemporary Sports collections, it should be noted for personal reading lists that Cycling Science is also available in a digital book format.”
—Library Bookwatch, August 2017 Midwest Book Review
“The [Cycling Science] editors are both world-leading cycling scientists, Cheung in Canada and Zabala in Spain, and for their 40(!) chapters, they’ve recruited an extremely distinguished list of scientists from around the world. It covers all aspects of human physiology, bike design, training, racing, health, and so on. If you’re a cyclist interested in the science of your sport, I’d rate this pretty much a must-buy as a reference tome.”
—Runners’ World
Proper climbing form for cyclists
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be.
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be. To climb well, cyclists need to address five major aspects of form, in this order:
- Center of gravity
- Arms and shoulders
- Action of gluteal muscles
- Pedaling action
- Spine and back
Climbing also has to be broken down into standing and seated climbing. Clearly, each technique requires different muscle groups, different centers of gravity, and different breathing actions. Let's tackle standing first.
Standing Climbing
Cyclists stand while climbing for several reasons: to produce more power, to handle a steeper section better, to rest the muscles used while seated, and to use body weight to help in the climb. When standing, heart rate typically rises because the cyclist uses more upper-body muscle to wobble the bike back and forth. Engaging the upper body requires the delivery of more oxygen to the working muscles, and the heart responds by pumping faster to get more blood to those critical areas. This response can be a problem if the cyclist is already at threshold. Any rise in heart rate might cause the cyclist to go over the edge and blow up, so cyclists need to know when to stand up and when to stay seated. One rule to stick with is to stay seated as long as possible when the pace is steady to help reduce heart rate and maintain pace. When the pace begins to change because of having to respond to other riders or changes in terrain, that generally signals the time to get out of the saddle to increase power.
As seen in figure 14.1, when standing, the cyclist should shift his or her body weight farther forward on the bike, both because the bike is already tilting backward from the gradient and because the forward position allows the rider to increase leverage. To do this, rather than just bending at the hips and dropping the chest toward the stem, the cyclist should think instead of pushing the pelvis toward the stem and straightening the arms to help reduce some of the energy needed by the arms to hold up the upper body. Giro 1988 winner Andy Hampsten demonstrated excellent climbing form while standing.
Proper standing form. Note that the pelvis is well forward of the saddle and the rider's chest is erect, such that breathing is open and much of the body weight is on the skeleton rather than the muscle of the arms.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
By standing straighter with the pelvis pushed forward, the cyclist can easily rest the upper body, almost, but not quite, locking the arms and allowing the body weight to fall on the downstroke. The cyclist should practice this when not riding at high intensity and just climbing easy to get the feel of the body weight falling on each side in slow motion. The back should be straight and elongated, and the chest should be open to help the lungs take in the maximum amount of oxygen. This action will be a little choppy with a lower cadence when first practiced, but when the cyclist gets the feeling and hang of it and then applies it to a faster cadence and higher power, he or she will be smoother while still being able to relax and apply more force than when seated.
Seated Climbing
Seated climbing allows the cyclist to reduce upper-body movement and concentrate solely on power output from the legs. By relaxing the arms and shoulders (by dropping the shoulders down from the ears) and opening the chest (by letting the chest lead), the cyclist can recruit gluteal muscles at a higher level, as well as the hamstrings and quadriceps. The seated position also provides a little more range with cadence, because pedaling faster while seated is much easier. Figure 14.2 shows an example of good seated climbing.
Proper seated climbing form. Upper body is loose and weight is set back on the saddle to permit fuller leg extension.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
One of the biggest mistakes riders make while seated is that they grip the handlebars too hard and tighten their chest muscles to pull back on the handlebars. Pulling back on the handlebars is sometimes necessary to help engage the upper body to fire those leg muscles, but while climbing, having a more relaxed grip and an open chest is generally more economical. Pulling hard on the handlebars when climbing usually indicates the point at which the cyclist should get out of the saddle and climb while standing. One technique that I encourage in my athletes when they are climbing in the saddle is to slide a little farther back on the saddle and drop the heels slightly to better engage the hamstrings. This approach allows the upper legs (femurs) to act even more like a lever to concentrate force on the downward stroke of the crank arm. The result can be a 5- to 10-watt improvement in power output.
With seated climbing, one well-known piece of advice by Eddy Merckx comes to mind. When asked the best advice for climbing, he stated, "Ride on the tops of your handlebars and pretend you are playing the piano. This will relax the chest and arms and make sure you aren't pulling too hard on the bars." This suggestion makes a lot of sense, and although riding with the hands lightly touching the bars is not always reasonable, it reminds the cyclist to relax the grip, elbows, and shoulders, which helps her or him be more economical.
Two critical details can make the biggest difference in climbing ability. The first has to do with how the cyclist sits on the bike. Many riders sit on their seat as if they are sitting in an office chair. Their sit bones are pointing down, and they round the back so that they can reach the handlebars. This position causes stress on the back, and if done for many years, it may contribute to a herniated disc. The best way to sit on the seat is to roll the pelvis forward and keep the spine long and straight.
Try this experiment. Sit in a straight-back chair with your butt pushed up against the back of the chair. Now, with a flat and straight back, pivot your upper body forward and push your butt farther back in the "corner" of the chair. Rolling your pelvis forward keeps your spine straight and long, thus protecting your back while at the same time opening the gluteal muscles so that they can contribute significantly to creating power.
The second critical detail to address when climbing is allowing the chest to lead the bike. Many cyclists round their shoulders while riding, which reduces the space in which the lungs can expand. Rolling the shoulders back and down while puffing the chest out gives the lungs more space to expand. One of the best ways to learn this posture is to pretend that a thread is attached to your sternum and leading you forward. This invisible thread pulls the chest out and is attached in space about 2 meters in front of the wheel. Allowing the chest to lead the body helps to force a long, straight back and rolls the shoulders back and down. These details are critical for long-term comfort and proper pedaling.
Speaking of comfort, rolling the pelvis forward does change where the cyclist contacts the seat. The cyclist could have more contact between the seat and the perineum (space between the anus and genitals). At no time should the genitals ever become numb when riding. If this occurs, a new seat is needed to provide a better fit for the cyclist and his or her position. I highly recommend one that has a cutout in the middle to provide relief from the perineum being pinched on the saddle.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Stretching to improve performance and prevent injury
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010).
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010). Ingraham (2003) reported that stretching performed to develop flexibility beyond the needs of specific sport movements can cause muscle injury and thus diminish athletic performance. After a systematic review of the literature on stretching, Andersen (2005) determined that the scientific evidence was insufficient to support the idea that stretching before exercise would reduce the risk of injury or lead to a decline in postexercise muscle soreness. McHugh and Cosgrave (2010) stated that stretching had an immediate and acute detrimental effect on performance and maximum force production. But these effects were less obvious in muscle strength tests and appeared to be absent when stretching was combined with low-intensity exercise in a warm-up protocol.
Focusing specifically on cycling, Wolfe et al. (2011) demonstrated that static stretching produced an acute effect during the first 25 minutes, increasing submaximal 
O2 and thus decreasing pedaling efficiency. Similarly, Esposito, Cè, and Limonta (2012) found that static stretching produced an acute immediate effect with a 4 percent decrease in mechanical efficiency and a 26 percent decrease in the duration of the constant-intensity cycling test at 85 percent of O2max. Behm et al. (2004) found that the use of static stretching to warm up produced an acute effect that adversely affected balance and reaction time. Other studies, such as the work by O'Connor, Crowe, and Spinks (2006), observed that the inclusion of static stretching exercises in the warm-up protocol increased anaerobic power compared with a warm-up protocol that did not include these stretching exercises.
Recently, Kingsley et al. (2013) examined the effects of static stretching and motor imagery on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Motor imagery was defined as the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement. These authors found that neither static stretching nor motor imagery negatively affected anaerobic performance in trained cyclists when the anaerobic test lasted less than 30 seconds.
Curry et al. (2009) compared the effects of three types of warm-up protocols (static stretching, dynamic stretching, and light aerobic exercise) on the range of motion and muscle strength in untrained women. These authors found no significant differences among the three protocols evaluated regarding range of motion or muscle strength, although they did find that dynamic stretching improves performance and muscle strength compared to static stretching.
As is apparent from the cited studies, the influence of stretching on athletic performance and the prevention of muscle injury is not yet clear. The methodological difficulty of designing a longitudinal study showing the long-term effects of stretching on these variables may be the reason that most of the studies published in the scientific literature have been designed to assess a particular effect in a specific context, generally the acute effect of stretching on muscle strength or on anaerobic performance.
Regarding cool-down, few studies have evaluated the effects of stretching as a recovery method after finishing a workout or cycling competition. Miladi et al. (2011) observed that dynamic stretching is an effective method for improving performance, cardiorespiratory measures, and lactate levels during intermittent supramaximal intensity tests in cycling. Other studies have reported that low-intensity aerobic exercise, such as cycling at 20 percent of O2max, is a method that facilitates performance recovery during intermittent high-intensity cycling exercise (Dorado, Sanchís-Moysi, and Calbet 2004) or after the completion of dynamic exercise to fatigue (Mika et al. 2007).
In this regard, dynamic stretching is recommended as a part of warm-up, immediately before the main part of the training, or as a recovery method between high-intensity series. In contrast, passive stretching should be performed after the main activity as a cool-down or relaxation method after exercise (Peck et al. 2014).
In road cycling, low-intensity cycling for the first part of the ride could be used as a specific warm-up without the need to perform dynamic stretching exercises. Although not formally considered stretching, the cat - camel exercise (figure 34.1) is a motion exercise recommended for cyclists to use before mounting the bicycle to decrease the intraarticular viscosity of the spine (internal resistance and friction), improve spinal load distribution, and minimize spinal stress. The emphasis is on motion in the ranges of flexion and extension with the integration of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. The recommendation is to perform five to eight cycles to reduce most viscous-frictional stresses (McGill 2007).
Cyclist performing the cat - camel exercise: (a) cat; (b) camel.
José M. Muyor
In contrast, passive stretching exercises should be performed after training or competition to promote muscle recovery.
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Learn the importance of aerodynamics
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces.
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces. The relative mix of the four forces determines what is slowing down the rider the most. Figure 9.1 illustrates the force vectors on a rider going up a hill. Modifying these four forces, the course slope, wind, and rider parameters determine the relative mix of all the forces.
Interaction of four forces determining bicycle speed.
Propulsion is the force that the cyclist generates from the muscles by transmitting torque to the crank. This force is transmitted by the chain to the rear wheel and, ultimately, to the ground by the rear tire.
Gravity pulls on the rider because of the component of vertical gravitational force that is in the direction of the bike. A purely flat section of road offers no gravitational pull, whereas a steep 20 percent climb creates substantial gravitational tug.
Rolling resistance is a force that comprises the drag arising from energy losses in the mechanics of the bicycle, from crank and frame flex, from chain and bearing resistance, and from energy losses in the tire rubber. The bearing drag is usually small compared with the other drag forces, and the tire rolling resistance is proportional to the vertical load on the tire. Rolling resistance is characterized by a parameter called the coefficient of rolling resistance that relates vertical loading of the tire to the drag force.
Aerodynamic drag is the force that pulls on a rider from behind. This force is determined by the air density (Ï), the airspeed of the bike (v), the bike and rider's aero drag coefficient (Cd), and the projected frontal area (A). We describe the aerodynamic force in detail later in this chapter.
So, compared with the other forces, how important is aerodynamic drag? To see this, let us consider a cyclist riding along a road at a power output of 300 watts and look at the relative contribution of each of the four main resistive forces on the rider. A normal 80-kilogram cyclist at a power output of 300 watts on a flat course will lose almost 90 percent of his or her power to aerodynamic losses (figure 9.2). Clearly, the greatest improvements to be made will be to refine the aerodynamic position and equipment for flat time-trial races. Rolling resistance plays a relatively minor role in the force balance. With the same rider on a 2 percent grade, gravity and aerodynamics are approximately equal in importance. Being efficient through the air is still extremely important, but rider weight is equally important. Finally, at an 8 percent grade, gravity dominates all else. Power-to-weight ratio is the primary determinant of success on steep grades. What this case illustrates is that aerodynamics plays an important role in winning on all but the steepest of grades.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Proper climbing form for cyclists
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be.
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be. To climb well, cyclists need to address five major aspects of form, in this order:
- Center of gravity
- Arms and shoulders
- Action of gluteal muscles
- Pedaling action
- Spine and back
Climbing also has to be broken down into standing and seated climbing. Clearly, each technique requires different muscle groups, different centers of gravity, and different breathing actions. Let's tackle standing first.
Standing Climbing
Cyclists stand while climbing for several reasons: to produce more power, to handle a steeper section better, to rest the muscles used while seated, and to use body weight to help in the climb. When standing, heart rate typically rises because the cyclist uses more upper-body muscle to wobble the bike back and forth. Engaging the upper body requires the delivery of more oxygen to the working muscles, and the heart responds by pumping faster to get more blood to those critical areas. This response can be a problem if the cyclist is already at threshold. Any rise in heart rate might cause the cyclist to go over the edge and blow up, so cyclists need to know when to stand up and when to stay seated. One rule to stick with is to stay seated as long as possible when the pace is steady to help reduce heart rate and maintain pace. When the pace begins to change because of having to respond to other riders or changes in terrain, that generally signals the time to get out of the saddle to increase power.
