Adapted Physical Education and Sport

Implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

Assessment

One method that has been proven helpful in assessing students with ASD is the system known as ecological task analysis (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). Within the model, the instructor examines the interaction of three factors: the student, the environment, and the task. To derive a good understanding of the student, the assessor should seek information from several sources, including parents, teachers, therapists, and aides. One should fully understand reinforcers and modes of communication before attempting to assess the child. The assessor should also spend time developing a rapport with the child before assessment. When beginning the assessment, it is important to start with activities the child understands and is able to perform and then move on to more difficult tasks. It is important also to understand qualities that inhibit or enhance performance. This approach allows for early success and better compliance throughout the assessment.

The second factor that needs to be considered is the task. To determine if the task is appropriate, consider the following questions: Is it age appropriate? Is it functional? Will the information gained assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP) goals and objectives? Will the information be used for program development and instruction? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the task being assessed is appropriate. To assess the task, the assessor might use a task analysis approach in which requisite skills are identified and either further broken down or assessed as a whole. For example, in assessing soccer skills, the assessor would determine the requisite skills for soccer (e.g., dribbling, passing, trapping, shooting). Each of these skills could be broken down into components assessed separately, or the skill could be assessed as a whole. Once the assessment is complete, the information gleaned can be used to develop goals and objectives based on unique needs, serve as a basis for instruction, and aid in activity selection.

Finally the instructor needs to consider the environment. Keeping in mind that children with ASD might be hypersensitive to environmental stimuli, the instructor should provide an environment with limited distractions and focus on one task at a time. In the soccer example, the instructor can provide different-size balls, different-size goals, and different surfaces for performing the task. After considering the individual student, the task, and the environmental parameters involved, the instructor observes the student's behavior and preferences and documents his choices. These choices serve as a baseline and a springboard upon which to teach.

Activity Selection

When selecting activities for children with ASD, the most important consideration is the needs and interests of the learners and their families. In addition, the functional value of the activity should be taken into account. Activities that have a high probability of success for children with ASD are generally more individual, such as swimming, running, and bowling. However, no one should assume that children with ASD cannot participate in and enjoy team sports. Team sports might need modifications to enhance success, but all children should have the opportunity to explore a range of physical education activities.

The learner's age must also be taken into account. Both developmental appropriateness and age appropriateness should always be considered when selecting activities. Although elementary-aged children spend a great deal of time learning and improving their fundamental motor skills, it would be inappropriate to focus on such skills at the middle school or high school level. When selecting activities, instructors should also consider family and community interests. Does the child come from a family that enjoys hiking or skiing? Or is the family more involved in soccer or softball? Considering these factors helps shape the activity selection so that the child with ASD can more fully integrate within the family and community.

One form of movement, known as sensorimotor activities, can be especially beneficial to students with ASD. These activities are designed to stimulate the senses with a focus on kinesthetic awareness, tactile stimulation, auditory processing, and visual - motor coordination. Kinesthetic awareness deals with the relationship of the body to space. Examples of kinesthetic activities include jumping on a trampoline, crawling through tunnels, jumping over a rope, and rolling down an incline mat. Tactile stimulation can be enhanced by having the child interact with objects, such as balls with various sizes, shapes, and textures. Auditory processing can be enhanced through the use of music and songs that instruct the child in a sequence of movements. Finally, visual - motor coordination can be strengthened through playing an array of games that require tracking, such as kickball, softball, soccer, or lacrosse.

Instructional and Management Techniques

Teaching students with ASD is not unlike teaching other children. Teachers need to establish rapport with students, develop trust, relay information in a clear and concise manner, and provide reinforcement and feedback to help shape appropriate motor and social behavior. Specific strategies that prove helpful in instructing and managing students with ASD include the use of picture and communication boards, the consistent use of structure and routines, and the use of natural cues in the environment to facilitate the acquisition and execution of skills. Other methods include the correction procedure rule and parallel talk. The correction procedure rule is a system used when inappropriate skills or social behaviors occur. Here, the instructor takes the child back to the last task that was done correctly in an effort to redirect the inappropriate behavior. Parallel talk is a system in which the instructor talks through the actions that are occurring - for example, "Juan is dribbling the basketball" - which aids in the understanding and purpose of actions. In addition, teaching to the strengths of learners by considering their preferred learning modality will also prove helpful in teaching students with ASD. Finally, the value of using support staff and peer tutors should not be underestimated in teaching students with ASD. Each of these strategies is more fully explained next.

Picture and Communication Boards

One of the most common and most successful methods used to teach children with ASD is the use of picture and communication boards. Types of pictures include photographs, lifelike drawings, and symbolic drawings. Some children may not yet understand pictures and may need objects to represent them, such as dollhouse furniture or small figures of objects. When pictures are used, it is best to have only one item in the picture because children with ASD have a tendency toward overselectivity, meaning that they are not able to screen out irrelevant information. Teachers should help students focus on the most relevant information. For example, if a child is working on basketball skills, it may be preferable not to use a picture of a basketball court with students playing on it because there is too much information in the picture, making it difficult for the child to screen out irrelevant information. Pictures can also be arranged to create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Boardmaker, as described earlier, is one of many commercial software programs that can help create picture boards using universally accepted symbols to depict events and actions.

Routines and Structure

Establishing routines and structure aids in managing and instructing students with ASD. Children with ASD often demonstrate inappropriate behavioral responses when new or incongruent information is presented in a random or haphazard manner. Routines with set beginning and end points allow for more predictability and help to reduce sensory overload. Routines are also useful in introducing new information or behaviors. Keeping some information familiar and gradually introducing new information helps students respond appropriately. Routines also help to reduce verbal directions and allow children to work independently.

The following scenario illustrates a typical routine that incorporates pictures and can be useful in physical education. Before Justin goes to physical education class, a classroom teacher gives him a picture of the physical education teacher and says, "Justin, it is time for PE." The picture of the physical education teacher allows Justin to understand what is going to happen next. When the class enters the gym, Justin gives the picture card to the physical education teacher. The physical education teacher then uses a communication board with pictures to relay to Justin the lesson from start to finish. For example, a picture of a child stretching could indicate the warm-up, and a picture of a child doing curl-ups could indicate the fitness portion of the lesson. Further, the specific focus could be identified, as with a picture of a soccer ball. Finally, goalposts can be used to indicate the game activity. Figure 10.2 presents a sample schedule for a physical education lesson. The components of the schedule can remain the same, but the actual activities can be manipulated to prepare the child for the daily lesson. When using words instead of pictures, the words can be erased after the task is completed. This system allows students to understand that the activity has ended and the next activity will soon begin.

Physical education sample pictorial schedule. The pictures allow the student to understand what is going to happen in the lesson from start to finish.

As noted previously, children with ASD have difficulty with sensory overload. When they are entering a new environment, such as a gym, the atmosphere may create extreme sensory overload. Structure helps alleviate this stress by creating environments that are easily understood and manageable. In physical education, teachers can structure their space so that the environment is predictable. First, the teacher needs to identify for the child where activities are done (in the gym, on the field, on a mat), where things are located (balls in bin, ropes on hangers, rackets on hooks), and how to move from one place to another (rotating stations, rotating positions, moving from inside to outside). Second, the teacher needs to establish concrete boundaries. For example, if a child is to remain on one-half of the field, cones indicating the halfway point should be in place. Labels can also help organize space. For example, equipment boxes should be clearly labeled so that the child can easily retrieve and put away equipment.

At the conclusion of the lesson, the physical education teacher should have a consistent cue to transition the child back to the classroom. This could be a picture of the classroom teacher or a desk. Forewarning is another effective way to transition a child back to the classroom. For example, the teacher might say, "Justin, in three minutes PE will be over." This helps the child better understand time and prepare for the change in routine. A second warning might be given at 2 minutes and a third at 1 minute. Through proper preparation, anxiety levels are reduced because the child begins to understand that a change in the task will occur after the 1-minute signal from the instructor. Again, the child must understand what will be happening next. When he arrives back in the classroom, physical education can be crossed off his daily schedule and he can begin the next activity on the schedule.

The implementation of routines and structure might at first seem time-consuming for the teacher. However, once these systems are in place, dramatic improvements in behavior and participation usually occur, making the extra time and effort worthwhile.

Natural Environmental Cues and Task Analysis

In teaching new skills to children with ASD, instructors are urged to use natural cues within the environment and to minimize verbal cues. If the goal is for the child to kick a soccer ball into a goal, the natural cues would be a soccer ball and a goal. To achieve the desired objective, the instructor might need to break the task down into smaller steps or task analyze the skills. For example, shooting a soccer ball into a goal might involve the following steps: (1) Line the child up at the shooting line; (2) place the ball on the shooting line; and (3) prompt the child to take a shot. One may break the skill down further by placing a poly spot in front of the child to initiate a stepping action with the opposite kicking foot and prompting the child with either a verbal cue or physical assist to use the kicking foot to make contact with the ball. The degree to which skills should be task analyzed depends on the task and the learner.

Demonstrations also prove helpful in the acquisition of new skills. If the child performs the task correctly, the lesson should continue. For example, the teacher might teach the child how to stop a ball being passed to the shooting line. If the child is unsuccessful in shooting the ball toward the goal, the teacher could use physical assistance to help her gain a better understanding of what the task requires, allowing her to repeat the task until no physical assistance is needed. Once the child has performed the task correctly, the teacher would move on to the rest of the lesson. Figure 10.3 depicts a child working on soccer skills with assistance.

Shooting a soccer ball into a goal can be broken down into steps. Here the child is taking step 3, with the assistant prompting the child to take a shot.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Correction Procedure Rule

Another effective technique in instructing children with ASD is the correction procedure rule, which one applies by taking the child back to the last component of the skill done correctly. Using batting as an example, say a child maintains a proper batting stance and properly swings the bat at the ball but then runs to first base with the bat. In this case, following the correction procedure rule, the instructor would ask the child to repeat the swing and then physically assist her in placing the bat on the ground before running to first. The instructor returns the child to the last correct response before the incorrect response. The application example is another scenario in which the correction procedure rule can be used.

Application Example

Importance of Visual Cues in Learning a New Task

Setting

A physical education class is working on a tee-ball unit.

Student

Kiera, a seven-year-old girl with autism in elementary physical education class

Task

Learning how to hit a ball off the tee and running to first base

Issue

Kiera's physical education teacher, Mr. Greer, has been teaching her how to play tee-ball. They have practiced swinging the bat at the ball (in a hand-over-hand manner), making contact with the ball, putting the bat down, and running to first base. It appeared that Kiera had the hang of the skill, so Mr. Greer allowed her to bat independently. Kiera stood in the ready position; Mr. Greer placed the ball on the tee and took a step back. Just then a gust of wind came, and the ball fell off the tee. Kiera immediately placed the bat on the ground and began running to first base even though she did not make contact with the ball. This showed that Kiera still did not understand the purpose of the game, which was to contact the ball with the bat before running.

Application

Mr. Greer used visual cues to create a positive learning environment by doing the following:

• Mr. Greer demonstrated to Kiera what to do if the ball fell off the tee. Mr. Greer put the ball on the tee loosely so that it would fall off. When the ball fell off, he picked up the ball, replaced it on the tee, and struck it with the bat.
• Mr. Greer then signaled to Kiera to try. Again he placed the ball loosely on the tee and gave the bat to Kiera.
• The ball fell off the tee and Kiera picked up the ball and replaced it on the tee. She then struck the ball and ran to first base.

This example illustrates the need for students with autism to see and understand a task. In no way was Kiera being uncooperative or off task. She simply did not understand the task. When she understood the task, she was able to participate in the game independently.

Kiera practices her swing in tee-ball.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Parallel Talk

To promote language and skill acquisition, instructors are encouraged to embed language throughout the lesson. One way to accomplish this is using parallel talk, in which the teacher verbalizes the actions of the learner. For example, if Marci is rolling a red ball to the teacher, the teacher would say, "Marci is rolling the red ball." Parallel talk can also help children associate certain skills with their verbal meaning, such as spatial concepts (e.g., in, out, under, over) and motor skills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, striking). Another way to foster language acquisition is to create print-rich physical education environments. Pictures, posters, and action words should be displayed prominently around the gym. Labeling the action as it is being performed helps students acquire both receptive and expressive language skills and attach meaning to actions.

Learning Modalities

Learning modalities, or learning styles, refer to the way in which students learn best. The three common categories of learning include auditory, motor, and visual. Auditory learners tend to learn by following commands or prompts and may be easily distracted by background noise. Children who are motor or kinesthetic learners tend to learn by doing. They are active learners and would rather do than watch; they enjoy hands-on projects. Children who are visual learners tend to learn by watching and looking at pictures, and they can be easily distracted by surrounding activities and noise. Research indicates that students with ASD tend to be visual learners (Sicile-Kira, 2014), although all learning modalities should be employed from time to time. As indicated previously, the use of pictures and communication boards is by far the most effective teaching strategy used to communicate with and teach students with ASD.

Support Personnel

Teachers should take advantage of support personnel to assist them in implementing programs. Teaching assistants, paraprofessionals, and peer tutors are all valuable resources that can help in providing individualized instruction to students with ASD in physical education. Teachers can request support personnel through the child's IEP as a necessary component to support the learning of children with ASD.

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Early Childhood Program Standards and Learning Objectives

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges.

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges. Early childhood movement programs should provide children with the opportunity to explore and act on objects in their physical environment (Odom & Wolery, 2003). A well-designed movement curriculum for preschool through third grade should focus on fundamental movement abilities in the preschool years, specialized movement abilities in the early elementary years, and opportunities for all children to be physically active.

The preschool years give instructors the opportunity to guide children through games and activities in order to build a skill foundation and maintain appropriate activity levels. This fundamental movement phase should focus on stability, locomotor, and object-control skills (see chapter 19 for a review of the fundamental movement phase). It follows, then, that the early elementary years (kindergarten through third grade) allow the teacher to integrate the knowledge and skills that children have acquired and begin to refine fundamental skills required for more advanced games and activities. The specialized movement phase gives children the opportunity to use several fundamental skills to complete a single activity that is more specialized (see chapter 19 for a review of the specialized movement phase).

The importance of seeing the connection between the fundamental movement phase and specialized movement phase in the early childhood years is critical for physical education curriculum development. As a guide, national standards for physical education (SHAPE America, 2014) have been written for elementary children in the United States. These five physical education standards are in place for five- to nine-year-old children and are written to reflect what children should be able to do after participation in a quality physical education program. PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008) is a valid and reliable tool developed to assess the first national physical education standard, which reads "The physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 12). A quality physical education program for elementary-aged children should follow national standards and build on the fundamental movement skill programs introduced in preschool.

However, early learning standards vary state by state for preschool-aged children. To assist early childhood educators, the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has organized a standards database on what states have identified as educational priorities for children of prekindergarten age (NIEER, 2014). Using learning standards to guide programming for children with and without disabilities through the early childhood years can be beneficial in all domains of learning, including physical health and development. Early childhood physical educators should be knowledgeable about learning standards and assessing them and how they contribute to program development. Mastering fundamental movements and skills and integrating them into games and activities are processes.

Regarding physical activity for young children, it has been recommended that preschool-aged children accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity per day, and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping (NASPE, 2002). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009) also recommends that playing time (including large motor activities) can benefit young children in physical competence, social skills, self-control, and problem-solving abilities as well as giving them an opportunity to practice emerging skills.

Activity environments designed to provide instruction for young children with developmental delays and those with disabilities should be individualized according to assessment information. Arbitrarily selecting games and activities because they seem fun and the children appear to enjoy them is not necessarily in line with good practice. Specifically, learning environments should parallel the strengths and challenges identified during the assessment process and written in the IEP as instructional objectives. Instruction is based on a good understanding of each child's present level of performance. An activity setting should be carefully planned to build on what children already know and promote the acquisition of new skills.

Developmental theorists support instruction that encourages children to explore and manipulate their environment in order to construct meaning (Lefrancois, 2006). Individualizing instruction for each child in the class is the challenge faced by teachers providing early childhood adapted physical education in an integrated setting. Using a differentiated instructional approach helps teachers address the diverse learning needs of several children in the same class (Sands & Barker, 2004). The child's developmental abilities (physical, social, and cognitive) and the effect that a certain disability might have on this development must be considered.

