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Improve strength, power, speed, and more! No matter what sport you play or level you compete, High-Powered Plyometrics will take your performance to the next level.
High-Powered Plyometrics is a systematic guide to explosive power training for athletes, coaches, and strength and conditioning experts. Exploring the principles of high-intensity plyometric training, power assessments, and development of long- and short-term conditioning programs, this hands-on guide covers it all.
You’ll find detailed photo sequences, step-by-step instruction, and intensity guidelines to ensure correct technique for 79 exercises that increase power in the core and upper and lower body. Incorporate exercises into an existing program, or personalize one of the ready-to-use programs for 21 sports, including football, basketball, track and field, volleyball, and wrestling. You’ll also learn to track progress and adjust your programming to maintain your results.
The most dynamic and complex exercises found in the book are housed in an all-new online video library. Via streaming video, you have exclusive access to demonstrations of dozens of exercises and drills to ensure you perform them with proper technique.
Go beyond basic conditioning and develop the explosive power that will give you an edge on the competition.
Part I Plyometric Training
Chapter 1 Power Prerequisite for High-Level Performance
Get results using plyometrics
Apply athletic principles to plyometric training
Evaluate based on the various types of strength
Use the stretch–shortening concept
Chapter 2 Athletic Power Activation Process
Activate power to create a successful training session
Warm up to properly prepare for work
Cool down to relax and recover
Chapter 3 Power Training Methods and Equipment
Maintain form and execution by following basic guidelines
Breathe to assist exercise execution
Train progressively to maximize skill
Use rest periods advantageously
Optimize training through the environment
Chapter 4 Power Assessments
Understand capabilities and limitations
Develop an effective program
Review power evaluation protocols
Part II Plyometric Drills
Chapter 5 Upper-Body Power Development
Chapter 6 Core Power Development
Chapter 7 Lower-Body Power Development
Part III Plyometric Programming
Chapter 8 Complex Training
Learn how complex training works
Integrate complex training into the yearly plan
Chapter 9 Sport-Specific Training
Soccer
Baseball, Softball, and Cricket
Volleyball
Cycling
Field Hockey
Basketball and Netball
Rowing
Football
Skiing
Lacrosse
Tennis, Racquetball, Squash, and Handball
Track and Field
Olympic Weightlifting
Wrestling
Aussie Football
Chapter 10 Season-Long Power Maintenance
Develop a year-round training program
Individualize the training program
Review the functions of training and rehabilitation
Jim Radcliffe is one of the most overlooked elements in the success of Oregon’s student-athletes. Now in his third decade as the school’s head strength and conditioning coach, he not only plays a significant role in the Ducks football program as the designer of the year-round conditioning calendar, but he also has been quick to aid in the athletic development of athletes in all sports in his work with Olympians and World Championship medalists.
Radcliffe has guided football, basketball, track and field, baseball, and volleyball athletes during much of his career. He furnishes the student-athletes with a variety of exercise through weight training and lifting systems and is a noted authority on exercises dealing with the improvement of speed and quickness. He became assistant strength coach at Oregon in 1985, a position he held for two years before assuming the duties of head coach in that area.
Radcliffe taught and coached a variety of sports and was the athletic trainer at Aloha High School from 1978 to 1983. He then did graduate studies at Colorado and worked in private business before joining the Ducks staff. Graduating from Pacific in Oregon with a degree in physical education and health in 1980, he played four seasons as defensive back and was captain of the special teams. Radcliffe earned his master’s degree in biomechanics from Oregon.
Active in national organizations surrounding his profession, Radcliffe has been certified by USA Weightlifting, CSCCa, and the NSCA. He also has written books, been published in numerous professional journals, and produced videos on plyometrics.