As seen in figure 14.1, when standing, the cyclist should shift his or her body weight farther forward on the bike, both because the bike is already tilting backward from the gradient and because the forward position allows the rider to increase leverage. To do this, rather than just bending at the hips and dropping the chest toward the stem, the cyclist should think instead of pushing the pelvis toward the stem and straightening the arms to help reduce some of the energy needed by the arms to hold up the upper body. Giro 1988 winner Andy Hampsten demonstrated excellent climbing form while standing.
Proper standing form. Note that the pelvis is well forward of the saddle and the rider's chest is erect, such that breathing is open and much of the body weight is on the skeleton rather than the muscle of the arms.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
By standing straighter with the pelvis pushed forward, the cyclist can easily rest the upper body, almost, but not quite, locking the arms and allowing the body weight to fall on the downstroke. The cyclist should practice this when not riding at high intensity and just climbing easy to get the feel of the body weight falling on each side in slow motion. The back should be straight and elongated, and the chest should be open to help the lungs take in the maximum amount of oxygen. This action will be a little choppy with a lower cadence when first practiced, but when the cyclist gets the feeling and hang of it and then applies it to a faster cadence and higher power, he or she will be smoother while still being able to relax and apply more force than when seated.
Seated Climbing
Seated climbing allows the cyclist to reduce upper-body movement and concentrate solely on power output from the legs. By relaxing the arms and shoulders (by dropping the shoulders down from the ears) and opening the chest (by letting the chest lead), the cyclist can recruit gluteal muscles at a higher level, as well as the hamstrings and quadriceps. The seated position also provides a little more range with cadence, because pedaling faster while seated is much easier. Figure 14.2 shows an example of good seated climbing.
Proper seated climbing form. Upper body is loose and weight is set back on the saddle to permit fuller leg extension.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
One of the biggest mistakes riders make while seated is that they grip the handlebars too hard and tighten their chest muscles to pull back on the handlebars. Pulling back on the handlebars is sometimes necessary to help engage the upper body to fire those leg muscles, but while climbing, having a more relaxed grip and an open chest is generally more economical. Pulling hard on the handlebars when climbing usually indicates the point at which the cyclist should get out of the saddle and climb while standing. One technique that I encourage in my athletes when they are climbing in the saddle is to slide a little farther back on the saddle and drop the heels slightly to better engage the hamstrings. This approach allows the upper legs (femurs) to act even more like a lever to concentrate force on the downward stroke of the crank arm. The result can be a 5- to 10-watt improvement in power output.
With seated climbing, one well-known piece of advice by Eddy Merckx comes to mind. When asked the best advice for climbing, he stated, "Ride on the tops of your handlebars and pretend you are playing the piano. This will relax the chest and arms and make sure you aren't pulling too hard on the bars." This suggestion makes a lot of sense, and although riding with the hands lightly touching the bars is not always reasonable, it reminds the cyclist to relax the grip, elbows, and shoulders, which helps her or him be more economical.
Two critical details can make the biggest difference in climbing ability. The first has to do with how the cyclist sits on the bike. Many riders sit on their seat as if they are sitting in an office chair. Their sit bones are pointing down, and they round the back so that they can reach the handlebars. This position causes stress on the back, and if done for many years, it may contribute to a herniated disc. The best way to sit on the seat is to roll the pelvis forward and keep the spine long and straight.
Try this experiment. Sit in a straight-back chair with your butt pushed up against the back of the chair. Now, with a flat and straight back, pivot your upper body forward and push your butt farther back in the "corner" of the chair. Rolling your pelvis forward keeps your spine straight and long, thus protecting your back while at the same time opening the gluteal muscles so that they can contribute significantly to creating power.
The second critical detail to address when climbing is allowing the chest to lead the bike. Many cyclists round their shoulders while riding, which reduces the space in which the lungs can expand. Rolling the shoulders back and down while puffing the chest out gives the lungs more space to expand. One of the best ways to learn this posture is to pretend that a thread is attached to your sternum and leading you forward. This invisible thread pulls the chest out and is attached in space about 2 meters in front of the wheel. Allowing the chest to lead the body helps to force a long, straight back and rolls the shoulders back and down. These details are critical for long-term comfort and proper pedaling.
Speaking of comfort, rolling the pelvis forward does change where the cyclist contacts the seat. The cyclist could have more contact between the seat and the perineum (space between the anus and genitals). At no time should the genitals ever become numb when riding. If this occurs, a new seat is needed to provide a better fit for the cyclist and his or her position. I highly recommend one that has a cutout in the middle to provide relief from the perineum being pinched on the saddle.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Stretching to improve performance and prevent injury
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010).
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010). Ingraham (2003) reported that stretching performed to develop flexibility beyond the needs of specific sport movements can cause muscle injury and thus diminish athletic performance. After a systematic review of the literature on stretching, Andersen (2005) determined that the scientific evidence was insufficient to support the idea that stretching before exercise would reduce the risk of injury or lead to a decline in postexercise muscle soreness. McHugh and Cosgrave (2010) stated that stretching had an immediate and acute detrimental effect on performance and maximum force production. But these effects were less obvious in muscle strength tests and appeared to be absent when stretching was combined with low-intensity exercise in a warm-up protocol.
Focusing specifically on cycling, Wolfe et al. (2011) demonstrated that static stretching produced an acute effect during the first 25 minutes, increasing submaximal O2 and thus decreasing pedaling efficiency. Similarly, Esposito, Cè, and Limonta (2012) found that static stretching produced an acute immediate effect with a 4 percent decrease in mechanical efficiency and a 26 percent decrease in the duration of the constant-intensity cycling test at 85 percent of O2max. Behm et al. (2004) found that the use of static stretching to warm up produced an acute effect that adversely affected balance and reaction time. Other studies, such as the work by O'Connor, Crowe, and Spinks (2006), observed that the inclusion of static stretching exercises in the warm-up protocol increased anaerobic power compared with a warm-up protocol that did not include these stretching exercises.
Recently, Kingsley et al. (2013) examined the effects of static stretching and motor imagery on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Motor imagery was defined as the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement. These authors found that neither static stretching nor motor imagery negatively affected anaerobic performance in trained cyclists when the anaerobic test lasted less than 30 seconds.
Curry et al. (2009) compared the effects of three types of warm-up protocols (static stretching, dynamic stretching, and light aerobic exercise) on the range of motion and muscle strength in untrained women. These authors found no significant differences among the three protocols evaluated regarding range of motion or muscle strength, although they did find that dynamic stretching improves performance and muscle strength compared to static stretching.
As is apparent from the cited studies, the influence of stretching on athletic performance and the prevention of muscle injury is not yet clear. The methodological difficulty of designing a longitudinal study showing the long-term effects of stretching on these variables may be the reason that most of the studies published in the scientific literature have been designed to assess a particular effect in a specific context, generally the acute effect of stretching on muscle strength or on anaerobic performance.
Regarding cool-down, few studies have evaluated the effects of stretching as a recovery method after finishing a workout or cycling competition. Miladi et al. (2011) observed that dynamic stretching is an effective method for improving performance, cardiorespiratory measures, and lactate levels during intermittent supramaximal intensity tests in cycling. Other studies have reported that low-intensity aerobic exercise, such as cycling at 20 percent of O2max, is a method that facilitates performance recovery during intermittent high-intensity cycling exercise (Dorado, Sanchís-Moysi, and Calbet 2004) or after the completion of dynamic exercise to fatigue (Mika et al. 2007).
In this regard, dynamic stretching is recommended as a part of warm-up, immediately before the main part of the training, or as a recovery method between high-intensity series. In contrast, passive stretching should be performed after the main activity as a cool-down or relaxation method after exercise (Peck et al. 2014).
In road cycling, low-intensity cycling for the first part of the ride could be used as a specific warm-up without the need to perform dynamic stretching exercises. Although not formally considered stretching, the cat - camel exercise (figure 34.1) is a motion exercise recommended for cyclists to use before mounting the bicycle to decrease the intraarticular viscosity of the spine (internal resistance and friction), improve spinal load distribution, and minimize spinal stress. The emphasis is on motion in the ranges of flexion and extension with the integration of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. The recommendation is to perform five to eight cycles to reduce most viscous-frictional stresses (McGill 2007).
Cyclist performing the cat - camel exercise: (a) cat; (b) camel.
José M. Muyor
In contrast, passive stretching exercises should be performed after training or competition to promote muscle recovery.
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Learn the importance of aerodynamics
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces.
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces. The relative mix of the four forces determines what is slowing down the rider the most. Figure 9.1 illustrates the force vectors on a rider going up a hill. Modifying these four forces, the course slope, wind, and rider parameters determine the relative mix of all the forces.
Interaction of four forces determining bicycle speed.
Propulsion is the force that the cyclist generates from the muscles by transmitting torque to the crank. This force is transmitted by the chain to the rear wheel and, ultimately, to the ground by the rear tire.
Gravity pulls on the rider because of the component of vertical gravitational force that is in the direction of the bike. A purely flat section of road offers no gravitational pull, whereas a steep 20 percent climb creates substantial gravitational tug.
Rolling resistance is a force that comprises the drag arising from energy losses in the mechanics of the bicycle, from crank and frame flex, from chain and bearing resistance, and from energy losses in the tire rubber. The bearing drag is usually small compared with the other drag forces, and the tire rolling resistance is proportional to the vertical load on the tire. Rolling resistance is characterized by a parameter called the coefficient of rolling resistance that relates vertical loading of the tire to the drag force.
Aerodynamic drag is the force that pulls on a rider from behind. This force is determined by the air density (Ï), the airspeed of the bike (v), the bike and rider's aero drag coefficient (Cd), and the projected frontal area (A). We describe the aerodynamic force in detail later in this chapter.
So, compared with the other forces, how important is aerodynamic drag? To see this, let us consider a cyclist riding along a road at a power output of 300 watts and look at the relative contribution of each of the four main resistive forces on the rider. A normal 80-kilogram cyclist at a power output of 300 watts on a flat course will lose almost 90 percent of his or her power to aerodynamic losses (figure 9.2). Clearly, the greatest improvements to be made will be to refine the aerodynamic position and equipment for flat time-trial races. Rolling resistance plays a relatively minor role in the force balance. With the same rider on a 2 percent grade, gravity and aerodynamics are approximately equal in importance. Being efficient through the air is still extremely important, but rider weight is equally important. Finally, at an 8 percent grade, gravity dominates all else. Power-to-weight ratio is the primary determinant of success on steep grades. What this case illustrates is that aerodynamics plays an important role in winning on all but the steepest of grades.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Proper climbing form for cyclists
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be.
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be. To climb well, cyclists need to address five major aspects of form, in this order:
- Center of gravity
- Arms and shoulders
- Action of gluteal muscles
- Pedaling action
- Spine and back
Climbing also has to be broken down into standing and seated climbing. Clearly, each technique requires different muscle groups, different centers of gravity, and different breathing actions. Let's tackle standing first.
Standing Climbing
Cyclists stand while climbing for several reasons: to produce more power, to handle a steeper section better, to rest the muscles used while seated, and to use body weight to help in the climb. When standing, heart rate typically rises because the cyclist uses more upper-body muscle to wobble the bike back and forth. Engaging the upper body requires the delivery of more oxygen to the working muscles, and the heart responds by pumping faster to get more blood to those critical areas. This response can be a problem if the cyclist is already at threshold. Any rise in heart rate might cause the cyclist to go over the edge and blow up, so cyclists need to know when to stand up and when to stay seated. One rule to stick with is to stay seated as long as possible when the pace is steady to help reduce heart rate and maintain pace. When the pace begins to change because of having to respond to other riders or changes in terrain, that generally signals the time to get out of the saddle to increase power.
As seen in figure 14.1, when standing, the cyclist should shift his or her body weight farther forward on the bike, both because the bike is already tilting backward from the gradient and because the forward position allows the rider to increase leverage. To do this, rather than just bending at the hips and dropping the chest toward the stem, the cyclist should think instead of pushing the pelvis toward the stem and straightening the arms to help reduce some of the energy needed by the arms to hold up the upper body. Giro 1988 winner Andy Hampsten demonstrated excellent climbing form while standing.
Proper standing form. Note that the pelvis is well forward of the saddle and the rider's chest is erect, such that breathing is open and much of the body weight is on the skeleton rather than the muscle of the arms.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
By standing straighter with the pelvis pushed forward, the cyclist can easily rest the upper body, almost, but not quite, locking the arms and allowing the body weight to fall on the downstroke. The cyclist should practice this when not riding at high intensity and just climbing easy to get the feel of the body weight falling on each side in slow motion. The back should be straight and elongated, and the chest should be open to help the lungs take in the maximum amount of oxygen. This action will be a little choppy with a lower cadence when first practiced, but when the cyclist gets the feeling and hang of it and then applies it to a faster cadence and higher power, he or she will be smoother while still being able to relax and apply more force than when seated.
Seated Climbing
Seated climbing allows the cyclist to reduce upper-body movement and concentrate solely on power output from the legs. By relaxing the arms and shoulders (by dropping the shoulders down from the ears) and opening the chest (by letting the chest lead), the cyclist can recruit gluteal muscles at a higher level, as well as the hamstrings and quadriceps. The seated position also provides a little more range with cadence, because pedaling faster while seated is much easier. Figure 14.2 shows an example of good seated climbing.