Developmental Differences Between Preschoolers and Primary-Aged Children

The cognitive and social developmental status of a four-year-old differs from that of a six-year-old. As children develop cognitively and socially, they incorporate their movement strategies in new ways. Teachers providing adapted physical education must understand age-related developmental differences in order to construct appropriate learning environments for children who exhibit delays in one or more areas of learning (Haywood & Getchell, 2014).

Developmentally appropriate movement environments designed for preschool-aged children (three to five years of age) differ from those planned for kindergarten and elementary school children (six to eight years of age). A watered-down kindergarten curriculum presented to children in preschool is not appropriate. Games, activities, and equipment meaningful to a four-year-old might be of little interest to a seven-year-old and vice versa. For example, preschoolers love to experiment with speed, direction change, and space. Figure 22.1 shows a young boy making his way through a tunnel placed within a larger activity area. With a little creativity and imagination, teachers of early childhood physical education can create stimulating and motivating learning environments. A refrigerator box that has holes cut for climbing and hiding might entice a preschooler to explore and move for a long time. Preschoolers are intrigued by new spaces and the opportunity to explore these seemingly simple environments. On the other hand, a seven-year-old might find these activities simplistic and boring. She would be much more interested and challenged by moving under and through a parachute lifted by classmates. A child in first or second grade (six or seven years old) might be challenged by activities that encourage a higher level of problem solving. Children at this age have greater ability to reason and logically integrate thoughts than younger children do. For a three- or four-year-old, a parachute activity that includes anything more than moving the parachute up and down is often frightening and unpredictable.

A young boy makes his way through a tunnel, a familiar play space for preschoolers.
© Lauriece Zittel

The NAEYC (2009) provides guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood and discusses the differences between preschool and primary-aged children in their physical, social, cognitive, and language development. Teachers providing adapted physical education should keep in mind that the cognitive and social development of young children cannot be ignored when developing goals and objectives in the psychomotor domain. The interplay between each of these functional areas of learning and an individual child's development within each area must be considered when planning movement environments and instruction.

Developmental Considerations for Young Children With Disabilities

The effect of a disability on the communication, social, cognitive, or motor development of a child must be recognized before planning instruction. Knowing how a child's disability affects motor learning and performance is essential for the development of an appropriate physical education program. Young children with orthopedic impairments, for example, might begin independently exploring their physical environments by using a walker, wheelchair, or crutches but might also require accommodations in order to benefit from age-appropriate activities. Instructors should be aware of physical barriers that exist in the activity setting and design the environment in a way that encourages interactions with peers and equipment. Assistive devices that allow children with orthopedic impairments to initiate tasks that are both physically and intellectually challenging should be available to promote independence.

Young children with delays in social interaction - for example, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - may require modifications in the introduction and delivery of games and activities. Small- or large-group activities may be difficult for children with ASD, and practicing motor skills might need to occur in social environments that offer options for solitary and parallel play. For young children with ASD, interaction with others might not be the best instructional approach or least restrictive environment for learning new skills. On the other hand, children with intellectual disabilities often benefit from age-appropriate peer interactions that are consistent and repetitive. As shown in figure 22.2, a predictable environment with familiar equipment and routines will enhance opportunities for learning. Physical educators need to be aware of the characteristics of young children with disabilities and plan activities and environments accordingly.

Familiar environments promote learning among children with disabilities.
Photo courtesy of NIU. Photographer: Molly Coleman.

Facilitating Communication in a Movement Lesson

Interacting with others requires some level of communication. Some young children with disabilities use speech and language to communicate, whereas others who are nonverbal might use alternative methods and strategies. Although speech or language impairment is considered the most prevalent disability category among preschoolers, children with many diagnoses might have communication needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The movement setting, typically a motivating setting for young children, can be an ideal environment to enhance communication skills. Collaboration with classroom teachers and speech therapists assists the early childhood physical educator in determining what communication goals and objectives can be integrated within the physical education setting.

Young children with disabilities or developmental delays who are verbal might use speech and language to communicate with peers and teachers. The movement setting is a natural place to incorporate concepts such as under, over, more, through, and around. To reinforce the meaning of movement concepts and model the use of speech, a physical educator should talk with children as they participate in each movement lesson. For example, as children are pretending to be in the jungle climbing over rocks (bolsters under mats) and jumping over cutout ants and snakes (taped to the floor), a teacher might say, "I like the way everyone is jumping over the creatures in the jungle. Everyone find a creature and say ‘over' as we jump. Ready?" Prompting children to use the words to identify the concept (e.g., over) as they practice the skill (e.g., horizontal jump) reinforces the meaning of commonly taught concepts in early childhood and encourages children to use speech. Similarly, identifying shapes, colors, or equipment can become a natural part of an early childhood movement setting.

Children with speech and language delays or those who are nonverbal as a result of a particular disability or multiple disabilities might use augmentative and alternative systems to communicate (Millar, Light, & Schlosser, 2006). Sign language and picture systems are nonverbal options used by teachers to communicate with young children. Sign language is a popular method of communicating with young children of all abilities; however, children with communication delays and those who are hard of hearing might benefit in particular. Physical educators not proficient in sign language should consult with classroom teachers, interpreters, or speech therapists to learn the signs used by young children in the classroom.

Picture systems can also be used in a movement setting to increase communication between the child and teacher. Young children with autism often have sophisticated picture systems in place to assist with identifying activities, equipment, activity directions, and transitions. Picture systems can increase the probability that children with communication delays have the opportunity to engage in movement activities to the maximum extent possible. Helping a child understand what to do and when to do it often decreases the time needed to manage unwanted behaviors. Pictures posted in the activity area or taped to pieces of equipment are a great communication strategy for all children. A sequence of pictures, or visual schedule, posted to a board or paper is a functional method for communicating an activity, skill sequence, or transition to a child who is verbal or nonverbal. Visual schedules help children manage their environment while often decreasing the amount of adult intervention needed. Figure 22.3 shows an example of a young boy removing a picture of a completed activity from his schedule. The pictures remaining on the schedule give him a clear indication of activities to follow. Depending on the learning style of the child, all pictures can be on the board at the beginning of the class, or pictures can be added as the activity is presented.

Visual schedules help children manage their environments.
© Lauriece Zittel

Voice output devices are another method used to communicate with children who are nonverbal. A voice output system makes use of pictures and symbols along with prerecorded words and phrases (Blischak, 2003). Programming movement concepts, names of equipment or activities, and general statements provides a child with functional communication during physical education. For young children using a voice output system, a movement setting might reinforce practice with a new voice output device.

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Combining the Athlete and the Wheelchair

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

Fitting the Wheelchair to the Athlete

Proper fitting of the wheelchair to the athlete is critical for high levels of athletic performance. Most manufacturers provide retail experts who are experienced in measuring athletes for performance wheelchairs.

In fitting the frame, the two most critical considerations are the dimensions of the seat (width, length, and backrest height) and the position of the seat in relation to the main wheels. Both these considerations serve to ensure that the wheelchair fits the athlete perfectly and that she is in an optimal position to apply force and maneuver the wheelchair. Refer to the application example for a list of considerations to keep in mind while helping athletes find the chair that is best for them.

Application Example

Helping a Wheelchair Athlete Find the Right Sport and Chair

Setting

A community-based junior wheelchair sport program

Student

A 16-year-old junior wheelchair basketball player with a spinal cord injury needs recommendations to refine his individualized transition program to incorporate adult wheelchair sports. The player is tall, has played the center and forward positions, and wishes to purchase his own wheelchair.

Issue

What considerations should be taken into account in making recommendations to this athlete?

Application

Considerations for this athlete center on equipment, physical fitness, and individual skills.

Equipment considerations

• Athlete's height
• Desire to play a certain position
• Need to establish athlete's physical impairment, sport classification level, and trunk stability when seated
• Adjustability for height and point of balance (being able to maximize the seat height to about 21 inches [53 centimeters] for the center and forward positions)
• System considerations such as strapping and mobility in the wheelchair
• Reputable manufacturer

Individual physical fitness

• Strength training program that targets the upper body muscles in paired groups (e.g., biceps and triceps)
• Cardiorespiratory conditioning program that uses an arm crank ergometer or, preferably, a training roller

Individual skills targeted

• Wheelchair mobility skills both with and without the basketball
• Shooting skills both stationary and moving
• Passing skills both stationary and moving
• Studying the sophisticated strategies involved in the adult game

System Considerations for Racing Wheelchairs

A number of system considerations apply to racing wheelchairs. The following section identifies propulsion techniques and how to overcome negative forces as important considerations in developing an athlete's wheelchair racing system.

Propulsion Techniques in Track and Road Racing

Coupled with the evolution of the racing wheelchair has been the development of ever more efficient propulsion techniques. A six-phase technique (see figure 29.7) is most frequently used, although not all athletes use each phase with the same degree of effectiveness. An analysis by O'Connor and colleagues (1998) led the authors to conclude that there is a need for coaches to become more knowledgeable concerning appropriate wheelchair propulsion techniques.

Six-phase propulsion cycle.

Basic Stroke

The propulsion cycle starts with the hands drawn up as far above and behind the push rim as possible given the seating position and flexibility of the athlete. The hands are then accelerated as rapidly and forcefully as possible (acceleration phase) until they strike the push rim (see point A on figure 29.7). The moment of contact is the impact energy transfer phase (point B on figure 29.7), during which the kinetic energy stored in the fast-moving hand is transferred to the slower-moving push rim. With the hand in contact with the push rim, there is a force application, or push, phase (point C on figure 29.7), and this continues until the hands reach almost to the bottom of the push rim. During the force application phase, most of the propulsion comes from the muscles acting around the elbow and shoulder.

As the hands reach the bottom of the push rim, the powerful muscles of the forearm are used to pronate the hand, which allows the thumb to be used to give a last, powerful flick to the push rim. This last flicking action is reversed by a few athletes who use supination in the rotational energy transfer phase (point D on figure 29.7) to flick the push rim with the fingers rather than the thumb; and research indicates that this type of backhand technique may be more efficient in endurance races (Chow et al., 2001).

Immediately following the rotational energy transfer, the hands leave the push rim during the castoff phase (see point E on figure 29.7). Here it is important that the hand be moving faster than the push rim as it pulls away, since a slower hand will act as a brake on the wheelchair. Often the athlete will use the pronation or supination of the rotational energy transfer phase to accelerate the hands and arms and thus allow them to be carried up and back under ballistic motion. This upward and backward motion is called the backswing phase (point F on figure 29.7) and is used to get the hands far enough away from the push rim to allow them to accelerate forward to strike the push rim at high speed at the start of the next stroke. Goosey-Tolfrey and colleagues (2000) reported that no single identifiable stroke frequency could be recommended as best for wheelchair racing, but the athlete's own freely chosen frequency was the most economical in laboratory conditions.

This basic propulsion stroke is modified by the terrain over which the athlete is wheeling, by the tactics of the race, and by the athlete's level of disability. On uphill parts of a course, the athlete shortens the backswing and acceleration phases so as to minimize the time during which force is not applied to the push rim and during which the chair could roll backward. Tactically, the athlete is either wheeling at constant speed or is making an attack and needs to accelerate. The basic stroke described previously is used at steady speed; during bursts of acceleration, the major change in stroke takes place during the backswing. At steady speeds, the backswing is a relatively relaxed ballistic movement in which the velocity at castoff is used to raise the hand to its highest and most rearward position. This relaxed backswing is efficient and allows a brief moment of rest during each stroke. During acceleration, however, the major change in stroke dynamics is to increase the number of strokes from approximately 80 per minute to more than 120 per minute. This is achieved by a rapid reduction in the time taken for a more restricted backswing.

Race Start

The stroke is modified during the start of a race. Because the wheelchair is stationary, the hands should grip the push rim (rather than striking it), and for the first few strokes the arc of pushing will be more restricted with as rapid a recovery as possible. The various approaches that have been adopted are dependent on the athlete's preference. Some athletes attempt to make longer, more forceful pushes to get the wheels going, whereas others make shorter, sharper pushes to get the hands moving fast as early as possible.

Retarding Forces and Overcoming Them

While the athlete provides the energy to drive the wheelchair forward, the twin retarding forces of rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag act to slow it down. When propulsive forces are greater than resistance, the wheelchair accelerates, and when the retarding forces are greater, the chair is slowed. Obviously, reductions in rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag translate directly into higher wheeling speeds and improved athletic performance.

Rolling Resistance

On a hard, smooth surface, the majority of the rolling resistance of the wheel occurs at the point where the tire is in contact with the ground. As the tire rotates, each part is compressed as it passes under the hub and is in contact with the surface; then it rebounds as it begins to rise again and contact with the surface is broken. Not all the energy used to compress the tire is recovered on the rebound, and the energy loss (called hysteresis) is the major determinant of rolling resistance.

Rolling resistance of racing wheelchairs is also affected by the camber angle of the main wheel, which increases with camber (Faupin et al., 2004; Mason, van der Woude, de Groot, & Goosey-Tolfrey, 2011) and wheel alignment, referred to as toe-in or toe-out. Wheels that are not toed correctly dramatically increase the rolling resistance of a wheelchair. Athletes should do everything in their power to check and adjust alignment before every important race.

Aerodynamic Drag

The problem of aerodynamic drag of racing wheelchairs and athletes is unique in sport because of the relatively low speeds at which events take place. Races (10,000 meters) on the track take place at average speeds between 6.84 and 8.40 meters per second (female and males, respectively). Although the race times of wheelchairs have dramatically improved over the last decade, the times are still considerably slower than the speeds found in cycling. This creates special low-speed aerodynamic conditions.

Aerodynamic drag is caused by two separate but interrelated forces called surface drag and form drag. Surface drag is caused by the adhesion of air molecules to the surface of an object passing through it, and it is very powerful at low speeds. Form drag, on the other hand, is caused by the difference in air pressure between the front and the back of an object, which in turn is created by the swirls and eddy currents formed as the wheelchair and athlete pass through the air.

For wheelchair racers, the problem is that smooth surfaces increase surface drag while decreasing form drag. Some aspects of aerodynamic drag reduction are beyond doubt; these are the importance of reducing both surface and form drag by minimizing the drag-producing areas of the wheelchair and the athlete's clothing.

Drafting

Because aerodynamic drag represents approximately 40 percent of the force acting to slow down a wheelchair racer, methods of minimizing this can pay considerable dividends. The single most effective way in which drag can be reduced is the process of drafting. Drafting occurs when one wheelchair follows closely behind another wheelchair that acts as a wind deflector. At the end of long races, the energy saved by drafting can be a critical determinant of race outcome. Frequently teams work together, taking turns at both leading and drafting so that their overall performance will be increased.

System Considerations for Court Wheelchairs

This section does not include information on propulsion techniques in court sports. There is less research on propulsion techniques for court sports, presumably because of the wide variability in the propulsion techniques as compared to those in racing; however, Vanlandewijck and colleagues (2001) conducted a review of propulsion biomechanics that included not only wheelchair racing but also basketball and rugby. For those interested in increasing wheelchair sport performance, it is recommended reading.

As mentioned previously, the two fundamental features of a sport wheelchair are the dimensions of the seat and its positioning in relation to the wheels, although there are differences in the reasoning behind both of these features in relation to racing wheelchairs. In wheelchair racing, the key performance indicator is speed or endurance (or both) in a predominantly linear direction. However, in court sports, maneuverability is also a key area of performance. Therefore, whereas wheelchair racers require a perfectly fitting seat so that no energy is lost during propulsion, court sport athletes desire a seat customized to their anthropometrics to facilitate their agility. If a seat is too wide, the athlete can slide around in the chair, which equates to a loss of energy during turning; the body has to then catch up before being in a position whereby force can be applied to the wheels. When the seat is the correct width, the wheelchair should be able to respond more effectively to the athlete. This enables those athletes with sufficient trunk function to be able to maneuver their chair without necessarily having to touch their wheels. This feature of performance can also be facilitated by strapping around the knees or lap, which further secures the athlete to the chair, making movements such as tilting in wheelchair basketball possible.

The backrest is another dimension of the seat that warrants consideration when one is configuring a sport wheelchair. The backrest is essentially designed to improve the athlete's stability, which can be impaired if the backrest is too low for the functional capacity of the athlete. Alternatively, if the backrest is too high, movements can be restricted when the athlete is trying to move backward to reach a ball in basketball or rugby or hitting the ball in tennis. Strapping around the trunk can be applied to facilitate stability, although similar precautions must be taken to ensure that strapping is used only if the functional capacity of the athlete requires. If too much strapping is applied too tightly, the athlete's ability to move can be unnecessarily sacrificed at the expense of stability.