Bob Farentinos is a fitness professional and lifelong athlete. He has competed in weightlifting, cross-country skiing, and rowing and has won national titles and masters championships in all three sports. Farentinos earned his PhD in biology from the University of Colorado and spent many years as a professor and researcher at various universities, including Colorado, Michigan, Ohio State, and Johns Hopkins. He has published extensively in scientific journals and has written wildlife stories for children as well as numerous lay articles on exercise, health, and fitness.
In the 1980s, Farentinos owned and managed a sport and fitness center in Boulder, Colorado, designated as an official training facility for the U.S. ski team. At the center he trained and coached Olympic and professional athletes in cycling, running, triathlon, Nordic and alpine skiing, weightlifting, climbing, and mountaineering. During that time he also worked with athletes and coaches at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs.
From 1984 through 1991, he competed in the United States Ski Association (USSA) Great American Ski Chase, a national series of 50-kilometer cross-country races, winning several age-class championships. He participated in the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary as a technical representative for one of his ski equipment sponsors.
Farentinos began his rowing career in 2003 at the age of 62. Within a few years he was rowing competitively, winning gold and silver medals in Northwest Regional Masters Championships in single sculling. In 2007 he won the Canadian National Masters Championship and has competed successfully since then in national and regional regattas and head races in single and double sculling.
Farentinos volunteers hiis time and expertise designing workout facilities and exercise programs for youth dealing with substance abuse and addiction. He uses exercise and sport to redirect their focus toward healthier and more productive lifestyles.
Farentinos lives in Portland, Oregon.
“In front of you is a locked door that reads ‘Athleticism.’ How fortunate you are that Coach Radcliffe gives you the key to this door in the new edition of High-Powered Plyometrics.”
Ashton Eaton-- American Decathlete and Olympic Champion, World-Record Holder, Decathlon and Heptathlon
“Coach Radcliffe is the finest strength and conditioning coach in the world. His knowledge and passion for making athletes stronger and faster are unparalleled.”
Nick Symmonds-- Professional Track Athlete,Two-Time Olympian (800-meters, 2008 and 2012 Olympics)
“Jim Radcliffe is the secret weapon behind the success of all of the sports at the University of Oregon, and his High-Powered Plyometrics is a must-have for all coaches and athletes! Radcliffe translates explosive power to sports better than any coach out there.”
Rose Monday-- USA Track & Field 2012 Olympic Games Women’s Assistant Distance Coach, USATF Women's High-Performance National Development Chair
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
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Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_507443_ebook_Main.png
Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_doublescissor2_ebook_Main.jpg
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_507443_ebook_Main.png
Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_doublescissor1_ebook_Main.jpg
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_doublescissor2_ebook_Main.jpg
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_doublescissor3_ebook_Main.jpg
Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
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Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_507443_ebook_Main.png
Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_507443_ebook_Main.png
Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
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Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_newstridejump1_ebook_Main.jpg
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_newstridejump2_ebook_Main.jpg
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
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Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_507443_ebook_Main.png
Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
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Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_doublescissor1_ebook_Main.jpg
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_doublescissor2_ebook_Main.jpg
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
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Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_newstridejump1_ebook_Main.jpg
http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/135/E6331_newstridejump2_ebook_Main.jpg
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
Learn more about High-Powered Plyometrics, Second Edition.
Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
Power Assessments
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate from workouts.
Trainers must know participants' ages; genetics factors; and levels of experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers! They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development in explosive power training.
Age
Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981) demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal system affect people's tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics, especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system, cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch - shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best. Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch - shortening cycle training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in further chapters, anyone's capabilities can be evaluated and their training adjusted based on maturity.
Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations
Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and training for explosive power is no different. A doctor's physical exam is helpful. Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each appendage's joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person's ability to perform plyometric exercises. Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
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Individual Differences
Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
Experience
The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with stretch - shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes' technical and developmental levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural control, and pretension.
Strength Training Base
Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not necessary for the other stretch - shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research (Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
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Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head, hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching, pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities. Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity, and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution; however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw, pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions. Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the list of progressive work to provide true elastic-reactive training of the upper body.
Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and reactive work.
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Double Scissors Jump
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
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Introduction
This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes. It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs, and torso.
Starting Position
Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).
Action Sequence
As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air, landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-response mode only.
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Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better.
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use both legs in takeoff and landing. Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:
- Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of specified degrees.
- Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
- Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height, the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that musculature.
Explosive power training includes the following jumps:
- In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume work.
- Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume, and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100 meters).
- Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters). Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact repetitions.
- Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or alternating or single-leg contacts.
- Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically, though, it referred to the explosive-reactive methods involving impulsive types of training (such as depth jumping).
Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g., the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs. Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding, usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of training.
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Stride Jump
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement.
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Introduction
A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.
Starting Position
Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).
Action Sequence
Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside (swing) leg (see figures b - d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and, reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember to gain full height and body extension with each jump.
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Five factors that determine if plyometrics training is a good option
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Jim Radcliffe, the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. He points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
Any program dedicated to enhancing athletic performance needs an ongoing method of evaluating its direction and the fitness and accomplishments of its participants. Jim Radcliffe knows this method better than most people. For nearly three decades he has served as the head strength and conditioning coach for the University of Oregon football team, refining his plyometric techniques to improve the strength, power, balance, speed, and endurance of one of America's most dynamic and fast-paced squads.
Before getting too far into planning the specifics of a plyometric program, Radcliffe says the prudent approach is to look honestly and carefully at issues that could affect safe participation in such intense training. In the updated second edition of his popular book High-Powered Plyometrics, he points to five factors that trainers must know about their athletes or that those planning their own programs should keep in mind and treat seriously.
- Age. Chronological age is an important consideration because the maturity of both the nervous and skeletal systems affects people's tolerance of plyometric training. For example, children who have not yet reached puberty should not participate in plyometrics because the continual growth of the skeletal system makes the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate. Radcliffe and coauthor Bob Farentinos contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training to prepare for future strength training but suggest using moderate jump training with children in this age range. They warn that adolescents do not appear to have any significant response to explosive strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs should be prescribed cautiously. Conversely, as age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and energy production decrease, which make plyometric training less suitable for older athletes.
- Physical capabilities and health limitations. As in all areas of exercise, good overall fitness is beneficial when training for explosive power. People should have good control of body weight and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously for at least several minutes, the strength to handle their own body weight in movements in all planes and directions, and the mobility to handle movement positions in several ranges of motion. Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training but also to determine limitations, such as flexibility, posture, balance, torso tilt, and joint alignment. “Limitations on explosive training may arise from back or spine problems,” Radcliffe warns. “Excessive trauma to these or any other areas that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning adjusted.”
- Individual differences. Since athletes respond differently to training regimens, coaches need to be sensitive to their individual differences, while the athletes themselves must have some self-awareness. Differences between male and female athletes show up both in training and performance, and genetic makeup dictates, to a large extent, a person's ability to improve. While athletes and coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and development, and that these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete's progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.
- Experience. The training age a participant brings to plyometric training can actually be more important than chronological age. Some athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for instance, have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely skilled in their athletic endeavors and have enormous talent, yet they bring only an infantile level of training as a base. Radcliffe cautions that these athletes can be at high risk if they use poor technique and undertake exercise quantities for which their body structures are not yet ready.
- Strength training base. A strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, and a general strength training program should complement, not impede, the development of explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric training does not have to be a huge endeavor. Radcliffe and Farentinos recommend the often-prescribed Russian suggestion of being able to perform a maximal squat of one and a half to two times one's body weight before attempting depth jumps and similar shock training.
Radcliffe, who has coached world-class athletes like Ashton Eaton (an Olympic champion and world-record holder in the decathlon and heptathlon) and two-time Olympian Nick Symmonds says these elements must be examined before beginning serious plyometric training. Coaches should also understand safe procedures, whether the athletes are properly equipped (appropriate attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
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