Proper seated climbing form. Upper body is loose and weight is set back on the saddle to permit fuller leg extension.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
One of the biggest mistakes riders make while seated is that they grip the handlebars too hard and tighten their chest muscles to pull back on the handlebars. Pulling back on the handlebars is sometimes necessary to help engage the upper body to fire those leg muscles, but while climbing, having a more relaxed grip and an open chest is generally more economical. Pulling hard on the handlebars when climbing usually indicates the point at which the cyclist should get out of the saddle and climb while standing. One technique that I encourage in my athletes when they are climbing in the saddle is to slide a little farther back on the saddle and drop the heels slightly to better engage the hamstrings. This approach allows the upper legs (femurs) to act even more like a lever to concentrate force on the downward stroke of the crank arm. The result can be a 5- to 10-watt improvement in power output.
With seated climbing, one well-known piece of advice by Eddy Merckx comes to mind. When asked the best advice for climbing, he stated, "Ride on the tops of your handlebars and pretend you are playing the piano. This will relax the chest and arms and make sure you aren't pulling too hard on the bars." This suggestion makes a lot of sense, and although riding with the hands lightly touching the bars is not always reasonable, it reminds the cyclist to relax the grip, elbows, and shoulders, which helps her or him be more economical.
Two critical details can make the biggest difference in climbing ability. The first has to do with how the cyclist sits on the bike. Many riders sit on their seat as if they are sitting in an office chair. Their sit bones are pointing down, and they round the back so that they can reach the handlebars. This position causes stress on the back, and if done for many years, it may contribute to a herniated disc. The best way to sit on the seat is to roll the pelvis forward and keep the spine long and straight.
Try this experiment. Sit in a straight-back chair with your butt pushed up against the back of the chair. Now, with a flat and straight back, pivot your upper body forward and push your butt farther back in the "corner" of the chair. Rolling your pelvis forward keeps your spine straight and long, thus protecting your back while at the same time opening the gluteal muscles so that they can contribute significantly to creating power.
The second critical detail to address when climbing is allowing the chest to lead the bike. Many cyclists round their shoulders while riding, which reduces the space in which the lungs can expand. Rolling the shoulders back and down while puffing the chest out gives the lungs more space to expand. One of the best ways to learn this posture is to pretend that a thread is attached to your sternum and leading you forward. This invisible thread pulls the chest out and is attached in space about 2 meters in front of the wheel. Allowing the chest to lead the body helps to force a long, straight back and rolls the shoulders back and down. These details are critical for long-term comfort and proper pedaling.
Speaking of comfort, rolling the pelvis forward does change where the cyclist contacts the seat. The cyclist could have more contact between the seat and the perineum (space between the anus and genitals). At no time should the genitals ever become numb when riding. If this occurs, a new seat is needed to provide a better fit for the cyclist and his or her position. I highly recommend one that has a cutout in the middle to provide relief from the perineum being pinched on the saddle.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Stretching to improve performance and prevent injury
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010).
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010). Ingraham (2003) reported that stretching performed to develop flexibility beyond the needs of specific sport movements can cause muscle injury and thus diminish athletic performance. After a systematic review of the literature on stretching, Andersen (2005) determined that the scientific evidence was insufficient to support the idea that stretching before exercise would reduce the risk of injury or lead to a decline in postexercise muscle soreness. McHugh and Cosgrave (2010) stated that stretching had an immediate and acute detrimental effect on performance and maximum force production. But these effects were less obvious in muscle strength tests and appeared to be absent when stretching was combined with low-intensity exercise in a warm-up protocol.
Focusing specifically on cycling, Wolfe et al. (2011) demonstrated that static stretching produced an acute effect during the first 25 minutes, increasing submaximal O2 and thus decreasing pedaling efficiency. Similarly, Esposito, Cè, and Limonta (2012) found that static stretching produced an acute immediate effect with a 4 percent decrease in mechanical efficiency and a 26 percent decrease in the duration of the constant-intensity cycling test at 85 percent of O2max. Behm et al. (2004) found that the use of static stretching to warm up produced an acute effect that adversely affected balance and reaction time. Other studies, such as the work by O'Connor, Crowe, and Spinks (2006), observed that the inclusion of static stretching exercises in the warm-up protocol increased anaerobic power compared with a warm-up protocol that did not include these stretching exercises.
Recently, Kingsley et al. (2013) examined the effects of static stretching and motor imagery on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Motor imagery was defined as the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement. These authors found that neither static stretching nor motor imagery negatively affected anaerobic performance in trained cyclists when the anaerobic test lasted less than 30 seconds.
Curry et al. (2009) compared the effects of three types of warm-up protocols (static stretching, dynamic stretching, and light aerobic exercise) on the range of motion and muscle strength in untrained women. These authors found no significant differences among the three protocols evaluated regarding range of motion or muscle strength, although they did find that dynamic stretching improves performance and muscle strength compared to static stretching.
As is apparent from the cited studies, the influence of stretching on athletic performance and the prevention of muscle injury is not yet clear. The methodological difficulty of designing a longitudinal study showing the long-term effects of stretching on these variables may be the reason that most of the studies published in the scientific literature have been designed to assess a particular effect in a specific context, generally the acute effect of stretching on muscle strength or on anaerobic performance.
Regarding cool-down, few studies have evaluated the effects of stretching as a recovery method after finishing a workout or cycling competition. Miladi et al. (2011) observed that dynamic stretching is an effective method for improving performance, cardiorespiratory measures, and lactate levels during intermittent supramaximal intensity tests in cycling. Other studies have reported that low-intensity aerobic exercise, such as cycling at 20 percent of O2max, is a method that facilitates performance recovery during intermittent high-intensity cycling exercise (Dorado, Sanchís-Moysi, and Calbet 2004) or after the completion of dynamic exercise to fatigue (Mika et al. 2007).
In this regard, dynamic stretching is recommended as a part of warm-up, immediately before the main part of the training, or as a recovery method between high-intensity series. In contrast, passive stretching should be performed after the main activity as a cool-down or relaxation method after exercise (Peck et al. 2014).
In road cycling, low-intensity cycling for the first part of the ride could be used as a specific warm-up without the need to perform dynamic stretching exercises. Although not formally considered stretching, the cat - camel exercise (figure 34.1) is a motion exercise recommended for cyclists to use before mounting the bicycle to decrease the intraarticular viscosity of the spine (internal resistance and friction), improve spinal load distribution, and minimize spinal stress. The emphasis is on motion in the ranges of flexion and extension with the integration of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. The recommendation is to perform five to eight cycles to reduce most viscous-frictional stresses (McGill 2007).
Cyclist performing the cat - camel exercise: (a) cat; (b) camel.
José M. Muyor
In contrast, passive stretching exercises should be performed after training or competition to promote muscle recovery.
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Learn the importance of aerodynamics
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces.
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces. The relative mix of the four forces determines what is slowing down the rider the most. Figure 9.1 illustrates the force vectors on a rider going up a hill. Modifying these four forces, the course slope, wind, and rider parameters determine the relative mix of all the forces.
Interaction of four forces determining bicycle speed.
Propulsion is the force that the cyclist generates from the muscles by transmitting torque to the crank. This force is transmitted by the chain to the rear wheel and, ultimately, to the ground by the rear tire.
Gravity pulls on the rider because of the component of vertical gravitational force that is in the direction of the bike. A purely flat section of road offers no gravitational pull, whereas a steep 20 percent climb creates substantial gravitational tug.
Rolling resistance is a force that comprises the drag arising from energy losses in the mechanics of the bicycle, from crank and frame flex, from chain and bearing resistance, and from energy losses in the tire rubber. The bearing drag is usually small compared with the other drag forces, and the tire rolling resistance is proportional to the vertical load on the tire. Rolling resistance is characterized by a parameter called the coefficient of rolling resistance that relates vertical loading of the tire to the drag force.
Aerodynamic drag is the force that pulls on a rider from behind. This force is determined by the air density (Ï), the airspeed of the bike (v), the bike and rider's aero drag coefficient (Cd), and the projected frontal area (A). We describe the aerodynamic force in detail later in this chapter.
So, compared with the other forces, how important is aerodynamic drag? To see this, let us consider a cyclist riding along a road at a power output of 300 watts and look at the relative contribution of each of the four main resistive forces on the rider. A normal 80-kilogram cyclist at a power output of 300 watts on a flat course will lose almost 90 percent of his or her power to aerodynamic losses (figure 9.2). Clearly, the greatest improvements to be made will be to refine the aerodynamic position and equipment for flat time-trial races. Rolling resistance plays a relatively minor role in the force balance. With the same rider on a 2 percent grade, gravity and aerodynamics are approximately equal in importance. Being efficient through the air is still extremely important, but rider weight is equally important. Finally, at an 8 percent grade, gravity dominates all else. Power-to-weight ratio is the primary determinant of success on steep grades. What this case illustrates is that aerodynamics plays an important role in winning on all but the steepest of grades.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Proper climbing form for cyclists
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be.
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be. To climb well, cyclists need to address five major aspects of form, in this order:
- Center of gravity
- Arms and shoulders
- Action of gluteal muscles
- Pedaling action
- Spine and back
Climbing also has to be broken down into standing and seated climbing. Clearly, each technique requires different muscle groups, different centers of gravity, and different breathing actions. Let's tackle standing first.
Standing Climbing
Cyclists stand while climbing for several reasons: to produce more power, to handle a steeper section better, to rest the muscles used while seated, and to use body weight to help in the climb. When standing, heart rate typically rises because the cyclist uses more upper-body muscle to wobble the bike back and forth. Engaging the upper body requires the delivery of more oxygen to the working muscles, and the heart responds by pumping faster to get more blood to those critical areas. This response can be a problem if the cyclist is already at threshold. Any rise in heart rate might cause the cyclist to go over the edge and blow up, so cyclists need to know when to stand up and when to stay seated. One rule to stick with is to stay seated as long as possible when the pace is steady to help reduce heart rate and maintain pace. When the pace begins to change because of having to respond to other riders or changes in terrain, that generally signals the time to get out of the saddle to increase power.
As seen in figure 14.1, when standing, the cyclist should shift his or her body weight farther forward on the bike, both because the bike is already tilting backward from the gradient and because the forward position allows the rider to increase leverage. To do this, rather than just bending at the hips and dropping the chest toward the stem, the cyclist should think instead of pushing the pelvis toward the stem and straightening the arms to help reduce some of the energy needed by the arms to hold up the upper body. Giro 1988 winner Andy Hampsten demonstrated excellent climbing form while standing.
Proper standing form. Note that the pelvis is well forward of the saddle and the rider's chest is erect, such that breathing is open and much of the body weight is on the skeleton rather than the muscle of the arms.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
By standing straighter with the pelvis pushed forward, the cyclist can easily rest the upper body, almost, but not quite, locking the arms and allowing the body weight to fall on the downstroke. The cyclist should practice this when not riding at high intensity and just climbing easy to get the feel of the body weight falling on each side in slow motion. The back should be straight and elongated, and the chest should be open to help the lungs take in the maximum amount of oxygen. This action will be a little choppy with a lower cadence when first practiced, but when the cyclist gets the feeling and hang of it and then applies it to a faster cadence and higher power, he or she will be smoother while still being able to relax and apply more force than when seated.
Seated Climbing
Seated climbing allows the cyclist to reduce upper-body movement and concentrate solely on power output from the legs. By relaxing the arms and shoulders (by dropping the shoulders down from the ears) and opening the chest (by letting the chest lead), the cyclist can recruit gluteal muscles at a higher level, as well as the hamstrings and quadriceps. The seated position also provides a little more range with cadence, because pedaling faster while seated is much easier. Figure 14.2 shows an example of good seated climbing.
Proper seated climbing form. Upper body is loose and weight is set back on the saddle to permit fuller leg extension.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
One of the biggest mistakes riders make while seated is that they grip the handlebars too hard and tighten their chest muscles to pull back on the handlebars. Pulling back on the handlebars is sometimes necessary to help engage the upper body to fire those leg muscles, but while climbing, having a more relaxed grip and an open chest is generally more economical. Pulling hard on the handlebars when climbing usually indicates the point at which the cyclist should get out of the saddle and climb while standing. One technique that I encourage in my athletes when they are climbing in the saddle is to slide a little farther back on the saddle and drop the heels slightly to better engage the hamstrings. This approach allows the upper legs (femurs) to act even more like a lever to concentrate force on the downward stroke of the crank arm. The result can be a 5- to 10-watt improvement in power output.
With seated climbing, one well-known piece of advice by Eddy Merckx comes to mind. When asked the best advice for climbing, he stated, "Ride on the tops of your handlebars and pretend you are playing the piano. This will relax the chest and arms and make sure you aren't pulling too hard on the bars." This suggestion makes a lot of sense, and although riding with the hands lightly touching the bars is not always reasonable, it reminds the cyclist to relax the grip, elbows, and shoulders, which helps her or him be more economical.