To further facilitate the fitting of the athlete to the sport wheelchair and subsequently maximize maneuverability performance, molded seats have recently emerged in wheelchair tennis and wheelchair basketball (figure 29.8). Since a molded seat will mimic the exact dimensions of each individual athlete, previous limitations associated with a conventional seat, such as energy loss during propulsion and impaired maneuverability, should be eradicated.

Example of (a) a conventional sport wheelchair seat and (b) a molded seat to facilitate maneuverability performance.
Photos courtesy of Dr. John Lenton.

Once the seat is successfully designed for the specific athlete, the next thing to consider is where the seat fits in relation to the main wheels in both a horizontal (anterior - posterior) and vertical position (see figure 29.9).

(a) Anterior - posterior and (b) vertical main-wheel adjustments.

Anterior - Posterior Seat Position

Horizontal positioning of the main wheels affects the mobility of the chair. The farther forward the main wheel from a hypothesized neutral position (see figure 29.9a, position A), the more maneuverable the chair (see figure 29.9a, position B). Unfortunately, the farther forward the main wheel relative to the center of gravity, the more likely it is that the chair will tilt up. Although the introduction of the anti-tip castor wheel prevents the athlete from falling backward, it does place a large percentage of body mass over the rear castors. Consequently, athletes need to reposition their body weight forward in order to drive the wheels forward, which will be limited by their trunk function. However, this is a position that many low-point wheelchair rugby players are forced to adopt since they do not have the triceps function or stability to sit above the wheel and drive it down. Alternatively they choose to sit farther back so that they can make the most of their biceps function and "pull" the wheel up and forward.

Vertical Seat Position

Vertical positioning of the main wheel affects the height at which the athlete sits and the center of gravity of the system. This fundamentally affects the handling properties of the chair. Again, using a hypothetical neutral position (figure 29.9b, position A), the lower the athlete sits relative to this neutral position (figure 29.9b, position D), the more maneuverable the wheelchair. Therefore, all other things being equal, the athlete should sit as low as possible. However, performance considerations place a premium on height in all sports. Shooting is easier in basketball when athletes sit high because they are closer to the basket. Likewise, receiving a rugby pass is easier if one sits higher and can reach above the opponent. Finally, a tennis serve is made easier when the athlete is elevated above the height of the net, as there is now a greater margin for error. Given the advantages associated with sitting high, athletes can often forsake the optimal position for pushing the wheelchair, putting their mobility performance at risk. As the height of the seat increases, the athlete effectively moves farther away from the wheels. In order to access enough of the wheels to effectively apply force, athletes (depending on trunk function) will have to lean forward. In order to reduce the distance that athletes have to lean, many have countered this by selecting a larger wheel size to make the wheels more accessible in a higher seat position. However, this can introduce alternative and potentially negative effects on performance, with a larger wheel thought to impair acceleration and maneuverability performance. Mason and colleagues (2012a, 2012b) have provided a more in-depth evaluation of the effects of wheel size on aspects of mobility performance in wheelchair basketball players.

In summary, when enhancing wheelchair sport performance on the court, athletes should identify the functional aspects of the game and their roles or positions coupled with their strengths and weaknesses. This will depend in part on the disability level of the athlete. After identifying these roles, athletes should select the wheelchair setup that will improve functionality within the roles. It is stressed that the positioning of the main wheel will fundamentally affect the performance characteristics of the chair. After the athlete has identified the appropriate wheelchair setup, consideration needs to be given to combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a performance system through the use of appropriate strapping techniques.

Skill Development

Sport-specific skills are critical to the elite athlete's program. Common to skills in court sports are acceleration, speed (which depends on power, which depends on strength), and maneuverability with the target object, whether it be a basketball, volleyball (as used in wheelchair rugby), or tennis racket. Goosey-Tolfrey (2010b) reports other sport-specific skills as described by key sport coaches for the aforementioned sports. Skills tests have been developed for wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and tennis (Newbery, Richards, Trill, & Whait, 2010; Yilla & Sherrill, 1998), and field-based fitness testing is described in detail in the review article by Goosey-Tolfrey and Leicht (2013). Task analysis of skill performance is also suggested by Davis (2002, 2011).

Instructional materials that focus on the skills and strategies involved in many wheelchair sports are also available (Goosey-Tolfrey, 2010b). Again, the systems approach should be incorporated, with athletes practicing their skills in their competitive system that includes their sport-specific wheelchair and strapping.

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Test Instruments Used in Adapted Physical Education

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments.

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments. Some of these tests, however, do contain alternative elements such as rubric scoring systems (e.g., TGMD-2) or task-analysis sequences and checklists (e.g., Special Olympics coaching guides).

Available tests in physical education measure a range of traits and abilities. Most, however, fall within five traditional areas of physical and motor development and ability: reflexes and reactions, rudimentary movements, fundamental movements, specialized movements (including sport skills, aquatics, dance, and activities of daily living), and health-related physical fitness. (Note that these categories are somewhat arbitrary and do not encompass all possibilities. In some situations, for instance, teachers might routinely test and assess the posture or the perceptual - motor abilities of their students.) More recently, a sixth area, physical activity, has gained attention. The rest of this section is devoted to a discussion of tests or measures from these six areas. One instrument from each area is highlighted. The highlighted instruments are meant to be representative of a particular content area and are recommended or used by many adapted physical educators. Other tests are available within each area, and teachers always have the option of designing alternative measures to augment or replace published instruments. In adapted physical education, there are always circumstances when published instruments prove to be inappropriate for a particular student, and teachers must modify or design instruments in accordance with the student's abilities. (Additional tests are listed in the resources section of this chapter.) The application example illustrates how tests can be used.

Measuring Reflexes and Reactions

The measurement and assessment of primitive reflexes and postural reactions is an important consideration in those with developmental delays, particularly in early intervention and childhood programs. (See chapter 19 for information on reflexes and reactions.) As educational services are extended to infants and toddlers, as well as to persons with more severe disabilities (especially those that are neurologically based, such as cerebral palsy), physical educators need to understand the influence of reflexes and reactions on motor development milestones and motor skill learning.

Because primitive reflexes normally follow a predictable sequence for appearing, maturing, and eventually disappearing, they are particularly helpful in providing information on the maturation of the central nervous system. If a primitive reflex persists beyond schedule, presents an unequal bilateral response (e.g., is present on one side but absent or not as strong on the other), is too strong or too weak, or is completely absent, then neurological problems might be suspected. When primitive reflexes are not inhibited, they will undoubtedly interfere with voluntary movement because muscle tone involuntarily changes when reflexes are elicited.

The adapted physical educator should collaborate closely with a physical therapist to identify the presence of primitive reflexes and postural reactions and further determine an appropriate motor intervention to minimize the effects of the reflex through (a) central nervous system integration, (b) maximizing functional movements through reflexive action, or (c) both. Most adapted physical education programs seek the expertise of the physical therapist who has specialized training in this area. Many early motor development tests incorporate testing of specific reflexes, but all generally involve manipulation of the body to determine evoked responses and spontaneous behaviors (Zafeiriou, 2004).

Application Example

Determining if a Student Should Be Assigned to an Adapted Program

Setting

A new 10-year-old student with mild intellectual disabilities received special education services, including adapted physical education, at his previous school. As a matter of policy, the district will reevaluate the student before determining proper programs and placements. A physical education teacher is invited to be a member of the IEP team.

Issue

How should the physical educator determine if the student should be assigned to the adapted program?

Application

The physical educator might do the following:

• Administer the BPFT to determine if the student's fitness is sufficiently developed. (The expectation would be that the student would achieve at least specific standards for children with intellectual disabilities.)
• Administer the TGMD-2 to determine if fundamental movements are completely developed. (Maximum or near-maximum scores would be expected for a 10-year-old.)
• Compare standardized test results (i.e., BPFT and TGMD) with the district guidelines or criteria for adapted physical education.
• Place the student in one or more trial placements and collect authentic assessment data. (Determine, for instance, if the rubrics being used by other members of the class are reasonably appropriate, with or without modification, for the new student.)
• Consider all assessment data when formulating a recommendation for the IEP team.

Measuring Rudimentary Movements

Rudimentary movements are the first voluntary movements (see chapter 19). Reaching, grasping, sitting, crawling, and creeping are examples of rudimentary movements. Most instruments that assess rudimentary movements use a developmental approach to testing - that is, a series of motor milestones associated with specific ages is arranged chronologically and tested individually. By determining which behaviors the child can perform, the teacher can estimate the child's developmental age (because each milestone has its own age norm) and suggest future learning activities (i.e., the behaviors in the sequence that the child cannot currently do). The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) is an example of this approach, with some additional enhancements (other instruments are discussed in chapters 21 and 22).

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales

• Purpose: The PDMS-2 (Folio & Fewell, 2000) assesses the motor development of children from birth to 83 months in both fine and gross motor areas. Items are subcategorized into the following six areas: reflexes, stationary (balance), locomotion, object manipulation, grasping, and visual - motor integration.
• Description: A total of 249 test items (mostly developmental milestones) are arranged chronologically within age levels (e.g., 0-1 month, 6-7 months, 18-23 months), and each is identified as belonging to one of the six categories being assessed (e.g., reflexes, locomotion). It is recommended that testers begin administering items one level below the child's expected motor age. Items are scored from 0 to 2 according to specified criteria. Testing continues until the ceiling-age level is reached (a level for which a score of 2 is obtained for no more than 1 of the 10 items in that level). Composite scores for gross motor (reflexes, balance, locomotion, and object manipulation), fine motor (grasping and visual - motor integration), and total motor (combination of gross and fine motor subtests) areas of functioning can be determined.
• Reliability and validity: Empirical research has established adequate levels of reliability and validity. Evidence information is provided for subgroups as well as for the general population.
• Comment: The PDMS-2 appears to have certain advantages over other rudimentary movement tests. First, the large number of test items represents a larger sample of behaviors than exists in many other tests. Second, the six categories help teachers pinpoint exactly which areas of gross motor development are problematic. Finally, the scoring system and availability of normative data provide the teacher with more information on student performance than many other tests do. Supplementary materials, including a software scoring and reporting system and a motor activity program, also are available in conjunction with PDMS-2.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The PDMS-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Fundamental Movements

The critical window of opportunity, the time during which experience has the most influence on developing fundamental motor skills, seems to be the early childhood and early elementary years. Fundamental movement skills can be classified as locomotor (traveling, e.g., jumping), nonlocomotor (stationary, e.g., one-foot balance), or manipulative (object control, e.g., throwing). Some fundamental movement test instruments measure how far the performance has progressed along a motor continuum, but most use a point system to evaluate either the process of the fundamental movement or its product. Process-oriented approaches generally attempt to break down (or task analyze) a movement into its component parts and then evaluate each component individually. This approach assesses the quality of the movement, not its result. Product-oriented approaches are concerned primarily with outcome. Product-oriented assessment is more concerned with the quantity of the movement (e.g., how far, how fast, how many) than with its execution. The TGMD-2 emphasizes a process-oriented approach to the assessment of fundamental movements.

Test of Gross Motor Development-2

• Purpose: The TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000) was designed to measure gross motor content frequently taught in preschool and early elementary grades, including special education; to be used by various professionals with a minimum amount of training; to use both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards; and to place a priority on the gross motor skill process rather than the product of performance.
• Description: The test measures locomotor (six test items) and object-control skill functioning (six test items) and provides an overall indication of gross motor functioning. Locomotor subtest items include the run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. Object-control subtest items consist of the two-hand strike, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand roll, and overhand throw. For each skill, the tester is provided with performance criteria used to assess the child's performance. Children receive 1 point for meeting each performance criterion given for each of two trials allowed. These criterion-based scores can be added and compared to norm-referenced standards in order to make summative evaluations regarding locomotor, object-control, and overall gross motor performance. Percentiles, standard scores, and chronological age equivalents can be determined for assessment purposes.
• Reliability and validity: Reliability coefficients are quite high (generally .84 to .96). Acceptable levels of content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related validity are provided.
• Comment: The sound process of test construction should provide the user with a good deal of confidence that scores obtained by children accurately reflect their fundamental movement abilities. Availability of both criterion-referenced and norm-referenced standards enhances the capability of the test to support eligibility, placement, IEP planning, and instructional decisions. Test scores allow for easy monitoring of student progress and reporting to parents.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The TGMD-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Specialized Activity Movements

A wide variety of possible physical education and sport activities could be tested under this category. Sport skills tests can take many forms, but often they are criterion referenced and teacher constructed (in fact, many teachers prefer to use authentic techniques to assess game and sport skills). Often, when teachers measure learning progress in relatively unique skills taught in physical education (e.g., wheelchair locomotion or functional performance using the treadmill at a local health club), a rubric is developed and used. Teachers who work with students with disabilities who compete in special sport programs, including those offered by multisport organizations (e.g., United States Association of Blind Athletes [USABA]), are encouraged to develop their own tests specific to the event in which the athlete competes. One example of a sport skills test that can be used for athletes with disabilities comes from the Special Olympics coaching guides.

Sport Skills Program Guides

• Purpose: Special Olympics, Inc., provides coaching guides that can complement or supplement existing physical education and recreation programs for people with disabilities (aged 8 and older) in sport skills instruction.
• Description: Guides are provided for 32 sports and recreation activities. Although the guides are not test instruments per se, authentic assessment is a critical aspect of the instructional programs recommended in the guides. Assessments consist of both task analyses and checklists. Testers check off task focal points that the student is able to perform. For instance, in athletics there are 14 test items corresponding to track and field events. Within each checklist, testers check the focal points an athlete can demonstrate (e.g., "Performs a single-leg takeoff for a running long jump.").
• Reliability and validity: No information has been reported, but content validity probably could be claimed because the checklists reflect sport skills task analyses developed by content (specific sport activity) experts in the field.
• Comment: A primary advantage of the coaching guides is convenience - a teacher or coach can adopt the existing task-analysis curriculums for many sport activities and further modify accordingly for specific students and situations if needed. The program has been used with participants with intellectual disabilities for some time and has been shown to have good utility for that group. A disadvantage is that neither reliability nor validity of the various test instruments has been formally established.
• Availability: Special Olympics, Inc., 1133 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036-3604. Website: http://resources.specialolympics.org/Taxonomy/Sports_Essentials/__Catalog_of_Sports_Essentials.aspx.

Measuring Health-Related Physical Fitness

Because health-related physical fitness is an increasing concern in the health and well-being of young people, it is crucial to use fitness tests that provide meaningful data and allow sound instructional decision making. Over the years many standardized tests of physical fitness have become available to teachers. The BPFT is one test that is recommended to measure and assess the health-related physical fitness of young people with disabilities. The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) extends the health-related, criterion-referenced approach to young people with disabilities. Access to the proper techniques for conducting the 27 tests in the BPFT has been included with this text. See Accessing the Web Resource for instructions on gaining access to the web resource.

Brockport Physical Fitness Test

• Purpose: The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) is a health-related, criterion-referenced physical fitness test appropriate for young people (aged 10-17) with and without disabilities.
• Description: The test battery includes 27 test items (refer to table 4.2) from which teachers can choose based on disability. Typically, students are tested on four to six test items from three components of fitness: body composition, aerobic functioning, and musculoskeletal functioning (muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility). Although specific test items are recommended for children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, visual impairments, spinal cord injuries, and congenital anomalies and amputations, teachers are encouraged to personalize testing. Personalization involves identifying health-related concerns pertaining to the student, establishing a desired fitness profile for the student, selecting components and subcomponents of fitness to be assessed, selecting test items to measure those components, and selecting health-related, criterion-referenced standards to evaluate fitness. Thus, teachers have the option to modify any of the elements of the testing program as outlined in the test manual. Both general population and disability-specific standards are available for assessment and evaluation. A general standard is one appropriate for the general population and has not been adjusted in any way for the effects of a disability. A specific standard is one that has been adjusted for the effects of a disability. Specific standards are available only for selected test items for particular groups of people.
• Reliability and validity: The test items in the BPFT have been shown to be valid and reliable through various studies. Evidence for validity and reliability is provided in a lengthy technical report published in a special issue of Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 2005 (Winnick, 2005).
• Comment: The BPFT was patterned after Fitnessgram, and many of the standards, especially for the general population, were adopted from that test. Thus, teachers in inclusive settings should find it relatively easy to use both tests as necessary. In addition to the test manual, a training guide is also available (Winnick & Short, 1999).
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Brockport-Physical-Fitness-Test-Manual-2nd-Edition-With-Web-Resource.