Two critical details can make the biggest difference in climbing ability. The first has to do with how the cyclist sits on the bike. Many riders sit on their seat as if they are sitting in an office chair. Their sit bones are pointing down, and they round the back so that they can reach the handlebars. This position causes stress on the back, and if done for many years, it may contribute to a herniated disc. The best way to sit on the seat is to roll the pelvis forward and keep the spine long and straight.
Try this experiment. Sit in a straight-back chair with your butt pushed up against the back of the chair. Now, with a flat and straight back, pivot your upper body forward and push your butt farther back in the "corner" of the chair. Rolling your pelvis forward keeps your spine straight and long, thus protecting your back while at the same time opening the gluteal muscles so that they can contribute significantly to creating power.
The second critical detail to address when climbing is allowing the chest to lead the bike. Many cyclists round their shoulders while riding, which reduces the space in which the lungs can expand. Rolling the shoulders back and down while puffing the chest out gives the lungs more space to expand. One of the best ways to learn this posture is to pretend that a thread is attached to your sternum and leading you forward. This invisible thread pulls the chest out and is attached in space about 2 meters in front of the wheel. Allowing the chest to lead the body helps to force a long, straight back and rolls the shoulders back and down. These details are critical for long-term comfort and proper pedaling.
Speaking of comfort, rolling the pelvis forward does change where the cyclist contacts the seat. The cyclist could have more contact between the seat and the perineum (space between the anus and genitals). At no time should the genitals ever become numb when riding. If this occurs, a new seat is needed to provide a better fit for the cyclist and his or her position. I highly recommend one that has a cutout in the middle to provide relief from the perineum being pinched on the saddle.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Stretching to improve performance and prevent injury
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010).
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010). Ingraham (2003) reported that stretching performed to develop flexibility beyond the needs of specific sport movements can cause muscle injury and thus diminish athletic performance. After a systematic review of the literature on stretching, Andersen (2005) determined that the scientific evidence was insufficient to support the idea that stretching before exercise would reduce the risk of injury or lead to a decline in postexercise muscle soreness. McHugh and Cosgrave (2010) stated that stretching had an immediate and acute detrimental effect on performance and maximum force production. But these effects were less obvious in muscle strength tests and appeared to be absent when stretching was combined with low-intensity exercise in a warm-up protocol.
Focusing specifically on cycling, Wolfe et al. (2011) demonstrated that static stretching produced an acute effect during the first 25 minutes, increasing submaximal O2 and thus decreasing pedaling efficiency. Similarly, Esposito, Cè, and Limonta (2012) found that static stretching produced an acute immediate effect with a 4 percent decrease in mechanical efficiency and a 26 percent decrease in the duration of the constant-intensity cycling test at 85 percent of O2max. Behm et al. (2004) found that the use of static stretching to warm up produced an acute effect that adversely affected balance and reaction time. Other studies, such as the work by O'Connor, Crowe, and Spinks (2006), observed that the inclusion of static stretching exercises in the warm-up protocol increased anaerobic power compared with a warm-up protocol that did not include these stretching exercises.
Recently, Kingsley et al. (2013) examined the effects of static stretching and motor imagery on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Motor imagery was defined as the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement. These authors found that neither static stretching nor motor imagery negatively affected anaerobic performance in trained cyclists when the anaerobic test lasted less than 30 seconds.
Curry et al. (2009) compared the effects of three types of warm-up protocols (static stretching, dynamic stretching, and light aerobic exercise) on the range of motion and muscle strength in untrained women. These authors found no significant differences among the three protocols evaluated regarding range of motion or muscle strength, although they did find that dynamic stretching improves performance and muscle strength compared to static stretching.
As is apparent from the cited studies, the influence of stretching on athletic performance and the prevention of muscle injury is not yet clear. The methodological difficulty of designing a longitudinal study showing the long-term effects of stretching on these variables may be the reason that most of the studies published in the scientific literature have been designed to assess a particular effect in a specific context, generally the acute effect of stretching on muscle strength or on anaerobic performance.
Regarding cool-down, few studies have evaluated the effects of stretching as a recovery method after finishing a workout or cycling competition. Miladi et al. (2011) observed that dynamic stretching is an effective method for improving performance, cardiorespiratory measures, and lactate levels during intermittent supramaximal intensity tests in cycling. Other studies have reported that low-intensity aerobic exercise, such as cycling at 20 percent of O2max, is a method that facilitates performance recovery during intermittent high-intensity cycling exercise (Dorado, Sanchís-Moysi, and Calbet 2004) or after the completion of dynamic exercise to fatigue (Mika et al. 2007).
In this regard, dynamic stretching is recommended as a part of warm-up, immediately before the main part of the training, or as a recovery method between high-intensity series. In contrast, passive stretching should be performed after the main activity as a cool-down or relaxation method after exercise (Peck et al. 2014).
In road cycling, low-intensity cycling for the first part of the ride could be used as a specific warm-up without the need to perform dynamic stretching exercises. Although not formally considered stretching, the cat - camel exercise (figure 34.1) is a motion exercise recommended for cyclists to use before mounting the bicycle to decrease the intraarticular viscosity of the spine (internal resistance and friction), improve spinal load distribution, and minimize spinal stress. The emphasis is on motion in the ranges of flexion and extension with the integration of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. The recommendation is to perform five to eight cycles to reduce most viscous-frictional stresses (McGill 2007).
Cyclist performing the cat - camel exercise: (a) cat; (b) camel.
José M. Muyor
In contrast, passive stretching exercises should be performed after training or competition to promote muscle recovery.
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Learn the importance of aerodynamics
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces.
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces. The relative mix of the four forces determines what is slowing down the rider the most. Figure 9.1 illustrates the force vectors on a rider going up a hill. Modifying these four forces, the course slope, wind, and rider parameters determine the relative mix of all the forces.
Interaction of four forces determining bicycle speed.
Propulsion is the force that the cyclist generates from the muscles by transmitting torque to the crank. This force is transmitted by the chain to the rear wheel and, ultimately, to the ground by the rear tire.
Gravity pulls on the rider because of the component of vertical gravitational force that is in the direction of the bike. A purely flat section of road offers no gravitational pull, whereas a steep 20 percent climb creates substantial gravitational tug.
Rolling resistance is a force that comprises the drag arising from energy losses in the mechanics of the bicycle, from crank and frame flex, from chain and bearing resistance, and from energy losses in the tire rubber. The bearing drag is usually small compared with the other drag forces, and the tire rolling resistance is proportional to the vertical load on the tire. Rolling resistance is characterized by a parameter called the coefficient of rolling resistance that relates vertical loading of the tire to the drag force.
Aerodynamic drag is the force that pulls on a rider from behind. This force is determined by the air density (Ï), the airspeed of the bike (v), the bike and rider's aero drag coefficient (Cd), and the projected frontal area (A). We describe the aerodynamic force in detail later in this chapter.
So, compared with the other forces, how important is aerodynamic drag? To see this, let us consider a cyclist riding along a road at a power output of 300 watts and look at the relative contribution of each of the four main resistive forces on the rider. A normal 80-kilogram cyclist at a power output of 300 watts on a flat course will lose almost 90 percent of his or her power to aerodynamic losses (figure 9.2). Clearly, the greatest improvements to be made will be to refine the aerodynamic position and equipment for flat time-trial races. Rolling resistance plays a relatively minor role in the force balance. With the same rider on a 2 percent grade, gravity and aerodynamics are approximately equal in importance. Being efficient through the air is still extremely important, but rider weight is equally important. Finally, at an 8 percent grade, gravity dominates all else. Power-to-weight ratio is the primary determinant of success on steep grades. What this case illustrates is that aerodynamics plays an important role in winning on all but the steepest of grades.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Proper climbing form for cyclists
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be.
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be. To climb well, cyclists need to address five major aspects of form, in this order:
- Center of gravity
- Arms and shoulders
- Action of gluteal muscles
- Pedaling action
- Spine and back
Climbing also has to be broken down into standing and seated climbing. Clearly, each technique requires different muscle groups, different centers of gravity, and different breathing actions. Let's tackle standing first.
Standing Climbing
Cyclists stand while climbing for several reasons: to produce more power, to handle a steeper section better, to rest the muscles used while seated, and to use body weight to help in the climb. When standing, heart rate typically rises because the cyclist uses more upper-body muscle to wobble the bike back and forth. Engaging the upper body requires the delivery of more oxygen to the working muscles, and the heart responds by pumping faster to get more blood to those critical areas. This response can be a problem if the cyclist is already at threshold. Any rise in heart rate might cause the cyclist to go over the edge and blow up, so cyclists need to know when to stand up and when to stay seated. One rule to stick with is to stay seated as long as possible when the pace is steady to help reduce heart rate and maintain pace. When the pace begins to change because of having to respond to other riders or changes in terrain, that generally signals the time to get out of the saddle to increase power.
As seen in figure 14.1, when standing, the cyclist should shift his or her body weight farther forward on the bike, both because the bike is already tilting backward from the gradient and because the forward position allows the rider to increase leverage. To do this, rather than just bending at the hips and dropping the chest toward the stem, the cyclist should think instead of pushing the pelvis toward the stem and straightening the arms to help reduce some of the energy needed by the arms to hold up the upper body. Giro 1988 winner Andy Hampsten demonstrated excellent climbing form while standing.
Proper standing form. Note that the pelvis is well forward of the saddle and the rider's chest is erect, such that breathing is open and much of the body weight is on the skeleton rather than the muscle of the arms.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
By standing straighter with the pelvis pushed forward, the cyclist can easily rest the upper body, almost, but not quite, locking the arms and allowing the body weight to fall on the downstroke. The cyclist should practice this when not riding at high intensity and just climbing easy to get the feel of the body weight falling on each side in slow motion. The back should be straight and elongated, and the chest should be open to help the lungs take in the maximum amount of oxygen. This action will be a little choppy with a lower cadence when first practiced, but when the cyclist gets the feeling and hang of it and then applies it to a faster cadence and higher power, he or she will be smoother while still being able to relax and apply more force than when seated.
Seated Climbing
Seated climbing allows the cyclist to reduce upper-body movement and concentrate solely on power output from the legs. By relaxing the arms and shoulders (by dropping the shoulders down from the ears) and opening the chest (by letting the chest lead), the cyclist can recruit gluteal muscles at a higher level, as well as the hamstrings and quadriceps. The seated position also provides a little more range with cadence, because pedaling faster while seated is much easier. Figure 14.2 shows an example of good seated climbing.
Proper seated climbing form. Upper body is loose and weight is set back on the saddle to permit fuller leg extension.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
One of the biggest mistakes riders make while seated is that they grip the handlebars too hard and tighten their chest muscles to pull back on the handlebars. Pulling back on the handlebars is sometimes necessary to help engage the upper body to fire those leg muscles, but while climbing, having a more relaxed grip and an open chest is generally more economical. Pulling hard on the handlebars when climbing usually indicates the point at which the cyclist should get out of the saddle and climb while standing. One technique that I encourage in my athletes when they are climbing in the saddle is to slide a little farther back on the saddle and drop the heels slightly to better engage the hamstrings. This approach allows the upper legs (femurs) to act even more like a lever to concentrate force on the downward stroke of the crank arm. The result can be a 5- to 10-watt improvement in power output.
With seated climbing, one well-known piece of advice by Eddy Merckx comes to mind. When asked the best advice for climbing, he stated, "Ride on the tops of your handlebars and pretend you are playing the piano. This will relax the chest and arms and make sure you aren't pulling too hard on the bars." This suggestion makes a lot of sense, and although riding with the hands lightly touching the bars is not always reasonable, it reminds the cyclist to relax the grip, elbows, and shoulders, which helps her or him be more economical.
Two critical details can make the biggest difference in climbing ability. The first has to do with how the cyclist sits on the bike. Many riders sit on their seat as if they are sitting in an office chair. Their sit bones are pointing down, and they round the back so that they can reach the handlebars. This position causes stress on the back, and if done for many years, it may contribute to a herniated disc. The best way to sit on the seat is to roll the pelvis forward and keep the spine long and straight.
Try this experiment. Sit in a straight-back chair with your butt pushed up against the back of the chair. Now, with a flat and straight back, pivot your upper body forward and push your butt farther back in the "corner" of the chair. Rolling your pelvis forward keeps your spine straight and long, thus protecting your back while at the same time opening the gluteal muscles so that they can contribute significantly to creating power.
The second critical detail to address when climbing is allowing the chest to lead the bike. Many cyclists round their shoulders while riding, which reduces the space in which the lungs can expand. Rolling the shoulders back and down while puffing the chest out gives the lungs more space to expand. One of the best ways to learn this posture is to pretend that a thread is attached to your sternum and leading you forward. This invisible thread pulls the chest out and is attached in space about 2 meters in front of the wheel. Allowing the chest to lead the body helps to force a long, straight back and rolls the shoulders back and down. These details are critical for long-term comfort and proper pedaling.
Speaking of comfort, rolling the pelvis forward does change where the cyclist contacts the seat. The cyclist could have more contact between the seat and the perineum (space between the anus and genitals). At no time should the genitals ever become numb when riding. If this occurs, a new seat is needed to provide a better fit for the cyclist and his or her position. I highly recommend one that has a cutout in the middle to provide relief from the perineum being pinched on the saddle.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Stretching to improve performance and prevent injury
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010).