Measuring Physical Activity

Much research has established the positive relation between regular physical activity and health, and many physical education programs are promoting physically active lifestyles as a primary goal of the program. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important for physical educators to objectively measure physical activity levels in ways that are sensitive enough to document change. At present, four types of activity measures are available to teachers: heart rate monitors, activity monitors (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, motion sensors), direct observation, and self-report instruments (Welk & Wood, 2000). Despite their accuracy, heart rate monitors have limited applicability in school situations because of cost and limitations in measuring students in large classes at one time. Pedometers are relatively inexpensive and accurate and have good utility for measuring walking activity, but they do not have broad applicability in measuring general physical activity. Coding student activity through direct observation is not expensive, but it can be time-consuming because only a few children can be monitored at one time by a trained observer. (These three approaches - heart rate monitors, activity monitors, and direct observation - might be more effective in settings with fewer students.)

Self-report instruments are appropriate for measuring physical activity in most school settings. Self-report instruments require students to recall and record their participation in physical activity over a set amount of time (usually from one to seven days). Although many self-report instruments are available (see Welk & Wood, 2000, for examples), all seek to quantify the frequency, intensity, and duration of students' physical activity. If students with disabilities have difficulty with self-reports, teachers or parents might need to provide an estimate of the information instead. A computer software program, Activitygram, provides teachers with an easy method for measuring student physical activity.

Activitygram

• Purpose: Activitygram (Cooper Institute, 2017), a program associated with Fitnessgram, records, analyzes, and saves student physical activity data and produces reports based on those data.
• Description: Activitygram is part of the Fitnessgram test program. The program prompts participants to recall their physical activities over the previous two or three days in 30-minute time blocks. Students select activities from within six categories: lifestyle activity, active aerobics, active sports, muscle fitness activities, flexibility exercises, and rest and inactivity. Students are also asked to rate the intensity of the activity (light, moderate, vigorous). Activity Log, a related component of Activitygram, allows students to track their physical activity (in step counts or minutes of activity) and to set personal goals and challenges. Activitygram and Activity Log printed reports provide an analysis of activity habits and personalized messages that give suggestions to increase or maintain physical activity. Recommendations are based on national guidelines endorsed by the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America).
• Reliability and validity: Because of the subjective nature of self-report measures, measurement error may reduce validity. Nevertheless, the Previous Day Physical Activity Recall instrument, on which the Activitygram program is based, has been shown to provide valid and reliable estimates of physical activity and also accurately identifies periods of moderate to vigorous activity (Weston, Petosa, & Pate, 1997). Measurement error can be minimized when parents, teachers, and others can verify activity measures.
• Comment: Although designed primarily with students without disabilities in mind, Activitygram can be useful for students receiving adapted physical education. Specific activities will vary (e.g., running vs. pushing a wheelchair), but the six categories of physical activity are appropriate for most students with or without disabilities. Younger children and those with intellectual disabilities, however, might have trouble recalling and entering activity data. Peer tutors, teacher aides, or parents could be prepared to make direct observations and could enter the data on behalf of a student who has difficulty using the system.
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Fitnessgram-Administration-Manual-5th-Edition-With-Web_Resource.

Specific Approaches for Physical Education and Sport

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

Humanistic Approach

In physical education, students with behavior disabilities ranging from mild to severe can be taught through the humanistic approach. In this context, humanism is applied to skill acquisition and the management of social behaviors. Generally speaking, some techniques suggested by Sherrill (2004) for improving self-concept are singularly applicable with this population; for example, teachers should strive to do the following (p. 234):

• Conceptualize individual and small-group counseling as an integral part of physical education.
• Teach students to care about each other and show that they care.
• Emphasize cooperation and social interaction rather than individual performance.
• Stress the importance of genuineness and honesty in praise.
• Increase perceived competence in relation to motor skill and fitness.
• Convey that they like and respect students as human beings, not just for their motor skills and fitness.

More specifically, the approach outlined by Hellison (2011) has immediate relevance for practitioners confronted with students who are usually high functioning but who lack self-control and consequently present management problems. Hellison has developed a set of alternative goals or levels for physical education that focus on human needs and values rather than on fitness and sport skill development exclusively. The main purpose of Hellison's approach is to develop positive social responsibility. The goals are developmental and reflect a loosely constructed level-by-level progression of attitudes and behaviors. They include self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-direction, and caring and helping.

• Level 0: Irresponsibility. This level defines students who fail to take responsibility for either their actions or inactions; they blame others for their behavior and typically make excuses.
• Level I: Respecting the rights and feelings of others. This level deals with the need for control of one's own behavior. Self-control should be the first goal, according to Hellison, because learning cannot take place effectively if one cannot control impulses to harm others physically and verbally.
• Level II: Participation and effort. Level II focuses on the need for physical activity and offers students one medium for personal stability through experiences in which they can engage on a daily basis. Participation involves getting uninterested students to at least go through the motions, experiencing various degrees of effort expenditure to determine if effort leads to improvement, and redefining success as a personal accomplishment.
• Level III: Self-direction. Level III emphasizes the need for students to take more responsibility for their choices and to link these choices with their own identities. Students at this level can work independently in class and can take responsibility for their intentions and actions. At this level, students begin to assume responsibility for the direction of their lives and to explore options in developing a strong and integrated personal identity. This level includes developing a knowledge base that will enhance achievement of their goals, developing a plan to accomplish their goals, and evaluating their plan to determine their success.
• Level IV: Caring and helping. Level IV is the most difficult for students; it is also not a requirement for successful participation in the responsibility model. At this level, students reach out beyond themselves to others, committing themselves to genuinely caring about other people. Students are motivated to give support, cooperate, show concern, and help. Generally speaking, the goal of level IV is the improvement of the entire group's welfare.
• Level V: Outside the gym. Level V promotes the opportunity to transfer many of the lessons learned in the gym to other areas of life. It also implies being a role model.

Hellison recognized that these five goals provide only a framework and that strategies must be employed to help students interact with self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participate and show effort, be self-directed, and demonstrate caring and helping behavior on a regular basis. He suggests five interaction strategies to help reach the goals. These include awareness talks (e.g., post levels on gym wall and refer to them frequently), the physical education lesson (e.g., students can be taught to solve conflict during a game), group meetings (e.g., students discuss issues of low motivation or difficulty in being self-directed), reflection time (e.g., students record in a journal or discuss how they did during class in relation to the goals they had established), and counseling time (e.g., students discuss their patterns of abusive behavior and possibly their underlying motives for such behavior). This last strategy gives students the opportunity to talk with the teacher about problems preventing them from achieving their goals within specified levels of the responsibility model. These strategies are "processes for helping students to become aware of, experience, make decisions about, and reflect on the model's goals" (Hellison & Templin, 1991, p. 108). See table 9.2 for a brief examination of the relationship between the levels and strategies in Hellison's model.

Many physical education programs use games to accomplish goals and objectives established for individuals and classes. Because students with behavioral disorders often lack fundamental skills, they frequently are incapable of demonstrating even minimal levels of competence in these games. As a result, they have an increased tendency to act out - perhaps with verbal or physical aggression - or to withdraw, which further excludes them from an opportunity to develop skills.

In an effort to promote the most positive learning environment, Hellison (2011) developed a nontraditional approach to working with at-risk students, using basketball as the primary vehicle for empowering students to learn personal and social values. Employing Hellison's responsibility model (discussed previously) as the philosophical underpinning, the coaching club is a before-school program in Chicago's inner city. It offers students the opportunity to explore movement through a progression of five levels: (I) self-control, meaning control of one's body and temper; (II) teamwork, meaning full participation by all team members; (III) self-coaching; (IV) coaching another team member; and (V) applying skills learned in the program outside the gym to school, home, and neighborhood. Playing ability is not a prerequisite. This program promotes social responsibility. Likewise, extrinsic rewards are unnecessary because students are motivated to reach level IV (coach) on the evaluation system (Hellison & Georgiadis, 1992, p. 7). Level IV consists of the following:

• Has good attendance.
• Is coachable and on task at practice.
• Does not abuse others or interrupt practice.
• Is able to set personal goals and work independently on these goals.
• Possesses good helping skills (such as giving cues, observing, and giving positive feedback as well as general praise).
• Encourages teamwork and passing the ball.
• Listens to players; is sensitive to their feelings and needs.
• Puts the welfare of players above own needs (such as the need to win or look good).
• Understands that exhibiting these characteristics is the key to being a good coach, regardless of personal basketball ability.

Behavioral Approach

Students with severe behavior disorders require intense programming efforts. This group includes students who are self-indulgent, aggressive, noncompliant, and self-stimulatory or self-destructive (Dunn & Leitschuh, 2014). Using the basic steps of behavioral programming discussed in chapter 6, Dunn and his coauthor developed the data-based gymnasium (DBG). This program incorporates behavioral principles in a systematic effort to produce procedural consistency for teachers who work with students with behavioral disorders and to bring student behavior under the control of naturally occurring reinforcers. To the latter end, instructors use natural reinforcers available in the environment, such as praising a desirable behavior to strengthen it or ignoring an undesirable behavior to bring about its extinction. Tangible reinforcers such as token economies are introduced only after it has been demonstrated that the consistent use of social reinforcement or extinction will not achieve the desired behavioral outcome.

In an effort to equip teachers with consistent behavioral procedures, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) use a variety of strategies, including rules of thumb, to apply to inappropriate behavior. For each area of inappropriate behavior (e.g., self-indulgent behavior), there exists a rule of thumb or generally accepted way of responding when certain undesirable behaviors occur. The intent of these rules is to make the development and implementation of a formal behavioral program unnecessary.

• Self-indulgent behavior. Behaviors in this category include crying, screaming, throwing tantrums, and performing repetitive, irritating activities or making noises. The rule of thumb for handling students who engage in self-indulgent behaviors is to ignore them until the behavior is discontinued and then socially reinforce the first occurrence of an appropriate behavior. For example, one would ignore children's tantrums when they cannot control a play situation with classmates but reinforce with social praise their initial attempts to play cooperatively.
• Noncompliant behavior. Noncompliant behaviors include instances when students decline to comply when instructed to do something as well as forgetting or failing to do something because they choose not to do what is asked. Noncompliance also includes doing what is requested but in a less than acceptable way. The rule of thumb is that teachers should ignore noncompliant verbalizations, lead students physically through the task, or prevent students from participating in an activity until they follow through on the initial request. Compliance with any request is immediately reinforced socially. For example, one would physically restrict aggressive play and socially praise a child's positive engagement with a classmate or group.
• Aggressive behavior. Verbal or physical abuse directed toward an object or a person is considered aggressive behavior. Examples of aggressive acts include hitting, fighting, pinching, biting, pushing, or deliberately destroying someone's property. The rule of thumb for aggressive behavior is that it is punished immediately with a verbal reprimand and the offending student is removed from the activity. Social reinforcement is given when students demonstrate appropriate interaction with other people or objects. For example, a student who strikes another student is immediately reprimanded verbally (conflict resolution) and is eliminated from the activity (given a time-out; see chapter 6).
• Self-stimulatory behavior. This category includes behaviors that interfere with learning because students become engrossed in the perseverative nature of the activities. Examples include head banging, hand flapping, body rocking, and eye gouging. As a rule of thumb, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) recommend a formal behavioral program to deal with this type of behavior. An in-depth discussion of formal principles and programs for behavior modification is presented in chapter 6.

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The story of Loretta Claiborne

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7.

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7. Forbidden to participate in school sports because she was in special education, Loretta ran to get away from the bullies. At the age of 18, she became a Special Olympics athlete. Twenty-five years later, in 1996, Loretta received the prestigious Arthur Ashe Courage Award at the ESPN Espy Awards. In 1999, Disney aired a made-for-TV movie about her life, The Loretta Claiborne Story, and she appeared on the Oprah Winfrey Show.

Along the way, Loretta completed 26 marathons, including three Boston Marathons, placing among the top 100 of all women each time. In 1988 she finished in the top 25 women in the Pittsburgh Marathon and was named Special Olympics Female Athlete of the Year. In 1991, Loretta was named to the Special Olympics board of directors and was selected by Runner's World magazine as the Special Olympics Athlete of the Quarter Century. The following year she was inducted into the York, Pennsylvania, Sports Hall of Fame and the William Penn High School Alumni Hall of Fame - the same high school that had barred her from the track team because she had intellectual disabilities.

Loretta introduced then-U.S. president Bill Clinton at the 1995 Special Olympics World Summer Games opening ceremonies in New Haven, Connecticut, and received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Quinnipiac College in Hamden, Connecticut, becoming the first person with intellectual disabilities to receive an honorary doctorate. The Loretta Claiborne Building in York, Pennsylvania, was dedicated in 2001. In 2003, she was awarded a second doctorate of humane letters by Villanova University in Pennsylvania. Currently, her uplifting life story is chronicled in the text, In Her Stride, a feature title in the WorldScapes literacy series for grades 3 through 6.

One of Loretta's most memorable races was a marathon in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Running strong, Loretta noticed another runner beginning to falter. Loretta slowed her pace and stayed with the man throughout the race, encouraging him on; they crossed the finish line together. The other runner? Former world heavyweight boxing champion Larry Holmes! Now a black belt in karate, Loretta still runs about 5 miles (8 kilometers) every day and also competes in Special Olympics bowling, figure skating, basketball, golf, soccer, skiing, softball, and swimming.

Implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

Assessment

One method that has been proven helpful in assessing students with ASD is the system known as ecological task analysis (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). Within the model, the instructor examines the interaction of three factors: the student, the environment, and the task. To derive a good understanding of the student, the assessor should seek information from several sources, including parents, teachers, therapists, and aides. One should fully understand reinforcers and modes of communication before attempting to assess the child. The assessor should also spend time developing a rapport with the child before assessment. When beginning the assessment, it is important to start with activities the child understands and is able to perform and then move on to more difficult tasks. It is important also to understand qualities that inhibit or enhance performance. This approach allows for early success and better compliance throughout the assessment.

The second factor that needs to be considered is the task. To determine if the task is appropriate, consider the following questions: Is it age appropriate? Is it functional? Will the information gained assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP) goals and objectives? Will the information be used for program development and instruction? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the task being assessed is appropriate. To assess the task, the assessor might use a task analysis approach in which requisite skills are identified and either further broken down or assessed as a whole. For example, in assessing soccer skills, the assessor would determine the requisite skills for soccer (e.g., dribbling, passing, trapping, shooting). Each of these skills could be broken down into components assessed separately, or the skill could be assessed as a whole. Once the assessment is complete, the information gleaned can be used to develop goals and objectives based on unique needs, serve as a basis for instruction, and aid in activity selection.

Finally the instructor needs to consider the environment. Keeping in mind that children with ASD might be hypersensitive to environmental stimuli, the instructor should provide an environment with limited distractions and focus on one task at a time. In the soccer example, the instructor can provide different-size balls, different-size goals, and different surfaces for performing the task. After considering the individual student, the task, and the environmental parameters involved, the instructor observes the student's behavior and preferences and documents his choices. These choices serve as a baseline and a springboard upon which to teach.

Activity Selection

When selecting activities for children with ASD, the most important consideration is the needs and interests of the learners and their families. In addition, the functional value of the activity should be taken into account. Activities that have a high probability of success for children with ASD are generally more individual, such as swimming, running, and bowling. However, no one should assume that children with ASD cannot participate in and enjoy team sports. Team sports might need modifications to enhance success, but all children should have the opportunity to explore a range of physical education activities.

The learner's age must also be taken into account. Both developmental appropriateness and age appropriateness should always be considered when selecting activities. Although elementary-aged children spend a great deal of time learning and improving their fundamental motor skills, it would be inappropriate to focus on such skills at the middle school or high school level. When selecting activities, instructors should also consider family and community interests. Does the child come from a family that enjoys hiking or skiing? Or is the family more involved in soccer or softball? Considering these factors helps shape the activity selection so that the child with ASD can more fully integrate within the family and community.

One form of movement, known as sensorimotor activities, can be especially beneficial to students with ASD. These activities are designed to stimulate the senses with a focus on kinesthetic awareness, tactile stimulation, auditory processing, and visual - motor coordination. Kinesthetic awareness deals with the relationship of the body to space. Examples of kinesthetic activities include jumping on a trampoline, crawling through tunnels, jumping over a rope, and rolling down an incline mat. Tactile stimulation can be enhanced by having the child interact with objects, such as balls with various sizes, shapes, and textures. Auditory processing can be enhanced through the use of music and songs that instruct the child in a sequence of movements. Finally, visual - motor coordination can be strengthened through playing an array of games that require tracking, such as kickball, softball, soccer, or lacrosse.