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010). Ingraham (2003) reported that stretching performed to develop flexibility beyond the needs of specific sport movements can cause muscle injury and thus diminish athletic performance. After a systematic review of the literature on stretching, Andersen (2005) determined that the scientific evidence was insufficient to support the idea that stretching before exercise would reduce the risk of injury or lead to a decline in postexercise muscle soreness. McHugh and Cosgrave (2010) stated that stretching had an immediate and acute detrimental effect on performance and maximum force production. But these effects were less obvious in muscle strength tests and appeared to be absent when stretching was combined with low-intensity exercise in a warm-up protocol.
Focusing specifically on cycling, Wolfe et al. (2011) demonstrated that static stretching produced an acute effect during the first 25 minutes, increasing submaximal O2 and thus decreasing pedaling efficiency. Similarly, Esposito, Cè, and Limonta (2012) found that static stretching produced an acute immediate effect with a 4 percent decrease in mechanical efficiency and a 26 percent decrease in the duration of the constant-intensity cycling test at 85 percent of O2max. Behm et al. (2004) found that the use of static stretching to warm up produced an acute effect that adversely affected balance and reaction time. Other studies, such as the work by O'Connor, Crowe, and Spinks (2006), observed that the inclusion of static stretching exercises in the warm-up protocol increased anaerobic power compared with a warm-up protocol that did not include these stretching exercises.
Recently, Kingsley et al. (2013) examined the effects of static stretching and motor imagery on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Motor imagery was defined as the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement. These authors found that neither static stretching nor motor imagery negatively affected anaerobic performance in trained cyclists when the anaerobic test lasted less than 30 seconds.
Curry et al. (2009) compared the effects of three types of warm-up protocols (static stretching, dynamic stretching, and light aerobic exercise) on the range of motion and muscle strength in untrained women. These authors found no significant differences among the three protocols evaluated regarding range of motion or muscle strength, although they did find that dynamic stretching improves performance and muscle strength compared to static stretching.
As is apparent from the cited studies, the influence of stretching on athletic performance and the prevention of muscle injury is not yet clear. The methodological difficulty of designing a longitudinal study showing the long-term effects of stretching on these variables may be the reason that most of the studies published in the scientific literature have been designed to assess a particular effect in a specific context, generally the acute effect of stretching on muscle strength or on anaerobic performance.
Regarding cool-down, few studies have evaluated the effects of stretching as a recovery method after finishing a workout or cycling competition. Miladi et al. (2011) observed that dynamic stretching is an effective method for improving performance, cardiorespiratory measures, and lactate levels during intermittent supramaximal intensity tests in cycling. Other studies have reported that low-intensity aerobic exercise, such as cycling at 20 percent of O2max, is a method that facilitates performance recovery during intermittent high-intensity cycling exercise (Dorado, Sanchís-Moysi, and Calbet 2004) or after the completion of dynamic exercise to fatigue (Mika et al. 2007).
In this regard, dynamic stretching is recommended as a part of warm-up, immediately before the main part of the training, or as a recovery method between high-intensity series. In contrast, passive stretching should be performed after the main activity as a cool-down or relaxation method after exercise (Peck et al. 2014).
In road cycling, low-intensity cycling for the first part of the ride could be used as a specific warm-up without the need to perform dynamic stretching exercises. Although not formally considered stretching, the cat - camel exercise (figure 34.1) is a motion exercise recommended for cyclists to use before mounting the bicycle to decrease the intraarticular viscosity of the spine (internal resistance and friction), improve spinal load distribution, and minimize spinal stress. The emphasis is on motion in the ranges of flexion and extension with the integration of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. The recommendation is to perform five to eight cycles to reduce most viscous-frictional stresses (McGill 2007).
Cyclist performing the cat - camel exercise: (a) cat; (b) camel.
José M. Muyor
In contrast, passive stretching exercises should be performed after training or competition to promote muscle recovery.
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Learn the importance of aerodynamics
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces.
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces. The relative mix of the four forces determines what is slowing down the rider the most. Figure 9.1 illustrates the force vectors on a rider going up a hill. Modifying these four forces, the course slope, wind, and rider parameters determine the relative mix of all the forces.
Interaction of four forces determining bicycle speed.
Propulsion is the force that the cyclist generates from the muscles by transmitting torque to the crank. This force is transmitted by the chain to the rear wheel and, ultimately, to the ground by the rear tire.
Gravity pulls on the rider because of the component of vertical gravitational force that is in the direction of the bike. A purely flat section of road offers no gravitational pull, whereas a steep 20 percent climb creates substantial gravitational tug.
Rolling resistance is a force that comprises the drag arising from energy losses in the mechanics of the bicycle, from crank and frame flex, from chain and bearing resistance, and from energy losses in the tire rubber. The bearing drag is usually small compared with the other drag forces, and the tire rolling resistance is proportional to the vertical load on the tire. Rolling resistance is characterized by a parameter called the coefficient of rolling resistance that relates vertical loading of the tire to the drag force.
Aerodynamic drag is the force that pulls on a rider from behind. This force is determined by the air density (Ï), the airspeed of the bike (v), the bike and rider's aero drag coefficient (Cd), and the projected frontal area (A). We describe the aerodynamic force in detail later in this chapter.
So, compared with the other forces, how important is aerodynamic drag? To see this, let us consider a cyclist riding along a road at a power output of 300 watts and look at the relative contribution of each of the four main resistive forces on the rider. A normal 80-kilogram cyclist at a power output of 300 watts on a flat course will lose almost 90 percent of his or her power to aerodynamic losses (figure 9.2). Clearly, the greatest improvements to be made will be to refine the aerodynamic position and equipment for flat time-trial races. Rolling resistance plays a relatively minor role in the force balance. With the same rider on a 2 percent grade, gravity and aerodynamics are approximately equal in importance. Being efficient through the air is still extremely important, but rider weight is equally important. Finally, at an 8 percent grade, gravity dominates all else. Power-to-weight ratio is the primary determinant of success on steep grades. What this case illustrates is that aerodynamics plays an important role in winning on all but the steepest of grades.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Proper climbing form for cyclists
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be.
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be. To climb well, cyclists need to address five major aspects of form, in this order:
- Center of gravity
- Arms and shoulders
- Action of gluteal muscles
- Pedaling action
- Spine and back
Climbing also has to be broken down into standing and seated climbing. Clearly, each technique requires different muscle groups, different centers of gravity, and different breathing actions. Let's tackle standing first.
Standing Climbing
Cyclists stand while climbing for several reasons: to produce more power, to handle a steeper section better, to rest the muscles used while seated, and to use body weight to help in the climb. When standing, heart rate typically rises because the cyclist uses more upper-body muscle to wobble the bike back and forth. Engaging the upper body requires the delivery of more oxygen to the working muscles, and the heart responds by pumping faster to get more blood to those critical areas. This response can be a problem if the cyclist is already at threshold. Any rise in heart rate might cause the cyclist to go over the edge and blow up, so cyclists need to know when to stand up and when to stay seated. One rule to stick with is to stay seated as long as possible when the pace is steady to help reduce heart rate and maintain pace. When the pace begins to change because of having to respond to other riders or changes in terrain, that generally signals the time to get out of the saddle to increase power.
As seen in figure 14.1, when standing, the cyclist should shift his or her body weight farther forward on the bike, both because the bike is already tilting backward from the gradient and because the forward position allows the rider to increase leverage. To do this, rather than just bending at the hips and dropping the chest toward the stem, the cyclist should think instead of pushing the pelvis toward the stem and straightening the arms to help reduce some of the energy needed by the arms to hold up the upper body. Giro 1988 winner Andy Hampsten demonstrated excellent climbing form while standing.
Proper standing form. Note that the pelvis is well forward of the saddle and the rider's chest is erect, such that breathing is open and much of the body weight is on the skeleton rather than the muscle of the arms.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
By standing straighter with the pelvis pushed forward, the cyclist can easily rest the upper body, almost, but not quite, locking the arms and allowing the body weight to fall on the downstroke. The cyclist should practice this when not riding at high intensity and just climbing easy to get the feel of the body weight falling on each side in slow motion. The back should be straight and elongated, and the chest should be open to help the lungs take in the maximum amount of oxygen. This action will be a little choppy with a lower cadence when first practiced, but when the cyclist gets the feeling and hang of it and then applies it to a faster cadence and higher power, he or she will be smoother while still being able to relax and apply more force than when seated.
Seated Climbing
Seated climbing allows the cyclist to reduce upper-body movement and concentrate solely on power output from the legs. By relaxing the arms and shoulders (by dropping the shoulders down from the ears) and opening the chest (by letting the chest lead), the cyclist can recruit gluteal muscles at a higher level, as well as the hamstrings and quadriceps. The seated position also provides a little more range with cadence, because pedaling faster while seated is much easier. Figure 14.2 shows an example of good seated climbing.
Proper seated climbing form. Upper body is loose and weight is set back on the saddle to permit fuller leg extension.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
One of the biggest mistakes riders make while seated is that they grip the handlebars too hard and tighten their chest muscles to pull back on the handlebars. Pulling back on the handlebars is sometimes necessary to help engage the upper body to fire those leg muscles, but while climbing, having a more relaxed grip and an open chest is generally more economical. Pulling hard on the handlebars when climbing usually indicates the point at which the cyclist should get out of the saddle and climb while standing. One technique that I encourage in my athletes when they are climbing in the saddle is to slide a little farther back on the saddle and drop the heels slightly to better engage the hamstrings. This approach allows the upper legs (femurs) to act even more like a lever to concentrate force on the downward stroke of the crank arm. The result can be a 5- to 10-watt improvement in power output.
With seated climbing, one well-known piece of advice by Eddy Merckx comes to mind. When asked the best advice for climbing, he stated, "Ride on the tops of your handlebars and pretend you are playing the piano. This will relax the chest and arms and make sure you aren't pulling too hard on the bars." This suggestion makes a lot of sense, and although riding with the hands lightly touching the bars is not always reasonable, it reminds the cyclist to relax the grip, elbows, and shoulders, which helps her or him be more economical.
Two critical details can make the biggest difference in climbing ability. The first has to do with how the cyclist sits on the bike. Many riders sit on their seat as if they are sitting in an office chair. Their sit bones are pointing down, and they round the back so that they can reach the handlebars. This position causes stress on the back, and if done for many years, it may contribute to a herniated disc. The best way to sit on the seat is to roll the pelvis forward and keep the spine long and straight.
Try this experiment. Sit in a straight-back chair with your butt pushed up against the back of the chair. Now, with a flat and straight back, pivot your upper body forward and push your butt farther back in the "corner" of the chair. Rolling your pelvis forward keeps your spine straight and long, thus protecting your back while at the same time opening the gluteal muscles so that they can contribute significantly to creating power.
The second critical detail to address when climbing is allowing the chest to lead the bike. Many cyclists round their shoulders while riding, which reduces the space in which the lungs can expand. Rolling the shoulders back and down while puffing the chest out gives the lungs more space to expand. One of the best ways to learn this posture is to pretend that a thread is attached to your sternum and leading you forward. This invisible thread pulls the chest out and is attached in space about 2 meters in front of the wheel. Allowing the chest to lead the body helps to force a long, straight back and rolls the shoulders back and down. These details are critical for long-term comfort and proper pedaling.
Speaking of comfort, rolling the pelvis forward does change where the cyclist contacts the seat. The cyclist could have more contact between the seat and the perineum (space between the anus and genitals). At no time should the genitals ever become numb when riding. If this occurs, a new seat is needed to provide a better fit for the cyclist and his or her position. I highly recommend one that has a cutout in the middle to provide relief from the perineum being pinched on the saddle.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Stretching to improve performance and prevent injury
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010).
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010). Ingraham (2003) reported that stretching performed to develop flexibility beyond the needs of specific sport movements can cause muscle injury and thus diminish athletic performance. After a systematic review of the literature on stretching, Andersen (2005) determined that the scientific evidence was insufficient to support the idea that stretching before exercise would reduce the risk of injury or lead to a decline in postexercise muscle soreness. McHugh and Cosgrave (2010) stated that stretching had an immediate and acute detrimental effect on performance and maximum force production. But these effects were less obvious in muscle strength tests and appeared to be absent when stretching was combined with low-intensity exercise in a warm-up protocol.
Focusing specifically on cycling, Wolfe et al. (2011) demonstrated that static stretching produced an acute effect during the first 25 minutes, increasing submaximal O2 and thus decreasing pedaling efficiency. Similarly, Esposito, Cè, and Limonta (2012) found that static stretching produced an acute immediate effect with a 4 percent decrease in mechanical efficiency and a 26 percent decrease in the duration of the constant-intensity cycling test at 85 percent of O2max. Behm et al. (2004) found that the use of static stretching to warm up produced an acute effect that adversely affected balance and reaction time. Other studies, such as the work by O'Connor, Crowe, and Spinks (2006), observed that the inclusion of static stretching exercises in the warm-up protocol increased anaerobic power compared with a warm-up protocol that did not include these stretching exercises.
Recently, Kingsley et al. (2013) examined the effects of static stretching and motor imagery on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Motor imagery was defined as the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement. These authors found that neither static stretching nor motor imagery negatively affected anaerobic performance in trained cyclists when the anaerobic test lasted less than 30 seconds.