Instructional and Management Techniques

Teaching students with ASD is not unlike teaching other children. Teachers need to establish rapport with students, develop trust, relay information in a clear and concise manner, and provide reinforcement and feedback to help shape appropriate motor and social behavior. Specific strategies that prove helpful in instructing and managing students with ASD include the use of picture and communication boards, the consistent use of structure and routines, and the use of natural cues in the environment to facilitate the acquisition and execution of skills. Other methods include the correction procedure rule and parallel talk. The correction procedure rule is a system used when inappropriate skills or social behaviors occur. Here, the instructor takes the child back to the last task that was done correctly in an effort to redirect the inappropriate behavior. Parallel talk is a system in which the instructor talks through the actions that are occurring - for example, "Juan is dribbling the basketball" - which aids in the understanding and purpose of actions. In addition, teaching to the strengths of learners by considering their preferred learning modality will also prove helpful in teaching students with ASD. Finally, the value of using support staff and peer tutors should not be underestimated in teaching students with ASD. Each of these strategies is more fully explained next.

Picture and Communication Boards

One of the most common and most successful methods used to teach children with ASD is the use of picture and communication boards. Types of pictures include photographs, lifelike drawings, and symbolic drawings. Some children may not yet understand pictures and may need objects to represent them, such as dollhouse furniture or small figures of objects. When pictures are used, it is best to have only one item in the picture because children with ASD have a tendency toward overselectivity, meaning that they are not able to screen out irrelevant information. Teachers should help students focus on the most relevant information. For example, if a child is working on basketball skills, it may be preferable not to use a picture of a basketball court with students playing on it because there is too much information in the picture, making it difficult for the child to screen out irrelevant information. Pictures can also be arranged to create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Boardmaker, as described earlier, is one of many commercial software programs that can help create picture boards using universally accepted symbols to depict events and actions.

Routines and Structure

Establishing routines and structure aids in managing and instructing students with ASD. Children with ASD often demonstrate inappropriate behavioral responses when new or incongruent information is presented in a random or haphazard manner. Routines with set beginning and end points allow for more predictability and help to reduce sensory overload. Routines are also useful in introducing new information or behaviors. Keeping some information familiar and gradually introducing new information helps students respond appropriately. Routines also help to reduce verbal directions and allow children to work independently.

The following scenario illustrates a typical routine that incorporates pictures and can be useful in physical education. Before Justin goes to physical education class, a classroom teacher gives him a picture of the physical education teacher and says, "Justin, it is time for PE." The picture of the physical education teacher allows Justin to understand what is going to happen next. When the class enters the gym, Justin gives the picture card to the physical education teacher. The physical education teacher then uses a communication board with pictures to relay to Justin the lesson from start to finish. For example, a picture of a child stretching could indicate the warm-up, and a picture of a child doing curl-ups could indicate the fitness portion of the lesson. Further, the specific focus could be identified, as with a picture of a soccer ball. Finally, goalposts can be used to indicate the game activity. Figure 10.2 presents a sample schedule for a physical education lesson. The components of the schedule can remain the same, but the actual activities can be manipulated to prepare the child for the daily lesson. When using words instead of pictures, the words can be erased after the task is completed. This system allows students to understand that the activity has ended and the next activity will soon begin.

Physical education sample pictorial schedule. The pictures allow the student to understand what is going to happen in the lesson from start to finish.

As noted previously, children with ASD have difficulty with sensory overload. When they are entering a new environment, such as a gym, the atmosphere may create extreme sensory overload. Structure helps alleviate this stress by creating environments that are easily understood and manageable. In physical education, teachers can structure their space so that the environment is predictable. First, the teacher needs to identify for the child where activities are done (in the gym, on the field, on a mat), where things are located (balls in bin, ropes on hangers, rackets on hooks), and how to move from one place to another (rotating stations, rotating positions, moving from inside to outside). Second, the teacher needs to establish concrete boundaries. For example, if a child is to remain on one-half of the field, cones indicating the halfway point should be in place. Labels can also help organize space. For example, equipment boxes should be clearly labeled so that the child can easily retrieve and put away equipment.

At the conclusion of the lesson, the physical education teacher should have a consistent cue to transition the child back to the classroom. This could be a picture of the classroom teacher or a desk. Forewarning is another effective way to transition a child back to the classroom. For example, the teacher might say, "Justin, in three minutes PE will be over." This helps the child better understand time and prepare for the change in routine. A second warning might be given at 2 minutes and a third at 1 minute. Through proper preparation, anxiety levels are reduced because the child begins to understand that a change in the task will occur after the 1-minute signal from the instructor. Again, the child must understand what will be happening next. When he arrives back in the classroom, physical education can be crossed off his daily schedule and he can begin the next activity on the schedule.

The implementation of routines and structure might at first seem time-consuming for the teacher. However, once these systems are in place, dramatic improvements in behavior and participation usually occur, making the extra time and effort worthwhile.

Natural Environmental Cues and Task Analysis

In teaching new skills to children with ASD, instructors are urged to use natural cues within the environment and to minimize verbal cues. If the goal is for the child to kick a soccer ball into a goal, the natural cues would be a soccer ball and a goal. To achieve the desired objective, the instructor might need to break the task down into smaller steps or task analyze the skills. For example, shooting a soccer ball into a goal might involve the following steps: (1) Line the child up at the shooting line; (2) place the ball on the shooting line; and (3) prompt the child to take a shot. One may break the skill down further by placing a poly spot in front of the child to initiate a stepping action with the opposite kicking foot and prompting the child with either a verbal cue or physical assist to use the kicking foot to make contact with the ball. The degree to which skills should be task analyzed depends on the task and the learner.

Demonstrations also prove helpful in the acquisition of new skills. If the child performs the task correctly, the lesson should continue. For example, the teacher might teach the child how to stop a ball being passed to the shooting line. If the child is unsuccessful in shooting the ball toward the goal, the teacher could use physical assistance to help her gain a better understanding of what the task requires, allowing her to repeat the task until no physical assistance is needed. Once the child has performed the task correctly, the teacher would move on to the rest of the lesson. Figure 10.3 depicts a child working on soccer skills with assistance.

Shooting a soccer ball into a goal can be broken down into steps. Here the child is taking step 3, with the assistant prompting the child to take a shot.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Correction Procedure Rule

Another effective technique in instructing children with ASD is the correction procedure rule, which one applies by taking the child back to the last component of the skill done correctly. Using batting as an example, say a child maintains a proper batting stance and properly swings the bat at the ball but then runs to first base with the bat. In this case, following the correction procedure rule, the instructor would ask the child to repeat the swing and then physically assist her in placing the bat on the ground before running to first. The instructor returns the child to the last correct response before the incorrect response. The application example is another scenario in which the correction procedure rule can be used.

Application Example

Importance of Visual Cues in Learning a New Task

Setting

A physical education class is working on a tee-ball unit.

Student

Kiera, a seven-year-old girl with autism in elementary physical education class

Task

Learning how to hit a ball off the tee and running to first base

Issue

Kiera's physical education teacher, Mr. Greer, has been teaching her how to play tee-ball. They have practiced swinging the bat at the ball (in a hand-over-hand manner), making contact with the ball, putting the bat down, and running to first base. It appeared that Kiera had the hang of the skill, so Mr. Greer allowed her to bat independently. Kiera stood in the ready position; Mr. Greer placed the ball on the tee and took a step back. Just then a gust of wind came, and the ball fell off the tee. Kiera immediately placed the bat on the ground and began running to first base even though she did not make contact with the ball. This showed that Kiera still did not understand the purpose of the game, which was to contact the ball with the bat before running.

Application

Mr. Greer used visual cues to create a positive learning environment by doing the following:

• Mr. Greer demonstrated to Kiera what to do if the ball fell off the tee. Mr. Greer put the ball on the tee loosely so that it would fall off. When the ball fell off, he picked up the ball, replaced it on the tee, and struck it with the bat.
• Mr. Greer then signaled to Kiera to try. Again he placed the ball loosely on the tee and gave the bat to Kiera.
• The ball fell off the tee and Kiera picked up the ball and replaced it on the tee. She then struck the ball and ran to first base.

This example illustrates the need for students with autism to see and understand a task. In no way was Kiera being uncooperative or off task. She simply did not understand the task. When she understood the task, she was able to participate in the game independently.

Kiera practices her swing in tee-ball.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Parallel Talk

To promote language and skill acquisition, instructors are encouraged to embed language throughout the lesson. One way to accomplish this is using parallel talk, in which the teacher verbalizes the actions of the learner. For example, if Marci is rolling a red ball to the teacher, the teacher would say, "Marci is rolling the red ball." Parallel talk can also help children associate certain skills with their verbal meaning, such as spatial concepts (e.g., in, out, under, over) and motor skills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, striking). Another way to foster language acquisition is to create print-rich physical education environments. Pictures, posters, and action words should be displayed prominently around the gym. Labeling the action as it is being performed helps students acquire both receptive and expressive language skills and attach meaning to actions.

Learning Modalities

Learning modalities, or learning styles, refer to the way in which students learn best. The three common categories of learning include auditory, motor, and visual. Auditory learners tend to learn by following commands or prompts and may be easily distracted by background noise. Children who are motor or kinesthetic learners tend to learn by doing. They are active learners and would rather do than watch; they enjoy hands-on projects. Children who are visual learners tend to learn by watching and looking at pictures, and they can be easily distracted by surrounding activities and noise. Research indicates that students with ASD tend to be visual learners (Sicile-Kira, 2014), although all learning modalities should be employed from time to time. As indicated previously, the use of pictures and communication boards is by far the most effective teaching strategy used to communicate with and teach students with ASD.

Support Personnel

Teachers should take advantage of support personnel to assist them in implementing programs. Teaching assistants, paraprofessionals, and peer tutors are all valuable resources that can help in providing individualized instruction to students with ASD in physical education. Teachers can request support personnel through the child's IEP as a necessary component to support the learning of children with ASD.

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Early Childhood Program Standards and Learning Objectives

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges.

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges. Early childhood movement programs should provide children with the opportunity to explore and act on objects in their physical environment (Odom & Wolery, 2003). A well-designed movement curriculum for preschool through third grade should focus on fundamental movement abilities in the preschool years, specialized movement abilities in the early elementary years, and opportunities for all children to be physically active.

The preschool years give instructors the opportunity to guide children through games and activities in order to build a skill foundation and maintain appropriate activity levels. This fundamental movement phase should focus on stability, locomotor, and object-control skills (see chapter 19 for a review of the fundamental movement phase). It follows, then, that the early elementary years (kindergarten through third grade) allow the teacher to integrate the knowledge and skills that children have acquired and begin to refine fundamental skills required for more advanced games and activities. The specialized movement phase gives children the opportunity to use several fundamental skills to complete a single activity that is more specialized (see chapter 19 for a review of the specialized movement phase).

The importance of seeing the connection between the fundamental movement phase and specialized movement phase in the early childhood years is critical for physical education curriculum development. As a guide, national standards for physical education (SHAPE America, 2014) have been written for elementary children in the United States. These five physical education standards are in place for five- to nine-year-old children and are written to reflect what children should be able to do after participation in a quality physical education program. PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008) is a valid and reliable tool developed to assess the first national physical education standard, which reads "The physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 12). A quality physical education program for elementary-aged children should follow national standards and build on the fundamental movement skill programs introduced in preschool.

However, early learning standards vary state by state for preschool-aged children. To assist early childhood educators, the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has organized a standards database on what states have identified as educational priorities for children of prekindergarten age (NIEER, 2014). Using learning standards to guide programming for children with and without disabilities through the early childhood years can be beneficial in all domains of learning, including physical health and development. Early childhood physical educators should be knowledgeable about learning standards and assessing them and how they contribute to program development. Mastering fundamental movements and skills and integrating them into games and activities are processes.

Regarding physical activity for young children, it has been recommended that preschool-aged children accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity per day, and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping (NASPE, 2002). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009) also recommends that playing time (including large motor activities) can benefit young children in physical competence, social skills, self-control, and problem-solving abilities as well as giving them an opportunity to practice emerging skills.

Activity environments designed to provide instruction for young children with developmental delays and those with disabilities should be individualized according to assessment information. Arbitrarily selecting games and activities because they seem fun and the children appear to enjoy them is not necessarily in line with good practice. Specifically, learning environments should parallel the strengths and challenges identified during the assessment process and written in the IEP as instructional objectives. Instruction is based on a good understanding of each child's present level of performance. An activity setting should be carefully planned to build on what children already know and promote the acquisition of new skills.

Developmental theorists support instruction that encourages children to explore and manipulate their environment in order to construct meaning (Lefrancois, 2006). Individualizing instruction for each child in the class is the challenge faced by teachers providing early childhood adapted physical education in an integrated setting. Using a differentiated instructional approach helps teachers address the diverse learning needs of several children in the same class (Sands & Barker, 2004). The child's developmental abilities (physical, social, and cognitive) and the effect that a certain disability might have on this development must be considered.

Developmental Differences Between Preschoolers and Primary-Aged Children

The cognitive and social developmental status of a four-year-old differs from that of a six-year-old. As children develop cognitively and socially, they incorporate their movement strategies in new ways. Teachers providing adapted physical education must understand age-related developmental differences in order to construct appropriate learning environments for children who exhibit delays in one or more areas of learning (Haywood & Getchell, 2014).

Developmentally appropriate movement environments designed for preschool-aged children (three to five years of age) differ from those planned for kindergarten and elementary school children (six to eight years of age). A watered-down kindergarten curriculum presented to children in preschool is not appropriate. Games, activities, and equipment meaningful to a four-year-old might be of little interest to a seven-year-old and vice versa. For example, preschoolers love to experiment with speed, direction change, and space. Figure 22.1 shows a young boy making his way through a tunnel placed within a larger activity area. With a little creativity and imagination, teachers of early childhood physical education can create stimulating and motivating learning environments. A refrigerator box that has holes cut for climbing and hiding might entice a preschooler to explore and move for a long time. Preschoolers are intrigued by new spaces and the opportunity to explore these seemingly simple environments. On the other hand, a seven-year-old might find these activities simplistic and boring. She would be much more interested and challenged by moving under and through a parachute lifted by classmates. A child in first or second grade (six or seven years old) might be challenged by activities that encourage a higher level of problem solving. Children at this age have greater ability to reason and logically integrate thoughts than younger children do. For a three- or four-year-old, a parachute activity that includes anything more than moving the parachute up and down is often frightening and unpredictable.

A young boy makes his way through a tunnel, a familiar play space for preschoolers.
© Lauriece Zittel

The NAEYC (2009) provides guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood and discusses the differences between preschool and primary-aged children in their physical, social, cognitive, and language development. Teachers providing adapted physical education should keep in mind that the cognitive and social development of young children cannot be ignored when developing goals and objectives in the psychomotor domain. The interplay between each of these functional areas of learning and an individual child's development within each area must be considered when planning movement environments and instruction.

Developmental Considerations for Young Children With Disabilities

The effect of a disability on the communication, social, cognitive, or motor development of a child must be recognized before planning instruction. Knowing how a child's disability affects motor learning and performance is essential for the development of an appropriate physical education program. Young children with orthopedic impairments, for example, might begin independently exploring their physical environments by using a walker, wheelchair, or crutches but might also require accommodations in order to benefit from age-appropriate activities. Instructors should be aware of physical barriers that exist in the activity setting and design the environment in a way that encourages interactions with peers and equipment. Assistive devices that allow children with orthopedic impairments to initiate tasks that are both physically and intellectually challenging should be available to promote independence.

Young children with delays in social interaction - for example, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - may require modifications in the introduction and delivery of games and activities. Small- or large-group activities may be difficult for children with ASD, and practicing motor skills might need to occur in social environments that offer options for solitary and parallel play. For young children with ASD, interaction with others might not be the best instructional approach or least restrictive environment for learning new skills. On the other hand, children with intellectual disabilities often benefit from age-appropriate peer interactions that are consistent and repetitive. As shown in figure 22.2, a predictable environment with familiar equipment and routines will enhance opportunities for learning. Physical educators need to be aware of the characteristics of young children with disabilities and plan activities and environments accordingly.

Familiar environments promote learning among children with disabilities.
Photo courtesy of NIU. Photographer: Molly Coleman.