Curry et al. (2009) compared the effects of three types of warm-up protocols (static stretching, dynamic stretching, and light aerobic exercise) on the range of motion and muscle strength in untrained women. These authors found no significant differences among the three protocols evaluated regarding range of motion or muscle strength, although they did find that dynamic stretching improves performance and muscle strength compared to static stretching.
As is apparent from the cited studies, the influence of stretching on athletic performance and the prevention of muscle injury is not yet clear. The methodological difficulty of designing a longitudinal study showing the long-term effects of stretching on these variables may be the reason that most of the studies published in the scientific literature have been designed to assess a particular effect in a specific context, generally the acute effect of stretching on muscle strength or on anaerobic performance.
Regarding cool-down, few studies have evaluated the effects of stretching as a recovery method after finishing a workout or cycling competition. Miladi et al. (2011) observed that dynamic stretching is an effective method for improving performance, cardiorespiratory measures, and lactate levels during intermittent supramaximal intensity tests in cycling. Other studies have reported that low-intensity aerobic exercise, such as cycling at 20 percent of O2max, is a method that facilitates performance recovery during intermittent high-intensity cycling exercise (Dorado, Sanchís-Moysi, and Calbet 2004) or after the completion of dynamic exercise to fatigue (Mika et al. 2007).
In this regard, dynamic stretching is recommended as a part of warm-up, immediately before the main part of the training, or as a recovery method between high-intensity series. In contrast, passive stretching should be performed after the main activity as a cool-down or relaxation method after exercise (Peck et al. 2014).
In road cycling, low-intensity cycling for the first part of the ride could be used as a specific warm-up without the need to perform dynamic stretching exercises. Although not formally considered stretching, the cat - camel exercise (figure 34.1) is a motion exercise recommended for cyclists to use before mounting the bicycle to decrease the intraarticular viscosity of the spine (internal resistance and friction), improve spinal load distribution, and minimize spinal stress. The emphasis is on motion in the ranges of flexion and extension with the integration of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. The recommendation is to perform five to eight cycles to reduce most viscous-frictional stresses (McGill 2007).
Cyclist performing the cat - camel exercise: (a) cat; (b) camel.
José M. Muyor
In contrast, passive stretching exercises should be performed after training or competition to promote muscle recovery.
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Learn the importance of aerodynamics
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces.
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces. The relative mix of the four forces determines what is slowing down the rider the most. Figure 9.1 illustrates the force vectors on a rider going up a hill. Modifying these four forces, the course slope, wind, and rider parameters determine the relative mix of all the forces.
Interaction of four forces determining bicycle speed.
Propulsion is the force that the cyclist generates from the muscles by transmitting torque to the crank. This force is transmitted by the chain to the rear wheel and, ultimately, to the ground by the rear tire.
Gravity pulls on the rider because of the component of vertical gravitational force that is in the direction of the bike. A purely flat section of road offers no gravitational pull, whereas a steep 20 percent climb creates substantial gravitational tug.
Rolling resistance is a force that comprises the drag arising from energy losses in the mechanics of the bicycle, from crank and frame flex, from chain and bearing resistance, and from energy losses in the tire rubber. The bearing drag is usually small compared with the other drag forces, and the tire rolling resistance is proportional to the vertical load on the tire. Rolling resistance is characterized by a parameter called the coefficient of rolling resistance that relates vertical loading of the tire to the drag force.
Aerodynamic drag is the force that pulls on a rider from behind. This force is determined by the air density (Ï), the airspeed of the bike (v), the bike and rider's aero drag coefficient (Cd), and the projected frontal area (A). We describe the aerodynamic force in detail later in this chapter.
So, compared with the other forces, how important is aerodynamic drag? To see this, let us consider a cyclist riding along a road at a power output of 300 watts and look at the relative contribution of each of the four main resistive forces on the rider. A normal 80-kilogram cyclist at a power output of 300 watts on a flat course will lose almost 90 percent of his or her power to aerodynamic losses (figure 9.2). Clearly, the greatest improvements to be made will be to refine the aerodynamic position and equipment for flat time-trial races. Rolling resistance plays a relatively minor role in the force balance. With the same rider on a 2 percent grade, gravity and aerodynamics are approximately equal in importance. Being efficient through the air is still extremely important, but rider weight is equally important. Finally, at an 8 percent grade, gravity dominates all else. Power-to-weight ratio is the primary determinant of success on steep grades. What this case illustrates is that aerodynamics plays an important role in winning on all but the steepest of grades.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Proper climbing form for cyclists
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be.
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be. To climb well, cyclists need to address five major aspects of form, in this order:
- Center of gravity
- Arms and shoulders
- Action of gluteal muscles
- Pedaling action
- Spine and back
Climbing also has to be broken down into standing and seated climbing. Clearly, each technique requires different muscle groups, different centers of gravity, and different breathing actions. Let's tackle standing first.
Standing Climbing
Cyclists stand while climbing for several reasons: to produce more power, to handle a steeper section better, to rest the muscles used while seated, and to use body weight to help in the climb. When standing, heart rate typically rises because the cyclist uses more upper-body muscle to wobble the bike back and forth. Engaging the upper body requires the delivery of more oxygen to the working muscles, and the heart responds by pumping faster to get more blood to those critical areas. This response can be a problem if the cyclist is already at threshold. Any rise in heart rate might cause the cyclist to go over the edge and blow up, so cyclists need to know when to stand up and when to stay seated. One rule to stick with is to stay seated as long as possible when the pace is steady to help reduce heart rate and maintain pace. When the pace begins to change because of having to respond to other riders or changes in terrain, that generally signals the time to get out of the saddle to increase power.
As seen in figure 14.1, when standing, the cyclist should shift his or her body weight farther forward on the bike, both because the bike is already tilting backward from the gradient and because the forward position allows the rider to increase leverage. To do this, rather than just bending at the hips and dropping the chest toward the stem, the cyclist should think instead of pushing the pelvis toward the stem and straightening the arms to help reduce some of the energy needed by the arms to hold up the upper body. Giro 1988 winner Andy Hampsten demonstrated excellent climbing form while standing.
Proper standing form. Note that the pelvis is well forward of the saddle and the rider's chest is erect, such that breathing is open and much of the body weight is on the skeleton rather than the muscle of the arms.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
By standing straighter with the pelvis pushed forward, the cyclist can easily rest the upper body, almost, but not quite, locking the arms and allowing the body weight to fall on the downstroke. The cyclist should practice this when not riding at high intensity and just climbing easy to get the feel of the body weight falling on each side in slow motion. The back should be straight and elongated, and the chest should be open to help the lungs take in the maximum amount of oxygen. This action will be a little choppy with a lower cadence when first practiced, but when the cyclist gets the feeling and hang of it and then applies it to a faster cadence and higher power, he or she will be smoother while still being able to relax and apply more force than when seated.
Seated Climbing
Seated climbing allows the cyclist to reduce upper-body movement and concentrate solely on power output from the legs. By relaxing the arms and shoulders (by dropping the shoulders down from the ears) and opening the chest (by letting the chest lead), the cyclist can recruit gluteal muscles at a higher level, as well as the hamstrings and quadriceps. The seated position also provides a little more range with cadence, because pedaling faster while seated is much easier. Figure 14.2 shows an example of good seated climbing.
Proper seated climbing form. Upper body is loose and weight is set back on the saddle to permit fuller leg extension.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
One of the biggest mistakes riders make while seated is that they grip the handlebars too hard and tighten their chest muscles to pull back on the handlebars. Pulling back on the handlebars is sometimes necessary to help engage the upper body to fire those leg muscles, but while climbing, having a more relaxed grip and an open chest is generally more economical. Pulling hard on the handlebars when climbing usually indicates the point at which the cyclist should get out of the saddle and climb while standing. One technique that I encourage in my athletes when they are climbing in the saddle is to slide a little farther back on the saddle and drop the heels slightly to better engage the hamstrings. This approach allows the upper legs (femurs) to act even more like a lever to concentrate force on the downward stroke of the crank arm. The result can be a 5- to 10-watt improvement in power output.
With seated climbing, one well-known piece of advice by Eddy Merckx comes to mind. When asked the best advice for climbing, he stated, "Ride on the tops of your handlebars and pretend you are playing the piano. This will relax the chest and arms and make sure you aren't pulling too hard on the bars." This suggestion makes a lot of sense, and although riding with the hands lightly touching the bars is not always reasonable, it reminds the cyclist to relax the grip, elbows, and shoulders, which helps her or him be more economical.
Two critical details can make the biggest difference in climbing ability. The first has to do with how the cyclist sits on the bike. Many riders sit on their seat as if they are sitting in an office chair. Their sit bones are pointing down, and they round the back so that they can reach the handlebars. This position causes stress on the back, and if done for many years, it may contribute to a herniated disc. The best way to sit on the seat is to roll the pelvis forward and keep the spine long and straight.
Try this experiment. Sit in a straight-back chair with your butt pushed up against the back of the chair. Now, with a flat and straight back, pivot your upper body forward and push your butt farther back in the "corner" of the chair. Rolling your pelvis forward keeps your spine straight and long, thus protecting your back while at the same time opening the gluteal muscles so that they can contribute significantly to creating power.
The second critical detail to address when climbing is allowing the chest to lead the bike. Many cyclists round their shoulders while riding, which reduces the space in which the lungs can expand. Rolling the shoulders back and down while puffing the chest out gives the lungs more space to expand. One of the best ways to learn this posture is to pretend that a thread is attached to your sternum and leading you forward. This invisible thread pulls the chest out and is attached in space about 2 meters in front of the wheel. Allowing the chest to lead the body helps to force a long, straight back and rolls the shoulders back and down. These details are critical for long-term comfort and proper pedaling.
Speaking of comfort, rolling the pelvis forward does change where the cyclist contacts the seat. The cyclist could have more contact between the seat and the perineum (space between the anus and genitals). At no time should the genitals ever become numb when riding. If this occurs, a new seat is needed to provide a better fit for the cyclist and his or her position. I highly recommend one that has a cutout in the middle to provide relief from the perineum being pinched on the saddle.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Stretching to improve performance and prevent injury
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010).
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010). Ingraham (2003) reported that stretching performed to develop flexibility beyond the needs of specific sport movements can cause muscle injury and thus diminish athletic performance. After a systematic review of the literature on stretching, Andersen (2005) determined that the scientific evidence was insufficient to support the idea that stretching before exercise would reduce the risk of injury or lead to a decline in postexercise muscle soreness. McHugh and Cosgrave (2010) stated that stretching had an immediate and acute detrimental effect on performance and maximum force production. But these effects were less obvious in muscle strength tests and appeared to be absent when stretching was combined with low-intensity exercise in a warm-up protocol.
Focusing specifically on cycling, Wolfe et al. (2011) demonstrated that static stretching produced an acute effect during the first 25 minutes, increasing submaximal O2 and thus decreasing pedaling efficiency. Similarly, Esposito, Cè, and Limonta (2012) found that static stretching produced an acute immediate effect with a 4 percent decrease in mechanical efficiency and a 26 percent decrease in the duration of the constant-intensity cycling test at 85 percent of O2max. Behm et al. (2004) found that the use of static stretching to warm up produced an acute effect that adversely affected balance and reaction time. Other studies, such as the work by O'Connor, Crowe, and Spinks (2006), observed that the inclusion of static stretching exercises in the warm-up protocol increased anaerobic power compared with a warm-up protocol that did not include these stretching exercises.
Recently, Kingsley et al. (2013) examined the effects of static stretching and motor imagery on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Motor imagery was defined as the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement. These authors found that neither static stretching nor motor imagery negatively affected anaerobic performance in trained cyclists when the anaerobic test lasted less than 30 seconds.
Curry et al. (2009) compared the effects of three types of warm-up protocols (static stretching, dynamic stretching, and light aerobic exercise) on the range of motion and muscle strength in untrained women. These authors found no significant differences among the three protocols evaluated regarding range of motion or muscle strength, although they did find that dynamic stretching improves performance and muscle strength compared to static stretching.
As is apparent from the cited studies, the influence of stretching on athletic performance and the prevention of muscle injury is not yet clear. The methodological difficulty of designing a longitudinal study showing the long-term effects of stretching on these variables may be the reason that most of the studies published in the scientific literature have been designed to assess a particular effect in a specific context, generally the acute effect of stretching on muscle strength or on anaerobic performance.
Regarding cool-down, few studies have evaluated the effects of stretching as a recovery method after finishing a workout or cycling competition. Miladi et al. (2011) observed that dynamic stretching is an effective method for improving performance, cardiorespiratory measures, and lactate levels during intermittent supramaximal intensity tests in cycling. Other studies have reported that low-intensity aerobic exercise, such as cycling at 20 percent of O2max, is a method that facilitates performance recovery during intermittent high-intensity cycling exercise (Dorado, Sanchís-Moysi, and Calbet 2004) or after the completion of dynamic exercise to fatigue (Mika et al. 2007).
In this regard, dynamic stretching is recommended as a part of warm-up, immediately before the main part of the training, or as a recovery method between high-intensity series. In contrast, passive stretching should be performed after the main activity as a cool-down or relaxation method after exercise (Peck et al. 2014).
In road cycling, low-intensity cycling for the first part of the ride could be used as a specific warm-up without the need to perform dynamic stretching exercises. Although not formally considered stretching, the cat - camel exercise (figure 34.1) is a motion exercise recommended for cyclists to use before mounting the bicycle to decrease the intraarticular viscosity of the spine (internal resistance and friction), improve spinal load distribution, and minimize spinal stress. The emphasis is on motion in the ranges of flexion and extension with the integration of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. The recommendation is to perform five to eight cycles to reduce most viscous-frictional stresses (McGill 2007).
Cyclist performing the cat - camel exercise: (a) cat; (b) camel.
José M. Muyor
In contrast, passive stretching exercises should be performed after training or competition to promote muscle recovery.
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Learn the importance of aerodynamics
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces.
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces. The relative mix of the four forces determines what is slowing down the rider the most. Figure 9.1 illustrates the force vectors on a rider going up a hill. Modifying these four forces, the course slope, wind, and rider parameters determine the relative mix of all the forces.
Interaction of four forces determining bicycle speed.
Propulsion is the force that the cyclist generates from the muscles by transmitting torque to the crank. This force is transmitted by the chain to the rear wheel and, ultimately, to the ground by the rear tire.
Gravity pulls on the rider because of the component of vertical gravitational force that is in the direction of the bike. A purely flat section of road offers no gravitational pull, whereas a steep 20 percent climb creates substantial gravitational tug.
Rolling resistance is a force that comprises the drag arising from energy losses in the mechanics of the bicycle, from crank and frame flex, from chain and bearing resistance, and from energy losses in the tire rubber. The bearing drag is usually small compared with the other drag forces, and the tire rolling resistance is proportional to the vertical load on the tire. Rolling resistance is characterized by a parameter called the coefficient of rolling resistance that relates vertical loading of the tire to the drag force.
Aerodynamic drag is the force that pulls on a rider from behind. This force is determined by the air density (Ï), the airspeed of the bike (v), the bike and rider's aero drag coefficient (Cd), and the projected frontal area (A). We describe the aerodynamic force in detail later in this chapter.
So, compared with the other forces, how important is aerodynamic drag? To see this, let us consider a cyclist riding along a road at a power output of 300 watts and look at the relative contribution of each of the four main resistive forces on the rider. A normal 80-kilogram cyclist at a power output of 300 watts on a flat course will lose almost 90 percent of his or her power to aerodynamic losses (figure 9.2). Clearly, the greatest improvements to be made will be to refine the aerodynamic position and equipment for flat time-trial races. Rolling resistance plays a relatively minor role in the force balance. With the same rider on a 2 percent grade, gravity and aerodynamics are approximately equal in importance. Being efficient through the air is still extremely important, but rider weight is equally important. Finally, at an 8 percent grade, gravity dominates all else. Power-to-weight ratio is the primary determinant of success on steep grades. What this case illustrates is that aerodynamics plays an important role in winning on all but the steepest of grades.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Proper climbing form for cyclists
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be.
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be. To climb well, cyclists need to address five major aspects of form, in this order:
- Center of gravity
- Arms and shoulders
- Action of gluteal muscles
- Pedaling action
- Spine and back
Climbing also has to be broken down into standing and seated climbing. Clearly, each technique requires different muscle groups, different centers of gravity, and different breathing actions. Let's tackle standing first.
Standing Climbing
Cyclists stand while climbing for several reasons: to produce more power, to handle a steeper section better, to rest the muscles used while seated, and to use body weight to help in the climb. When standing, heart rate typically rises because the cyclist uses more upper-body muscle to wobble the bike back and forth. Engaging the upper body requires the delivery of more oxygen to the working muscles, and the heart responds by pumping faster to get more blood to those critical areas. This response can be a problem if the cyclist is already at threshold. Any rise in heart rate might cause the cyclist to go over the edge and blow up, so cyclists need to know when to stand up and when to stay seated. One rule to stick with is to stay seated as long as possible when the pace is steady to help reduce heart rate and maintain pace. When the pace begins to change because of having to respond to other riders or changes in terrain, that generally signals the time to get out of the saddle to increase power.
As seen in figure 14.1, when standing, the cyclist should shift his or her body weight farther forward on the bike, both because the bike is already tilting backward from the gradient and because the forward position allows the rider to increase leverage. To do this, rather than just bending at the hips and dropping the chest toward the stem, the cyclist should think instead of pushing the pelvis toward the stem and straightening the arms to help reduce some of the energy needed by the arms to hold up the upper body. Giro 1988 winner Andy Hampsten demonstrated excellent climbing form while standing.
Proper standing form. Note that the pelvis is well forward of the saddle and the rider's chest is erect, such that breathing is open and much of the body weight is on the skeleton rather than the muscle of the arms.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
By standing straighter with the pelvis pushed forward, the cyclist can easily rest the upper body, almost, but not quite, locking the arms and allowing the body weight to fall on the downstroke. The cyclist should practice this when not riding at high intensity and just climbing easy to get the feel of the body weight falling on each side in slow motion. The back should be straight and elongated, and the chest should be open to help the lungs take in the maximum amount of oxygen. This action will be a little choppy with a lower cadence when first practiced, but when the cyclist gets the feeling and hang of it and then applies it to a faster cadence and higher power, he or she will be smoother while still being able to relax and apply more force than when seated.
Seated Climbing
Seated climbing allows the cyclist to reduce upper-body movement and concentrate solely on power output from the legs. By relaxing the arms and shoulders (by dropping the shoulders down from the ears) and opening the chest (by letting the chest lead), the cyclist can recruit gluteal muscles at a higher level, as well as the hamstrings and quadriceps. The seated position also provides a little more range with cadence, because pedaling faster while seated is much easier. Figure 14.2 shows an example of good seated climbing.
Proper seated climbing form. Upper body is loose and weight is set back on the saddle to permit fuller leg extension.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
One of the biggest mistakes riders make while seated is that they grip the handlebars too hard and tighten their chest muscles to pull back on the handlebars. Pulling back on the handlebars is sometimes necessary to help engage the upper body to fire those leg muscles, but while climbing, having a more relaxed grip and an open chest is generally more economical. Pulling hard on the handlebars when climbing usually indicates the point at which the cyclist should get out of the saddle and climb while standing. One technique that I encourage in my athletes when they are climbing in the saddle is to slide a little farther back on the saddle and drop the heels slightly to better engage the hamstrings. This approach allows the upper legs (femurs) to act even more like a lever to concentrate force on the downward stroke of the crank arm. The result can be a 5- to 10-watt improvement in power output.
With seated climbing, one well-known piece of advice by Eddy Merckx comes to mind. When asked the best advice for climbing, he stated, "Ride on the tops of your handlebars and pretend you are playing the piano. This will relax the chest and arms and make sure you aren't pulling too hard on the bars." This suggestion makes a lot of sense, and although riding with the hands lightly touching the bars is not always reasonable, it reminds the cyclist to relax the grip, elbows, and shoulders, which helps her or him be more economical.
Two critical details can make the biggest difference in climbing ability. The first has to do with how the cyclist sits on the bike. Many riders sit on their seat as if they are sitting in an office chair. Their sit bones are pointing down, and they round the back so that they can reach the handlebars. This position causes stress on the back, and if done for many years, it may contribute to a herniated disc. The best way to sit on the seat is to roll the pelvis forward and keep the spine long and straight.
Try this experiment. Sit in a straight-back chair with your butt pushed up against the back of the chair. Now, with a flat and straight back, pivot your upper body forward and push your butt farther back in the "corner" of the chair. Rolling your pelvis forward keeps your spine straight and long, thus protecting your back while at the same time opening the gluteal muscles so that they can contribute significantly to creating power.
The second critical detail to address when climbing is allowing the chest to lead the bike. Many cyclists round their shoulders while riding, which reduces the space in which the lungs can expand. Rolling the shoulders back and down while puffing the chest out gives the lungs more space to expand. One of the best ways to learn this posture is to pretend that a thread is attached to your sternum and leading you forward. This invisible thread pulls the chest out and is attached in space about 2 meters in front of the wheel. Allowing the chest to lead the body helps to force a long, straight back and rolls the shoulders back and down. These details are critical for long-term comfort and proper pedaling.
Speaking of comfort, rolling the pelvis forward does change where the cyclist contacts the seat. The cyclist could have more contact between the seat and the perineum (space between the anus and genitals). At no time should the genitals ever become numb when riding. If this occurs, a new seat is needed to provide a better fit for the cyclist and his or her position. I highly recommend one that has a cutout in the middle to provide relief from the perineum being pinched on the saddle.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Stretching to improve performance and prevent injury
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010).
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010). Ingraham (2003) reported that stretching performed to develop flexibility beyond the needs of specific sport movements can cause muscle injury and thus diminish athletic performance. After a systematic review of the literature on stretching, Andersen (2005) determined that the scientific evidence was insufficient to support the idea that stretching before exercise would reduce the risk of injury or lead to a decline in postexercise muscle soreness. McHugh and Cosgrave (2010) stated that stretching had an immediate and acute detrimental effect on performance and maximum force production. But these effects were less obvious in muscle strength tests and appeared to be absent when stretching was combined with low-intensity exercise in a warm-up protocol.
Focusing specifically on cycling, Wolfe et al. (2011) demonstrated that static stretching produced an acute effect during the first 25 minutes, increasing submaximal O2 and thus decreasing pedaling efficiency. Similarly, Esposito, Cè, and Limonta (2012) found that static stretching produced an acute immediate effect with a 4 percent decrease in mechanical efficiency and a 26 percent decrease in the duration of the constant-intensity cycling test at 85 percent of O2max. Behm et al. (2004) found that the use of static stretching to warm up produced an acute effect that adversely affected balance and reaction time. Other studies, such as the work by O'Connor, Crowe, and Spinks (2006), observed that the inclusion of static stretching exercises in the warm-up protocol increased anaerobic power compared with a warm-up protocol that did not include these stretching exercises.
Recently, Kingsley et al. (2013) examined the effects of static stretching and motor imagery on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Motor imagery was defined as the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement. These authors found that neither static stretching nor motor imagery negatively affected anaerobic performance in trained cyclists when the anaerobic test lasted less than 30 seconds.
Curry et al. (2009) compared the effects of three types of warm-up protocols (static stretching, dynamic stretching, and light aerobic exercise) on the range of motion and muscle strength in untrained women. These authors found no significant differences among the three protocols evaluated regarding range of motion or muscle strength, although they did find that dynamic stretching improves performance and muscle strength compared to static stretching.
As is apparent from the cited studies, the influence of stretching on athletic performance and the prevention of muscle injury is not yet clear. The methodological difficulty of designing a longitudinal study showing the long-term effects of stretching on these variables may be the reason that most of the studies published in the scientific literature have been designed to assess a particular effect in a specific context, generally the acute effect of stretching on muscle strength or on anaerobic performance.
Regarding cool-down, few studies have evaluated the effects of stretching as a recovery method after finishing a workout or cycling competition. Miladi et al. (2011) observed that dynamic stretching is an effective method for improving performance, cardiorespiratory measures, and lactate levels during intermittent supramaximal intensity tests in cycling. Other studies have reported that low-intensity aerobic exercise, such as cycling at 20 percent of O2max, is a method that facilitates performance recovery during intermittent high-intensity cycling exercise (Dorado, Sanchís-Moysi, and Calbet 2004) or after the completion of dynamic exercise to fatigue (Mika et al. 2007).
In this regard, dynamic stretching is recommended as a part of warm-up, immediately before the main part of the training, or as a recovery method between high-intensity series. In contrast, passive stretching should be performed after the main activity as a cool-down or relaxation method after exercise (Peck et al. 2014).
In road cycling, low-intensity cycling for the first part of the ride could be used as a specific warm-up without the need to perform dynamic stretching exercises. Although not formally considered stretching, the cat - camel exercise (figure 34.1) is a motion exercise recommended for cyclists to use before mounting the bicycle to decrease the intraarticular viscosity of the spine (internal resistance and friction), improve spinal load distribution, and minimize spinal stress. The emphasis is on motion in the ranges of flexion and extension with the integration of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. The recommendation is to perform five to eight cycles to reduce most viscous-frictional stresses (McGill 2007).
Cyclist performing the cat - camel exercise: (a) cat; (b) camel.
José M. Muyor
In contrast, passive stretching exercises should be performed after training or competition to promote muscle recovery.
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Learn the importance of aerodynamics
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces.
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces. The relative mix of the four forces determines what is slowing down the rider the most. Figure 9.1 illustrates the force vectors on a rider going up a hill. Modifying these four forces, the course slope, wind, and rider parameters determine the relative mix of all the forces.
Interaction of four forces determining bicycle speed.
Propulsion is the force that the cyclist generates from the muscles by transmitting torque to the crank. This force is transmitted by the chain to the rear wheel and, ultimately, to the ground by the rear tire.
Gravity pulls on the rider because of the component of vertical gravitational force that is in the direction of the bike. A purely flat section of road offers no gravitational pull, whereas a steep 20 percent climb creates substantial gravitational tug.
Rolling resistance is a force that comprises the drag arising from energy losses in the mechanics of the bicycle, from crank and frame flex, from chain and bearing resistance, and from energy losses in the tire rubber. The bearing drag is usually small compared with the other drag forces, and the tire rolling resistance is proportional to the vertical load on the tire. Rolling resistance is characterized by a parameter called the coefficient of rolling resistance that relates vertical loading of the tire to the drag force.