Facilitating Communication in a Movement Lesson

Interacting with others requires some level of communication. Some young children with disabilities use speech and language to communicate, whereas others who are nonverbal might use alternative methods and strategies. Although speech or language impairment is considered the most prevalent disability category among preschoolers, children with many diagnoses might have communication needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The movement setting, typically a motivating setting for young children, can be an ideal environment to enhance communication skills. Collaboration with classroom teachers and speech therapists assists the early childhood physical educator in determining what communication goals and objectives can be integrated within the physical education setting.

Young children with disabilities or developmental delays who are verbal might use speech and language to communicate with peers and teachers. The movement setting is a natural place to incorporate concepts such as under, over, more, through, and around. To reinforce the meaning of movement concepts and model the use of speech, a physical educator should talk with children as they participate in each movement lesson. For example, as children are pretending to be in the jungle climbing over rocks (bolsters under mats) and jumping over cutout ants and snakes (taped to the floor), a teacher might say, "I like the way everyone is jumping over the creatures in the jungle. Everyone find a creature and say ‘over' as we jump. Ready?" Prompting children to use the words to identify the concept (e.g., over) as they practice the skill (e.g., horizontal jump) reinforces the meaning of commonly taught concepts in early childhood and encourages children to use speech. Similarly, identifying shapes, colors, or equipment can become a natural part of an early childhood movement setting.

Children with speech and language delays or those who are nonverbal as a result of a particular disability or multiple disabilities might use augmentative and alternative systems to communicate (Millar, Light, & Schlosser, 2006). Sign language and picture systems are nonverbal options used by teachers to communicate with young children. Sign language is a popular method of communicating with young children of all abilities; however, children with communication delays and those who are hard of hearing might benefit in particular. Physical educators not proficient in sign language should consult with classroom teachers, interpreters, or speech therapists to learn the signs used by young children in the classroom.

Picture systems can also be used in a movement setting to increase communication between the child and teacher. Young children with autism often have sophisticated picture systems in place to assist with identifying activities, equipment, activity directions, and transitions. Picture systems can increase the probability that children with communication delays have the opportunity to engage in movement activities to the maximum extent possible. Helping a child understand what to do and when to do it often decreases the time needed to manage unwanted behaviors. Pictures posted in the activity area or taped to pieces of equipment are a great communication strategy for all children. A sequence of pictures, or visual schedule, posted to a board or paper is a functional method for communicating an activity, skill sequence, or transition to a child who is verbal or nonverbal. Visual schedules help children manage their environment while often decreasing the amount of adult intervention needed. Figure 22.3 shows an example of a young boy removing a picture of a completed activity from his schedule. The pictures remaining on the schedule give him a clear indication of activities to follow. Depending on the learning style of the child, all pictures can be on the board at the beginning of the class, or pictures can be added as the activity is presented.

Visual schedules help children manage their environments.
© Lauriece Zittel

Voice output devices are another method used to communicate with children who are nonverbal. A voice output system makes use of pictures and symbols along with prerecorded words and phrases (Blischak, 2003). Programming movement concepts, names of equipment or activities, and general statements provides a child with functional communication during physical education. For young children using a voice output system, a movement setting might reinforce practice with a new voice output device.

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Combining the Athlete and the Wheelchair

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

Fitting the Wheelchair to the Athlete

Proper fitting of the wheelchair to the athlete is critical for high levels of athletic performance. Most manufacturers provide retail experts who are experienced in measuring athletes for performance wheelchairs.

In fitting the frame, the two most critical considerations are the dimensions of the seat (width, length, and backrest height) and the position of the seat in relation to the main wheels. Both these considerations serve to ensure that the wheelchair fits the athlete perfectly and that she is in an optimal position to apply force and maneuver the wheelchair. Refer to the application example for a list of considerations to keep in mind while helping athletes find the chair that is best for them.

Application Example

Helping a Wheelchair Athlete Find the Right Sport and Chair

Setting

A community-based junior wheelchair sport program

Student

A 16-year-old junior wheelchair basketball player with a spinal cord injury needs recommendations to refine his individualized transition program to incorporate adult wheelchair sports. The player is tall, has played the center and forward positions, and wishes to purchase his own wheelchair.

Issue

What considerations should be taken into account in making recommendations to this athlete?

Application

Considerations for this athlete center on equipment, physical fitness, and individual skills.

Equipment considerations

• Athlete's height
• Desire to play a certain position
• Need to establish athlete's physical impairment, sport classification level, and trunk stability when seated
• Adjustability for height and point of balance (being able to maximize the seat height to about 21 inches [53 centimeters] for the center and forward positions)
• System considerations such as strapping and mobility in the wheelchair
• Reputable manufacturer

Individual physical fitness

• Strength training program that targets the upper body muscles in paired groups (e.g., biceps and triceps)
• Cardiorespiratory conditioning program that uses an arm crank ergometer or, preferably, a training roller

Individual skills targeted

• Wheelchair mobility skills both with and without the basketball
• Shooting skills both stationary and moving
• Passing skills both stationary and moving
• Studying the sophisticated strategies involved in the adult game

System Considerations for Racing Wheelchairs

A number of system considerations apply to racing wheelchairs. The following section identifies propulsion techniques and how to overcome negative forces as important considerations in developing an athlete's wheelchair racing system.

Propulsion Techniques in Track and Road Racing

Coupled with the evolution of the racing wheelchair has been the development of ever more efficient propulsion techniques. A six-phase technique (see figure 29.7) is most frequently used, although not all athletes use each phase with the same degree of effectiveness. An analysis by O'Connor and colleagues (1998) led the authors to conclude that there is a need for coaches to become more knowledgeable concerning appropriate wheelchair propulsion techniques.

Six-phase propulsion cycle.

Basic Stroke

The propulsion cycle starts with the hands drawn up as far above and behind the push rim as possible given the seating position and flexibility of the athlete. The hands are then accelerated as rapidly and forcefully as possible (acceleration phase) until they strike the push rim (see point A on figure 29.7). The moment of contact is the impact energy transfer phase (point B on figure 29.7), during which the kinetic energy stored in the fast-moving hand is transferred to the slower-moving push rim. With the hand in contact with the push rim, there is a force application, or push, phase (point C on figure 29.7), and this continues until the hands reach almost to the bottom of the push rim. During the force application phase, most of the propulsion comes from the muscles acting around the elbow and shoulder.

As the hands reach the bottom of the push rim, the powerful muscles of the forearm are used to pronate the hand, which allows the thumb to be used to give a last, powerful flick to the push rim. This last flicking action is reversed by a few athletes who use supination in the rotational energy transfer phase (point D on figure 29.7) to flick the push rim with the fingers rather than the thumb; and research indicates that this type of backhand technique may be more efficient in endurance races (Chow et al., 2001).

Immediately following the rotational energy transfer, the hands leave the push rim during the castoff phase (see point E on figure 29.7). Here it is important that the hand be moving faster than the push rim as it pulls away, since a slower hand will act as a brake on the wheelchair. Often the athlete will use the pronation or supination of the rotational energy transfer phase to accelerate the hands and arms and thus allow them to be carried up and back under ballistic motion. This upward and backward motion is called the backswing phase (point F on figure 29.7) and is used to get the hands far enough away from the push rim to allow them to accelerate forward to strike the push rim at high speed at the start of the next stroke. Goosey-Tolfrey and colleagues (2000) reported that no single identifiable stroke frequency could be recommended as best for wheelchair racing, but the athlete's own freely chosen frequency was the most economical in laboratory conditions.

This basic propulsion stroke is modified by the terrain over which the athlete is wheeling, by the tactics of the race, and by the athlete's level of disability. On uphill parts of a course, the athlete shortens the backswing and acceleration phases so as to minimize the time during which force is not applied to the push rim and during which the chair could roll backward. Tactically, the athlete is either wheeling at constant speed or is making an attack and needs to accelerate. The basic stroke described previously is used at steady speed; during bursts of acceleration, the major change in stroke takes place during the backswing. At steady speeds, the backswing is a relatively relaxed ballistic movement in which the velocity at castoff is used to raise the hand to its highest and most rearward position. This relaxed backswing is efficient and allows a brief moment of rest during each stroke. During acceleration, however, the major change in stroke dynamics is to increase the number of strokes from approximately 80 per minute to more than 120 per minute. This is achieved by a rapid reduction in the time taken for a more restricted backswing.

Race Start

The stroke is modified during the start of a race. Because the wheelchair is stationary, the hands should grip the push rim (rather than striking it), and for the first few strokes the arc of pushing will be more restricted with as rapid a recovery as possible. The various approaches that have been adopted are dependent on the athlete's preference. Some athletes attempt to make longer, more forceful pushes to get the wheels going, whereas others make shorter, sharper pushes to get the hands moving fast as early as possible.

Retarding Forces and Overcoming Them

While the athlete provides the energy to drive the wheelchair forward, the twin retarding forces of rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag act to slow it down. When propulsive forces are greater than resistance, the wheelchair accelerates, and when the retarding forces are greater, the chair is slowed. Obviously, reductions in rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag translate directly into higher wheeling speeds and improved athletic performance.

Rolling Resistance

On a hard, smooth surface, the majority of the rolling resistance of the wheel occurs at the point where the tire is in contact with the ground. As the tire rotates, each part is compressed as it passes under the hub and is in contact with the surface; then it rebounds as it begins to rise again and contact with the surface is broken. Not all the energy used to compress the tire is recovered on the rebound, and the energy loss (called hysteresis) is the major determinant of rolling resistance.

Rolling resistance of racing wheelchairs is also affected by the camber angle of the main wheel, which increases with camber (Faupin et al., 2004; Mason, van der Woude, de Groot, & Goosey-Tolfrey, 2011) and wheel alignment, referred to as toe-in or toe-out. Wheels that are not toed correctly dramatically increase the rolling resistance of a wheelchair. Athletes should do everything in their power to check and adjust alignment before every important race.

Aerodynamic Drag

The problem of aerodynamic drag of racing wheelchairs and athletes is unique in sport because of the relatively low speeds at which events take place. Races (10,000 meters) on the track take place at average speeds between 6.84 and 8.40 meters per second (female and males, respectively). Although the race times of wheelchairs have dramatically improved over the last decade, the times are still considerably slower than the speeds found in cycling. This creates special low-speed aerodynamic conditions.

Aerodynamic drag is caused by two separate but interrelated forces called surface drag and form drag. Surface drag is caused by the adhesion of air molecules to the surface of an object passing through it, and it is very powerful at low speeds. Form drag, on the other hand, is caused by the difference in air pressure between the front and the back of an object, which in turn is created by the swirls and eddy currents formed as the wheelchair and athlete pass through the air.

For wheelchair racers, the problem is that smooth surfaces increase surface drag while decreasing form drag. Some aspects of aerodynamic drag reduction are beyond doubt; these are the importance of reducing both surface and form drag by minimizing the drag-producing areas of the wheelchair and the athlete's clothing.

Drafting

Because aerodynamic drag represents approximately 40 percent of the force acting to slow down a wheelchair racer, methods of minimizing this can pay considerable dividends. The single most effective way in which drag can be reduced is the process of drafting. Drafting occurs when one wheelchair follows closely behind another wheelchair that acts as a wind deflector. At the end of long races, the energy saved by drafting can be a critical determinant of race outcome. Frequently teams work together, taking turns at both leading and drafting so that their overall performance will be increased.

System Considerations for Court Wheelchairs

This section does not include information on propulsion techniques in court sports. There is less research on propulsion techniques for court sports, presumably because of the wide variability in the propulsion techniques as compared to those in racing; however, Vanlandewijck and colleagues (2001) conducted a review of propulsion biomechanics that included not only wheelchair racing but also basketball and rugby. For those interested in increasing wheelchair sport performance, it is recommended reading.

As mentioned previously, the two fundamental features of a sport wheelchair are the dimensions of the seat and its positioning in relation to the wheels, although there are differences in the reasoning behind both of these features in relation to racing wheelchairs. In wheelchair racing, the key performance indicator is speed or endurance (or both) in a predominantly linear direction. However, in court sports, maneuverability is also a key area of performance. Therefore, whereas wheelchair racers require a perfectly fitting seat so that no energy is lost during propulsion, court sport athletes desire a seat customized to their anthropometrics to facilitate their agility. If a seat is too wide, the athlete can slide around in the chair, which equates to a loss of energy during turning; the body has to then catch up before being in a position whereby force can be applied to the wheels. When the seat is the correct width, the wheelchair should be able to respond more effectively to the athlete. This enables those athletes with sufficient trunk function to be able to maneuver their chair without necessarily having to touch their wheels. This feature of performance can also be facilitated by strapping around the knees or lap, which further secures the athlete to the chair, making movements such as tilting in wheelchair basketball possible.

The backrest is another dimension of the seat that warrants consideration when one is configuring a sport wheelchair. The backrest is essentially designed to improve the athlete's stability, which can be impaired if the backrest is too low for the functional capacity of the athlete. Alternatively, if the backrest is too high, movements can be restricted when the athlete is trying to move backward to reach a ball in basketball or rugby or hitting the ball in tennis. Strapping around the trunk can be applied to facilitate stability, although similar precautions must be taken to ensure that strapping is used only if the functional capacity of the athlete requires. If too much strapping is applied too tightly, the athlete's ability to move can be unnecessarily sacrificed at the expense of stability.

To further facilitate the fitting of the athlete to the sport wheelchair and subsequently maximize maneuverability performance, molded seats have recently emerged in wheelchair tennis and wheelchair basketball (figure 29.8). Since a molded seat will mimic the exact dimensions of each individual athlete, previous limitations associated with a conventional seat, such as energy loss during propulsion and impaired maneuverability, should be eradicated.

Example of (a) a conventional sport wheelchair seat and (b) a molded seat to facilitate maneuverability performance.
Photos courtesy of Dr. John Lenton.

Once the seat is successfully designed for the specific athlete, the next thing to consider is where the seat fits in relation to the main wheels in both a horizontal (anterior - posterior) and vertical position (see figure 29.9).

(a) Anterior - posterior and (b) vertical main-wheel adjustments.

Anterior - Posterior Seat Position

Horizontal positioning of the main wheels affects the mobility of the chair. The farther forward the main wheel from a hypothesized neutral position (see figure 29.9a, position A), the more maneuverable the chair (see figure 29.9a, position B). Unfortunately, the farther forward the main wheel relative to the center of gravity, the more likely it is that the chair will tilt up. Although the introduction of the anti-tip castor wheel prevents the athlete from falling backward, it does place a large percentage of body mass over the rear castors. Consequently, athletes need to reposition their body weight forward in order to drive the wheels forward, which will be limited by their trunk function. However, this is a position that many low-point wheelchair rugby players are forced to adopt since they do not have the triceps function or stability to sit above the wheel and drive it down. Alternatively they choose to sit farther back so that they can make the most of their biceps function and "pull" the wheel up and forward.

Vertical Seat Position

Vertical positioning of the main wheel affects the height at which the athlete sits and the center of gravity of the system. This fundamentally affects the handling properties of the chair. Again, using a hypothetical neutral position (figure 29.9b, position A), the lower the athlete sits relative to this neutral position (figure 29.9b, position D), the more maneuverable the wheelchair. Therefore, all other things being equal, the athlete should sit as low as possible. However, performance considerations place a premium on height in all sports. Shooting is easier in basketball when athletes sit high because they are closer to the basket. Likewise, receiving a rugby pass is easier if one sits higher and can reach above the opponent. Finally, a tennis serve is made easier when the athlete is elevated above the height of the net, as there is now a greater margin for error. Given the advantages associated with sitting high, athletes can often forsake the optimal position for pushing the wheelchair, putting their mobility performance at risk. As the height of the seat increases, the athlete effectively moves farther away from the wheels. In order to access enough of the wheels to effectively apply force, athletes (depending on trunk function) will have to lean forward. In order to reduce the distance that athletes have to lean, many have countered this by selecting a larger wheel size to make the wheels more accessible in a higher seat position. However, this can introduce alternative and potentially negative effects on performance, with a larger wheel thought to impair acceleration and maneuverability performance. Mason and colleagues (2012a, 2012b) have provided a more in-depth evaluation of the effects of wheel size on aspects of mobility performance in wheelchair basketball players.

In summary, when enhancing wheelchair sport performance on the court, athletes should identify the functional aspects of the game and their roles or positions coupled with their strengths and weaknesses. This will depend in part on the disability level of the athlete. After identifying these roles, athletes should select the wheelchair setup that will improve functionality within the roles. It is stressed that the positioning of the main wheel will fundamentally affect the performance characteristics of the chair. After the athlete has identified the appropriate wheelchair setup, consideration needs to be given to combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a performance system through the use of appropriate strapping techniques.

Skill Development

Sport-specific skills are critical to the elite athlete's program. Common to skills in court sports are acceleration, speed (which depends on power, which depends on strength), and maneuverability with the target object, whether it be a basketball, volleyball (as used in wheelchair rugby), or tennis racket. Goosey-Tolfrey (2010b) reports other sport-specific skills as described by key sport coaches for the aforementioned sports. Skills tests have been developed for wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and tennis (Newbery, Richards, Trill, & Whait, 2010; Yilla & Sherrill, 1998), and field-based fitness testing is described in detail in the review article by Goosey-Tolfrey and Leicht (2013). Task analysis of skill performance is also suggested by Davis (2002, 2011).

Instructional materials that focus on the skills and strategies involved in many wheelchair sports are also available (Goosey-Tolfrey, 2010b). Again, the systems approach should be incorporated, with athletes practicing their skills in their competitive system that includes their sport-specific wheelchair and strapping.

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Test Instruments Used in Adapted Physical Education

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments.

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments. Some of these tests, however, do contain alternative elements such as rubric scoring systems (e.g., TGMD-2) or task-analysis sequences and checklists (e.g., Special Olympics coaching guides).

Available tests in physical education measure a range of traits and abilities. Most, however, fall within five traditional areas of physical and motor development and ability: reflexes and reactions, rudimentary movements, fundamental movements, specialized movements (including sport skills, aquatics, dance, and activities of daily living), and health-related physical fitness. (Note that these categories are somewhat arbitrary and do not encompass all possibilities. In some situations, for instance, teachers might routinely test and assess the posture or the perceptual - motor abilities of their students.) More recently, a sixth area, physical activity, has gained attention. The rest of this section is devoted to a discussion of tests or measures from these six areas. One instrument from each area is highlighted. The highlighted instruments are meant to be representative of a particular content area and are recommended or used by many adapted physical educators. Other tests are available within each area, and teachers always have the option of designing alternative measures to augment or replace published instruments. In adapted physical education, there are always circumstances when published instruments prove to be inappropriate for a particular student, and teachers must modify or design instruments in accordance with the student's abilities. (Additional tests are listed in the resources section of this chapter.) The application example illustrates how tests can be used.

Measuring Reflexes and Reactions

The measurement and assessment of primitive reflexes and postural reactions is an important consideration in those with developmental delays, particularly in early intervention and childhood programs. (See chapter 19 for information on reflexes and reactions.) As educational services are extended to infants and toddlers, as well as to persons with more severe disabilities (especially those that are neurologically based, such as cerebral palsy), physical educators need to understand the influence of reflexes and reactions on motor development milestones and motor skill learning.

Because primitive reflexes normally follow a predictable sequence for appearing, maturing, and eventually disappearing, they are particularly helpful in providing information on the maturation of the central nervous system. If a primitive reflex persists beyond schedule, presents an unequal bilateral response (e.g., is present on one side but absent or not as strong on the other), is too strong or too weak, or is completely absent, then neurological problems might be suspected. When primitive reflexes are not inhibited, they will undoubtedly interfere with voluntary movement because muscle tone involuntarily changes when reflexes are elicited.

The adapted physical educator should collaborate closely with a physical therapist to identify the presence of primitive reflexes and postural reactions and further determine an appropriate motor intervention to minimize the effects of the reflex through (a) central nervous system integration, (b) maximizing functional movements through reflexive action, or (c) both. Most adapted physical education programs seek the expertise of the physical therapist who has specialized training in this area. Many early motor development tests incorporate testing of specific reflexes, but all generally involve manipulation of the body to determine evoked responses and spontaneous behaviors (Zafeiriou, 2004).

Application Example

Determining if a Student Should Be Assigned to an Adapted Program

Setting

A new 10-year-old student with mild intellectual disabilities received special education services, including adapted physical education, at his previous school. As a matter of policy, the district will reevaluate the student before determining proper programs and placements. A physical education teacher is invited to be a member of the IEP team.

Issue

How should the physical educator determine if the student should be assigned to the adapted program?

Application

The physical educator might do the following:

• Administer the BPFT to determine if the student's fitness is sufficiently developed. (The expectation would be that the student would achieve at least specific standards for children with intellectual disabilities.)
• Administer the TGMD-2 to determine if fundamental movements are completely developed. (Maximum or near-maximum scores would be expected for a 10-year-old.)
• Compare standardized test results (i.e., BPFT and TGMD) with the district guidelines or criteria for adapted physical education.
• Place the student in one or more trial placements and collect authentic assessment data. (Determine, for instance, if the rubrics being used by other members of the class are reasonably appropriate, with or without modification, for the new student.)
• Consider all assessment data when formulating a recommendation for the IEP team.

Measuring Rudimentary Movements

Rudimentary movements are the first voluntary movements (see chapter 19). Reaching, grasping, sitting, crawling, and creeping are examples of rudimentary movements. Most instruments that assess rudimentary movements use a developmental approach to testing - that is, a series of motor milestones associated with specific ages is arranged chronologically and tested individually. By determining which behaviors the child can perform, the teacher can estimate the child's developmental age (because each milestone has its own age norm) and suggest future learning activities (i.e., the behaviors in the sequence that the child cannot currently do). The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) is an example of this approach, with some additional enhancements (other instruments are discussed in chapters 21 and 22).

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales

• Purpose: The PDMS-2 (Folio & Fewell, 2000) assesses the motor development of children from birth to 83 months in both fine and gross motor areas. Items are subcategorized into the following six areas: reflexes, stationary (balance), locomotion, object manipulation, grasping, and visual - motor integration.
• Description: A total of 249 test items (mostly developmental milestones) are arranged chronologically within age levels (e.g., 0-1 month, 6-7 months, 18-23 months), and each is identified as belonging to one of the six categories being assessed (e.g., reflexes, locomotion). It is recommended that testers begin administering items one level below the child's expected motor age. Items are scored from 0 to 2 according to specified criteria. Testing continues until the ceiling-age level is reached (a level for which a score of 2 is obtained for no more than 1 of the 10 items in that level). Composite scores for gross motor (reflexes, balance, locomotion, and object manipulation), fine motor (grasping and visual - motor integration), and total motor (combination of gross and fine motor subtests) areas of functioning can be determined.
• Reliability and validity: Empirical research has established adequate levels of reliability and validity. Evidence information is provided for subgroups as well as for the general population.
• Comment: The PDMS-2 appears to have certain advantages over other rudimentary movement tests. First, the large number of test items represents a larger sample of behaviors than exists in many other tests. Second, the six categories help teachers pinpoint exactly which areas of gross motor development are problematic. Finally, the scoring system and availability of normative data provide the teacher with more information on student performance than many other tests do. Supplementary materials, including a software scoring and reporting system and a motor activity program, also are available in conjunction with PDMS-2.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The PDMS-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Fundamental Movements

The critical window of opportunity, the time during which experience has the most influence on developing fundamental motor skills, seems to be the early childhood and early elementary years. Fundamental movement skills can be classified as locomotor (traveling, e.g., jumping), nonlocomotor (stationary, e.g., one-foot balance), or manipulative (object control, e.g., throwing). Some fundamental movement test instruments measure how far the performance has progressed along a motor continuum, but most use a point system to evaluate either the process of the fundamental movement or its product. Process-oriented approaches generally attempt to break down (or task analyze) a movement into its component parts and then evaluate each component individually. This approach assesses the quality of the movement, not its result. Product-oriented approaches are concerned primarily with outcome. Product-oriented assessment is more concerned with the quantity of the movement (e.g., how far, how fast, how many) than with its execution. The TGMD-2 emphasizes a process-oriented approach to the assessment of fundamental movements.

Test of Gross Motor Development-2

• Purpose: The TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000) was designed to measure gross motor content frequently taught in preschool and early elementary grades, including special education; to be used by various professionals with a minimum amount of training; to use both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards; and to place a priority on the gross motor skill process rather than the product of performance.
• Description: The test measures locomotor (six test items) and object-control skill functioning (six test items) and provides an overall indication of gross motor functioning. Locomotor subtest items include the run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. Object-control subtest items consist of the two-hand strike, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand roll, and overhand throw. For each skill, the tester is provided with performance criteria used to assess the child's performance. Children receive 1 point for meeting each performance criterion given for each of two trials allowed. These criterion-based scores can be added and compared to norm-referenced standards in order to make summative evaluations regarding locomotor, object-control, and overall gross motor performance. Percentiles, standard scores, and chronological age equivalents can be determined for assessment purposes.
• Reliability and validity: Reliability coefficients are quite high (generally .84 to .96). Acceptable levels of content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related validity are provided.
• Comment: The sound process of test construction should provide the user with a good deal of confidence that scores obtained by children accurately reflect their fundamental movement abilities. Availability of both criterion-referenced and norm-referenced standards enhances the capability of the test to support eligibility, placement, IEP planning, and instructional decisions. Test scores allow for easy monitoring of student progress and reporting to parents.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The TGMD-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Specialized Activity Movements

A wide variety of possible physical education and sport activities could be tested under this category. Sport skills tests can take many forms, but often they are criterion referenced and teacher constructed (in fact, many teachers prefer to use authentic techniques to assess game and sport skills). Often, when teachers measure learning progress in relatively unique skills taught in physical education (e.g., wheelchair locomotion or functional performance using the treadmill at a local health club), a rubric is developed and used. Teachers who work with students with disabilities who compete in special sport programs, including those offered by multisport organizations (e.g., United States Association of Blind Athletes [USABA]), are encouraged to develop their own tests specific to the event in which the athlete competes. One example of a sport skills test that can be used for athletes with disabilities comes from the Special Olympics coaching guides.

Sport Skills Program Guides

• Purpose: Special Olympics, Inc., provides coaching guides that can complement or supplement existing physical education and recreation programs for people with disabilities (aged 8 and older) in sport skills instruction.
• Description: Guides are provided for 32 sports and recreation activities. Although the guides are not test instruments per se, authentic assessment is a critical aspect of the instructional programs recommended in the guides. Assessments consist of both task analyses and checklists. Testers check off task focal points that the student is able to perform. For instance, in athletics there are 14 test items corresponding to track and field events. Within each checklist, testers check the focal points an athlete can demonstrate (e.g., "Performs a single-leg takeoff for a running long jump.").
• Reliability and validity: No information has been reported, but content validity probably could be claimed because the checklists reflect sport skills task analyses developed by content (specific sport activity) experts in the field.
• Comment: A primary advantage of the coaching guides is convenience - a teacher or coach can adopt the existing task-analysis curriculums for many sport activities and further modify accordingly for specific students and situations if needed. The program has been used with participants with intellectual disabilities for some time and has been shown to have good utility for that group. A disadvantage is that neither reliability nor validity of the various test instruments has been formally established.
• Availability: Special Olympics, Inc., 1133 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036-3604. Website: http://resources.specialolympics.org/Taxonomy/Sports_Essentials/__Catalog_of_Sports_Essentials.aspx.

Measuring Health-Related Physical Fitness

Because health-related physical fitness is an increasing concern in the health and well-being of young people, it is crucial to use fitness tests that provide meaningful data and allow sound instructional decision making. Over the years many standardized tests of physical fitness have become available to teachers. The BPFT is one test that is recommended to measure and assess the health-related physical fitness of young people with disabilities. The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) extends the health-related, criterion-referenced approach to young people with disabilities. Access to the proper techniques for conducting the 27 tests in the BPFT has been included with this text. See Accessing the Web Resource for instructions on gaining access to the web resource.

Brockport Physical Fitness Test

• Purpose: The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) is a health-related, criterion-referenced physical fitness test appropriate for young people (aged 10-17) with and without disabilities.
• Description: The test battery includes 27 test items (refer to table 4.2) from which teachers can choose based on disability. Typically, students are tested on four to six test items from three components of fitness: body composition, aerobic functioning, and musculoskeletal functioning (muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility). Although specific test items are recommended for children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, visual impairments, spinal cord injuries, and congenital anomalies and amputations, teachers are encouraged to personalize testing. Personalization involves identifying health-related concerns pertaining to the student, establishing a desired fitness profile for the student, selecting components and subcomponents of fitness to be assessed, selecting test items to measure those components, and selecting health-related, criterion-referenced standards to evaluate fitness. Thus, teachers have the option to modify any of the elements of the testing program as outlined in the test manual. Both general population and disability-specific standards are available for assessment and evaluation. A general standard is one appropriate for the general population and has not been adjusted in any way for the effects of a disability. A specific standard is one that has been adjusted for the effects of a disability. Specific standards are available only for selected test items for particular groups of people.
• Reliability and validity: The test items in the BPFT have been shown to be valid and reliable through various studies. Evidence for validity and reliability is provided in a lengthy technical report published in a special issue of Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 2005 (Winnick, 2005).
• Comment: The BPFT was patterned after Fitnessgram, and many of the standards, especially for the general population, were adopted from that test. Thus, teachers in inclusive settings should find it relatively easy to use both tests as necessary. In addition to the test manual, a training guide is also available (Winnick & Short, 1999).
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Brockport-Physical-Fitness-Test-Manual-2nd-Edition-With-Web-Resource.

Measuring Physical Activity

Much research has established the positive relation between regular physical activity and health, and many physical education programs are promoting physically active lifestyles as a primary goal of the program. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important for physical educators to objectively measure physical activity levels in ways that are sensitive enough to document change. At present, four types of activity measures are available to teachers: heart rate monitors, activity monitors (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, motion sensors), direct observation, and self-report instruments (Welk & Wood, 2000). Despite their accuracy, heart rate monitors have limited applicability in school situations because of cost and limitations in measuring students in large classes at one time. Pedometers are relatively inexpensive and accurate and have good utility for measuring walking activity, but they do not have broad applicability in measuring general physical activity. Coding student activity through direct observation is not expensive, but it can be time-consuming because only a few children can be monitored at one time by a trained observer. (These three approaches - heart rate monitors, activity monitors, and direct observation - might be more effective in settings with fewer students.)

Self-report instruments are appropriate for measuring physical activity in most school settings. Self-report instruments require students to recall and record their participation in physical activity over a set amount of time (usually from one to seven days). Although many self-report instruments are available (see Welk & Wood, 2000, for examples), all seek to quantify the frequency, intensity, and duration of students' physical activity. If students with disabilities have difficulty with self-reports, teachers or parents might need to provide an estimate of the information instead. A computer software program, Activitygram, provides teachers with an easy method for measuring student physical activity.

Activitygram

• Purpose: Activitygram (Cooper Institute, 2017), a program associated with Fitnessgram, records, analyzes, and saves student physical activity data and produces reports based on those data.
• Description: Activitygram is part of the Fitnessgram test program. The program prompts participants to recall their physical activities over the previous two or three days in 30-minute time blocks. Students select activities from within six categories: lifestyle activity, active aerobics, active sports, muscle fitness activities, flexibility exercises, and rest and inactivity. Students are also asked to rate the intensity of the activity (light, moderate, vigorous). Activity Log, a related component of Activitygram, allows students to track their physical activity (in step counts or minutes of activity) and to set personal goals and challenges. Activitygram and Activity Log printed reports provide an analysis of activity habits and personalized messages that give suggestions to increase or maintain physical activity. Recommendations are based on national guidelines endorsed by the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America).
• Reliability and validity: Because of the subjective nature of self-report measures, measurement error may reduce validity. Nevertheless, the Previous Day Physical Activity Recall instrument, on which the Activitygram program is based, has been shown to provide valid and reliable estimates of physical activity and also accurately identifies periods of moderate to vigorous activity (Weston, Petosa, & Pate, 1997). Measurement error can be minimized when parents, teachers, and others can verify activity measures.
• Comment: Although designed primarily with students without disabilities in mind, Activitygram can be useful for students receiving adapted physical education. Specific activities will vary (e.g., running vs. pushing a wheelchair), but the six categories of physical activity are appropriate for most students with or without disabilities. Younger children and those with intellectual disabilities, however, might have trouble recalling and entering activity data. Peer tutors, teacher aides, or parents could be prepared to make direct observations and could enter the data on behalf of a student who has difficulty using the system.
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Fitnessgram-Administration-Manual-5th-Edition-With-Web_Resource.