Aerodynamic drag is the force that pulls on a rider from behind. This force is determined by the air density (Ï), the airspeed of the bike (v), the bike and rider's aero drag coefficient (Cd), and the projected frontal area (A). We describe the aerodynamic force in detail later in this chapter.
So, compared with the other forces, how important is aerodynamic drag? To see this, let us consider a cyclist riding along a road at a power output of 300 watts and look at the relative contribution of each of the four main resistive forces on the rider. A normal 80-kilogram cyclist at a power output of 300 watts on a flat course will lose almost 90 percent of his or her power to aerodynamic losses (figure 9.2). Clearly, the greatest improvements to be made will be to refine the aerodynamic position and equipment for flat time-trial races. Rolling resistance plays a relatively minor role in the force balance. With the same rider on a 2 percent grade, gravity and aerodynamics are approximately equal in importance. Being efficient through the air is still extremely important, but rider weight is equally important. Finally, at an 8 percent grade, gravity dominates all else. Power-to-weight ratio is the primary determinant of success on steep grades. What this case illustrates is that aerodynamics plays an important role in winning on all but the steepest of grades.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Proper climbing form for cyclists
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be.
How the cyclist rides the bicycle while climbing is a critical component of success, so form while climbing should be the best it can be. To climb well, cyclists need to address five major aspects of form, in this order:
- Center of gravity
- Arms and shoulders
- Action of gluteal muscles
- Pedaling action
- Spine and back
Climbing also has to be broken down into standing and seated climbing. Clearly, each technique requires different muscle groups, different centers of gravity, and different breathing actions. Let's tackle standing first.
Standing Climbing
Cyclists stand while climbing for several reasons: to produce more power, to handle a steeper section better, to rest the muscles used while seated, and to use body weight to help in the climb. When standing, heart rate typically rises because the cyclist uses more upper-body muscle to wobble the bike back and forth. Engaging the upper body requires the delivery of more oxygen to the working muscles, and the heart responds by pumping faster to get more blood to those critical areas. This response can be a problem if the cyclist is already at threshold. Any rise in heart rate might cause the cyclist to go over the edge and blow up, so cyclists need to know when to stand up and when to stay seated. One rule to stick with is to stay seated as long as possible when the pace is steady to help reduce heart rate and maintain pace. When the pace begins to change because of having to respond to other riders or changes in terrain, that generally signals the time to get out of the saddle to increase power.
As seen in figure 14.1, when standing, the cyclist should shift his or her body weight farther forward on the bike, both because the bike is already tilting backward from the gradient and because the forward position allows the rider to increase leverage. To do this, rather than just bending at the hips and dropping the chest toward the stem, the cyclist should think instead of pushing the pelvis toward the stem and straightening the arms to help reduce some of the energy needed by the arms to hold up the upper body. Giro 1988 winner Andy Hampsten demonstrated excellent climbing form while standing.
Proper standing form. Note that the pelvis is well forward of the saddle and the rider's chest is erect, such that breathing is open and much of the body weight is on the skeleton rather than the muscle of the arms.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
By standing straighter with the pelvis pushed forward, the cyclist can easily rest the upper body, almost, but not quite, locking the arms and allowing the body weight to fall on the downstroke. The cyclist should practice this when not riding at high intensity and just climbing easy to get the feel of the body weight falling on each side in slow motion. The back should be straight and elongated, and the chest should be open to help the lungs take in the maximum amount of oxygen. This action will be a little choppy with a lower cadence when first practiced, but when the cyclist gets the feeling and hang of it and then applies it to a faster cadence and higher power, he or she will be smoother while still being able to relax and apply more force than when seated.
Seated Climbing
Seated climbing allows the cyclist to reduce upper-body movement and concentrate solely on power output from the legs. By relaxing the arms and shoulders (by dropping the shoulders down from the ears) and opening the chest (by letting the chest lead), the cyclist can recruit gluteal muscles at a higher level, as well as the hamstrings and quadriceps. The seated position also provides a little more range with cadence, because pedaling faster while seated is much easier. Figure 14.2 shows an example of good seated climbing.
Proper seated climbing form. Upper body is loose and weight is set back on the saddle to permit fuller leg extension.
Courtesy of PezCyclingNews.com.
One of the biggest mistakes riders make while seated is that they grip the handlebars too hard and tighten their chest muscles to pull back on the handlebars. Pulling back on the handlebars is sometimes necessary to help engage the upper body to fire those leg muscles, but while climbing, having a more relaxed grip and an open chest is generally more economical. Pulling hard on the handlebars when climbing usually indicates the point at which the cyclist should get out of the saddle and climb while standing. One technique that I encourage in my athletes when they are climbing in the saddle is to slide a little farther back on the saddle and drop the heels slightly to better engage the hamstrings. This approach allows the upper legs (femurs) to act even more like a lever to concentrate force on the downward stroke of the crank arm. The result can be a 5- to 10-watt improvement in power output.
With seated climbing, one well-known piece of advice by Eddy Merckx comes to mind. When asked the best advice for climbing, he stated, "Ride on the tops of your handlebars and pretend you are playing the piano. This will relax the chest and arms and make sure you aren't pulling too hard on the bars." This suggestion makes a lot of sense, and although riding with the hands lightly touching the bars is not always reasonable, it reminds the cyclist to relax the grip, elbows, and shoulders, which helps her or him be more economical.
Two critical details can make the biggest difference in climbing ability. The first has to do with how the cyclist sits on the bike. Many riders sit on their seat as if they are sitting in an office chair. Their sit bones are pointing down, and they round the back so that they can reach the handlebars. This position causes stress on the back, and if done for many years, it may contribute to a herniated disc. The best way to sit on the seat is to roll the pelvis forward and keep the spine long and straight.
Try this experiment. Sit in a straight-back chair with your butt pushed up against the back of the chair. Now, with a flat and straight back, pivot your upper body forward and push your butt farther back in the "corner" of the chair. Rolling your pelvis forward keeps your spine straight and long, thus protecting your back while at the same time opening the gluteal muscles so that they can contribute significantly to creating power.
The second critical detail to address when climbing is allowing the chest to lead the bike. Many cyclists round their shoulders while riding, which reduces the space in which the lungs can expand. Rolling the shoulders back and down while puffing the chest out gives the lungs more space to expand. One of the best ways to learn this posture is to pretend that a thread is attached to your sternum and leading you forward. This invisible thread pulls the chest out and is attached in space about 2 meters in front of the wheel. Allowing the chest to lead the body helps to force a long, straight back and rolls the shoulders back and down. These details are critical for long-term comfort and proper pedaling.
Speaking of comfort, rolling the pelvis forward does change where the cyclist contacts the seat. The cyclist could have more contact between the seat and the perineum (space between the anus and genitals). At no time should the genitals ever become numb when riding. If this occurs, a new seat is needed to provide a better fit for the cyclist and his or her position. I highly recommend one that has a cutout in the middle to provide relief from the perineum being pinched on the saddle.
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Stretching to improve performance and prevent injury
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010).
Although most athletes and coaches accept stretching as a means to improve performance and prevent sports injuries, studies regarding this issue offer conflicting conclusions (Andersen 2005; Ingraham 2003; McHugh and Cosgrave 2010). Ingraham (2003) reported that stretching performed to develop flexibility beyond the needs of specific sport movements can cause muscle injury and thus diminish athletic performance. After a systematic review of the literature on stretching, Andersen (2005) determined that the scientific evidence was insufficient to support the idea that stretching before exercise would reduce the risk of injury or lead to a decline in postexercise muscle soreness. McHugh and Cosgrave (2010) stated that stretching had an immediate and acute detrimental effect on performance and maximum force production. But these effects were less obvious in muscle strength tests and appeared to be absent when stretching was combined with low-intensity exercise in a warm-up protocol.
Focusing specifically on cycling, Wolfe et al. (2011) demonstrated that static stretching produced an acute effect during the first 25 minutes, increasing submaximal O2 and thus decreasing pedaling efficiency. Similarly, Esposito, Cè, and Limonta (2012) found that static stretching produced an acute immediate effect with a 4 percent decrease in mechanical efficiency and a 26 percent decrease in the duration of the constant-intensity cycling test at 85 percent of O2max. Behm et al. (2004) found that the use of static stretching to warm up produced an acute effect that adversely affected balance and reaction time. Other studies, such as the work by O'Connor, Crowe, and Spinks (2006), observed that the inclusion of static stretching exercises in the warm-up protocol increased anaerobic power compared with a warm-up protocol that did not include these stretching exercises.
Recently, Kingsley et al. (2013) examined the effects of static stretching and motor imagery on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Motor imagery was defined as the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement. These authors found that neither static stretching nor motor imagery negatively affected anaerobic performance in trained cyclists when the anaerobic test lasted less than 30 seconds.
Curry et al. (2009) compared the effects of three types of warm-up protocols (static stretching, dynamic stretching, and light aerobic exercise) on the range of motion and muscle strength in untrained women. These authors found no significant differences among the three protocols evaluated regarding range of motion or muscle strength, although they did find that dynamic stretching improves performance and muscle strength compared to static stretching.
As is apparent from the cited studies, the influence of stretching on athletic performance and the prevention of muscle injury is not yet clear. The methodological difficulty of designing a longitudinal study showing the long-term effects of stretching on these variables may be the reason that most of the studies published in the scientific literature have been designed to assess a particular effect in a specific context, generally the acute effect of stretching on muscle strength or on anaerobic performance.
Regarding cool-down, few studies have evaluated the effects of stretching as a recovery method after finishing a workout or cycling competition. Miladi et al. (2011) observed that dynamic stretching is an effective method for improving performance, cardiorespiratory measures, and lactate levels during intermittent supramaximal intensity tests in cycling. Other studies have reported that low-intensity aerobic exercise, such as cycling at 20 percent of O2max, is a method that facilitates performance recovery during intermittent high-intensity cycling exercise (Dorado, Sanchís-Moysi, and Calbet 2004) or after the completion of dynamic exercise to fatigue (Mika et al. 2007).
In this regard, dynamic stretching is recommended as a part of warm-up, immediately before the main part of the training, or as a recovery method between high-intensity series. In contrast, passive stretching should be performed after the main activity as a cool-down or relaxation method after exercise (Peck et al. 2014).
In road cycling, low-intensity cycling for the first part of the ride could be used as a specific warm-up without the need to perform dynamic stretching exercises. Although not formally considered stretching, the cat - camel exercise (figure 34.1) is a motion exercise recommended for cyclists to use before mounting the bicycle to decrease the intraarticular viscosity of the spine (internal resistance and friction), improve spinal load distribution, and minimize spinal stress. The emphasis is on motion in the ranges of flexion and extension with the integration of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. The recommendation is to perform five to eight cycles to reduce most viscous-frictional stresses (McGill 2007).
Cyclist performing the cat - camel exercise: (a) cat; (b) camel.
José M. Muyor
In contrast, passive stretching exercises should be performed after training or competition to promote muscle recovery.
Save
Save
Save
Save
Learn more about Cycling Science.
Learn the importance of aerodynamics
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces.
Four forces determine how fast you ride: propulsion, gravity, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic drag. Riding conditions present the rider with a continuously changing mix of these forces. The relative mix of the four forces determines what is slowing down the rider the most. Figure 9.1 illustrates the force vectors on a rider going up a hill. Modifying these four forces, the course slope, wind, and rider parameters determine the relative mix of all the forces.
Interaction of four forces determining bicycle speed.
Propulsion is the force that the cyclist generates from the muscles by transmitting torque to the crank. This force is transmitted by the chain to the rear wheel and, ultimately, to the ground by the rear tire.
Gravity pulls on the rider because of the component of vertical gravitational force that is in the direction of the bike. A purely flat section of road offers no gravitational pull, whereas a steep 20 percent climb creates substantial gravitational tug.
Rolling resistance is a force that comprises the drag arising from energy losses in the mechanics of the bicycle, from crank and frame flex, from chain and bearing resistance, and from energy losses in the tire rubber. The bearing drag is usually small compared with the other drag forces, and the tire rolling resistance is proportional to the vertical load on the tire. Rolling resistance is characterized by a parameter called the coefficient of rolling resistance that relates vertical loading of the tire to the drag force.
Aerodynamic drag is the force that pulls on a rider from behind. This force is determined by the air density (Ï), the airspeed of the bike (v), the bike and rider's aero drag coefficient (Cd), and the projected frontal area (A). We describe the aerodynamic force in detail later in this chapter.
So, compared with the other forces, how important is aerodynamic drag? To see this, let us consider a cyclist riding along a road at a power output of 300 watts and look at the relative contribution of each of the four main resistive forces on the rider. A normal 80-kilogram cyclist at a power output of 300 watts on a flat course will lose almost 90 percent of his or her power to aerodynamic losses (figure 9.2). Clearly, the greatest improvements to be made will be to refine the aerodynamic position and equipment for flat time-trial races. Rolling resistance plays a relatively minor role in the force balance. With the same rider on a 2 percent grade, gravity and aerodynamics are approximately equal in importance. Being efficient through the air is still extremely important, but rider weight is equally important. Finally, at an 8 percent grade, gravity dominates all else. Power-to-weight ratio is the primary determinant of success on steep grades. What this case illustrates is that aerodynamics plays an important role in winning on all but the steepest of grades.
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