Specific Approaches for Physical Education and Sport

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

Humanistic Approach

In physical education, students with behavior disabilities ranging from mild to severe can be taught through the humanistic approach. In this context, humanism is applied to skill acquisition and the management of social behaviors. Generally speaking, some techniques suggested by Sherrill (2004) for improving self-concept are singularly applicable with this population; for example, teachers should strive to do the following (p. 234):

• Conceptualize individual and small-group counseling as an integral part of physical education.
• Teach students to care about each other and show that they care.
• Emphasize cooperation and social interaction rather than individual performance.
• Stress the importance of genuineness and honesty in praise.
• Increase perceived competence in relation to motor skill and fitness.
• Convey that they like and respect students as human beings, not just for their motor skills and fitness.

More specifically, the approach outlined by Hellison (2011) has immediate relevance for practitioners confronted with students who are usually high functioning but who lack self-control and consequently present management problems. Hellison has developed a set of alternative goals or levels for physical education that focus on human needs and values rather than on fitness and sport skill development exclusively. The main purpose of Hellison's approach is to develop positive social responsibility. The goals are developmental and reflect a loosely constructed level-by-level progression of attitudes and behaviors. They include self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-direction, and caring and helping.

• Level 0: Irresponsibility. This level defines students who fail to take responsibility for either their actions or inactions; they blame others for their behavior and typically make excuses.
• Level I: Respecting the rights and feelings of others. This level deals with the need for control of one's own behavior. Self-control should be the first goal, according to Hellison, because learning cannot take place effectively if one cannot control impulses to harm others physically and verbally.
• Level II: Participation and effort. Level II focuses on the need for physical activity and offers students one medium for personal stability through experiences in which they can engage on a daily basis. Participation involves getting uninterested students to at least go through the motions, experiencing various degrees of effort expenditure to determine if effort leads to improvement, and redefining success as a personal accomplishment.
• Level III: Self-direction. Level III emphasizes the need for students to take more responsibility for their choices and to link these choices with their own identities. Students at this level can work independently in class and can take responsibility for their intentions and actions. At this level, students begin to assume responsibility for the direction of their lives and to explore options in developing a strong and integrated personal identity. This level includes developing a knowledge base that will enhance achievement of their goals, developing a plan to accomplish their goals, and evaluating their plan to determine their success.
• Level IV: Caring and helping. Level IV is the most difficult for students; it is also not a requirement for successful participation in the responsibility model. At this level, students reach out beyond themselves to others, committing themselves to genuinely caring about other people. Students are motivated to give support, cooperate, show concern, and help. Generally speaking, the goal of level IV is the improvement of the entire group's welfare.
• Level V: Outside the gym. Level V promotes the opportunity to transfer many of the lessons learned in the gym to other areas of life. It also implies being a role model.

Hellison recognized that these five goals provide only a framework and that strategies must be employed to help students interact with self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participate and show effort, be self-directed, and demonstrate caring and helping behavior on a regular basis. He suggests five interaction strategies to help reach the goals. These include awareness talks (e.g., post levels on gym wall and refer to them frequently), the physical education lesson (e.g., students can be taught to solve conflict during a game), group meetings (e.g., students discuss issues of low motivation or difficulty in being self-directed), reflection time (e.g., students record in a journal or discuss how they did during class in relation to the goals they had established), and counseling time (e.g., students discuss their patterns of abusive behavior and possibly their underlying motives for such behavior). This last strategy gives students the opportunity to talk with the teacher about problems preventing them from achieving their goals within specified levels of the responsibility model. These strategies are "processes for helping students to become aware of, experience, make decisions about, and reflect on the model's goals" (Hellison & Templin, 1991, p. 108). See table 9.2 for a brief examination of the relationship between the levels and strategies in Hellison's model.

Many physical education programs use games to accomplish goals and objectives established for individuals and classes. Because students with behavioral disorders often lack fundamental skills, they frequently are incapable of demonstrating even minimal levels of competence in these games. As a result, they have an increased tendency to act out - perhaps with verbal or physical aggression - or to withdraw, which further excludes them from an opportunity to develop skills.

In an effort to promote the most positive learning environment, Hellison (2011) developed a nontraditional approach to working with at-risk students, using basketball as the primary vehicle for empowering students to learn personal and social values. Employing Hellison's responsibility model (discussed previously) as the philosophical underpinning, the coaching club is a before-school program in Chicago's inner city. It offers students the opportunity to explore movement through a progression of five levels: (I) self-control, meaning control of one's body and temper; (II) teamwork, meaning full participation by all team members; (III) self-coaching; (IV) coaching another team member; and (V) applying skills learned in the program outside the gym to school, home, and neighborhood. Playing ability is not a prerequisite. This program promotes social responsibility. Likewise, extrinsic rewards are unnecessary because students are motivated to reach level IV (coach) on the evaluation system (Hellison & Georgiadis, 1992, p. 7). Level IV consists of the following:

• Has good attendance.
• Is coachable and on task at practice.
• Does not abuse others or interrupt practice.
• Is able to set personal goals and work independently on these goals.
• Possesses good helping skills (such as giving cues, observing, and giving positive feedback as well as general praise).
• Encourages teamwork and passing the ball.
• Listens to players; is sensitive to their feelings and needs.
• Puts the welfare of players above own needs (such as the need to win or look good).
• Understands that exhibiting these characteristics is the key to being a good coach, regardless of personal basketball ability.

Behavioral Approach

Students with severe behavior disorders require intense programming efforts. This group includes students who are self-indulgent, aggressive, noncompliant, and self-stimulatory or self-destructive (Dunn & Leitschuh, 2014). Using the basic steps of behavioral programming discussed in chapter 6, Dunn and his coauthor developed the data-based gymnasium (DBG). This program incorporates behavioral principles in a systematic effort to produce procedural consistency for teachers who work with students with behavioral disorders and to bring student behavior under the control of naturally occurring reinforcers. To the latter end, instructors use natural reinforcers available in the environment, such as praising a desirable behavior to strengthen it or ignoring an undesirable behavior to bring about its extinction. Tangible reinforcers such as token economies are introduced only after it has been demonstrated that the consistent use of social reinforcement or extinction will not achieve the desired behavioral outcome.

In an effort to equip teachers with consistent behavioral procedures, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) use a variety of strategies, including rules of thumb, to apply to inappropriate behavior. For each area of inappropriate behavior (e.g., self-indulgent behavior), there exists a rule of thumb or generally accepted way of responding when certain undesirable behaviors occur. The intent of these rules is to make the development and implementation of a formal behavioral program unnecessary.

• Self-indulgent behavior. Behaviors in this category include crying, screaming, throwing tantrums, and performing repetitive, irritating activities or making noises. The rule of thumb for handling students who engage in self-indulgent behaviors is to ignore them until the behavior is discontinued and then socially reinforce the first occurrence of an appropriate behavior. For example, one would ignore children's tantrums when they cannot control a play situation with classmates but reinforce with social praise their initial attempts to play cooperatively.
• Noncompliant behavior. Noncompliant behaviors include instances when students decline to comply when instructed to do something as well as forgetting or failing to do something because they choose not to do what is asked. Noncompliance also includes doing what is requested but in a less than acceptable way. The rule of thumb is that teachers should ignore noncompliant verbalizations, lead students physically through the task, or prevent students from participating in an activity until they follow through on the initial request. Compliance with any request is immediately reinforced socially. For example, one would physically restrict aggressive play and socially praise a child's positive engagement with a classmate or group.
• Aggressive behavior. Verbal or physical abuse directed toward an object or a person is considered aggressive behavior. Examples of aggressive acts include hitting, fighting, pinching, biting, pushing, or deliberately destroying someone's property. The rule of thumb for aggressive behavior is that it is punished immediately with a verbal reprimand and the offending student is removed from the activity. Social reinforcement is given when students demonstrate appropriate interaction with other people or objects. For example, a student who strikes another student is immediately reprimanded verbally (conflict resolution) and is eliminated from the activity (given a time-out; see chapter 6).
• Self-stimulatory behavior. This category includes behaviors that interfere with learning because students become engrossed in the perseverative nature of the activities. Examples include head banging, hand flapping, body rocking, and eye gouging. As a rule of thumb, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) recommend a formal behavioral program to deal with this type of behavior. An in-depth discussion of formal principles and programs for behavior modification is presented in chapter 6.

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The story of Loretta Claiborne

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7.

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7. Forbidden to participate in school sports because she was in special education, Loretta ran to get away from the bullies. At the age of 18, she became a Special Olympics athlete. Twenty-five years later, in 1996, Loretta received the prestigious Arthur Ashe Courage Award at the ESPN Espy Awards. In 1999, Disney aired a made-for-TV movie about her life, The Loretta Claiborne Story, and she appeared on the Oprah Winfrey Show.

Along the way, Loretta completed 26 marathons, including three Boston Marathons, placing among the top 100 of all women each time. In 1988 she finished in the top 25 women in the Pittsburgh Marathon and was named Special Olympics Female Athlete of the Year. In 1991, Loretta was named to the Special Olympics board of directors and was selected by Runner's World magazine as the Special Olympics Athlete of the Quarter Century. The following year she was inducted into the York, Pennsylvania, Sports Hall of Fame and the William Penn High School Alumni Hall of Fame - the same high school that had barred her from the track team because she had intellectual disabilities.

Loretta introduced then-U.S. president Bill Clinton at the 1995 Special Olympics World Summer Games opening ceremonies in New Haven, Connecticut, and received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Quinnipiac College in Hamden, Connecticut, becoming the first person with intellectual disabilities to receive an honorary doctorate. The Loretta Claiborne Building in York, Pennsylvania, was dedicated in 2001. In 2003, she was awarded a second doctorate of humane letters by Villanova University in Pennsylvania. Currently, her uplifting life story is chronicled in the text, In Her Stride, a feature title in the WorldScapes literacy series for grades 3 through 6.

One of Loretta's most memorable races was a marathon in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Running strong, Loretta noticed another runner beginning to falter. Loretta slowed her pace and stayed with the man throughout the race, encouraging him on; they crossed the finish line together. The other runner? Former world heavyweight boxing champion Larry Holmes! Now a black belt in karate, Loretta still runs about 5 miles (8 kilometers) every day and also competes in Special Olympics bowling, figure skating, basketball, golf, soccer, skiing, softball, and swimming.

Implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

Assessment

One method that has been proven helpful in assessing students with ASD is the system known as ecological task analysis (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). Within the model, the instructor examines the interaction of three factors: the student, the environment, and the task. To derive a good understanding of the student, the assessor should seek information from several sources, including parents, teachers, therapists, and aides. One should fully understand reinforcers and modes of communication before attempting to assess the child. The assessor should also spend time developing a rapport with the child before assessment. When beginning the assessment, it is important to start with activities the child understands and is able to perform and then move on to more difficult tasks. It is important also to understand qualities that inhibit or enhance performance. This approach allows for early success and better compliance throughout the assessment.

The second factor that needs to be considered is the task. To determine if the task is appropriate, consider the following questions: Is it age appropriate? Is it functional? Will the information gained assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP) goals and objectives? Will the information be used for program development and instruction? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the task being assessed is appropriate. To assess the task, the assessor might use a task analysis approach in which requisite skills are identified and either further broken down or assessed as a whole. For example, in assessing soccer skills, the assessor would determine the requisite skills for soccer (e.g., dribbling, passing, trapping, shooting). Each of these skills could be broken down into components assessed separately, or the skill could be assessed as a whole. Once the assessment is complete, the information gleaned can be used to develop goals and objectives based on unique needs, serve as a basis for instruction, and aid in activity selection.

Finally the instructor needs to consider the environment. Keeping in mind that children with ASD might be hypersensitive to environmental stimuli, the instructor should provide an environment with limited distractions and focus on one task at a time. In the soccer example, the instructor can provide different-size balls, different-size goals, and different surfaces for performing the task. After considering the individual student, the task, and the environmental parameters involved, the instructor observes the student's behavior and preferences and documents his choices. These choices serve as a baseline and a springboard upon which to teach.

Activity Selection

When selecting activities for children with ASD, the most important consideration is the needs and interests of the learners and their families. In addition, the functional value of the activity should be taken into account. Activities that have a high probability of success for children with ASD are generally more individual, such as swimming, running, and bowling. However, no one should assume that children with ASD cannot participate in and enjoy team sports. Team sports might need modifications to enhance success, but all children should have the opportunity to explore a range of physical education activities.

The learner's age must also be taken into account. Both developmental appropriateness and age appropriateness should always be considered when selecting activities. Although elementary-aged children spend a great deal of time learning and improving their fundamental motor skills, it would be inappropriate to focus on such skills at the middle school or high school level. When selecting activities, instructors should also consider family and community interests. Does the child come from a family that enjoys hiking or skiing? Or is the family more involved in soccer or softball? Considering these factors helps shape the activity selection so that the child with ASD can more fully integrate within the family and community.

One form of movement, known as sensorimotor activities, can be especially beneficial to students with ASD. These activities are designed to stimulate the senses with a focus on kinesthetic awareness, tactile stimulation, auditory processing, and visual - motor coordination. Kinesthetic awareness deals with the relationship of the body to space. Examples of kinesthetic activities include jumping on a trampoline, crawling through tunnels, jumping over a rope, and rolling down an incline mat. Tactile stimulation can be enhanced by having the child interact with objects, such as balls with various sizes, shapes, and textures. Auditory processing can be enhanced through the use of music and songs that instruct the child in a sequence of movements. Finally, visual - motor coordination can be strengthened through playing an array of games that require tracking, such as kickball, softball, soccer, or lacrosse.

Instructional and Management Techniques

Teaching students with ASD is not unlike teaching other children. Teachers need to establish rapport with students, develop trust, relay information in a clear and concise manner, and provide reinforcement and feedback to help shape appropriate motor and social behavior. Specific strategies that prove helpful in instructing and managing students with ASD include the use of picture and communication boards, the consistent use of structure and routines, and the use of natural cues in the environment to facilitate the acquisition and execution of skills. Other methods include the correction procedure rule and parallel talk. The correction procedure rule is a system used when inappropriate skills or social behaviors occur. Here, the instructor takes the child back to the last task that was done correctly in an effort to redirect the inappropriate behavior. Parallel talk is a system in which the instructor talks through the actions that are occurring - for example, "Juan is dribbling the basketball" - which aids in the understanding and purpose of actions. In addition, teaching to the strengths of learners by considering their preferred learning modality will also prove helpful in teaching students with ASD. Finally, the value of using support staff and peer tutors should not be underestimated in teaching students with ASD. Each of these strategies is more fully explained next.

Picture and Communication Boards

One of the most common and most successful methods used to teach children with ASD is the use of picture and communication boards. Types of pictures include photographs, lifelike drawings, and symbolic drawings. Some children may not yet understand pictures and may need objects to represent them, such as dollhouse furniture or small figures of objects. When pictures are used, it is best to have only one item in the picture because children with ASD have a tendency toward overselectivity, meaning that they are not able to screen out irrelevant information. Teachers should help students focus on the most relevant information. For example, if a child is working on basketball skills, it may be preferable not to use a picture of a basketball court with students playing on it because there is too much information in the picture, making it difficult for the child to screen out irrelevant information. Pictures can also be arranged to create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Boardmaker, as described earlier, is one of many commercial software programs that can help create picture boards using universally accepted symbols to depict events and actions.

Routines and Structure

Establishing routines and structure aids in managing and instructing students with ASD. Children with ASD often demonstrate inappropriate behavioral responses when new or incongruent information is presented in a random or haphazard manner. Routines with set beginning and end points allow for more predictability and help to reduce sensory overload. Routines are also useful in introducing new information or behaviors. Keeping some information familiar and gradually introducing new information helps students respond appropriately. Routines also help to reduce verbal directions and allow children to work independently.

The following scenario illustrates a typical routine that incorporates pictures and can be useful in physical education. Before Justin goes to physical education class, a classroom teacher gives him a picture of the physical education teacher and says, "Justin, it is time for PE." The picture of the physical education teacher allows Justin to understand what is going to happen next. When the class enters the gym, Justin gives the picture card to the physical education teacher. The physical education teacher then uses a communication board with pictures to relay to Justin the lesson from start to finish. For example, a picture of a child stretching could indicate the warm-up, and a picture of a child doing curl-ups could indicate the fitness portion of the lesson. Further, the specific focus could be identified, as with a picture of a soccer ball. Finally, goalposts can be used to indicate the game activity. Figure 10.2 presents a sample schedule for a physical education lesson. The components of the schedule can remain the same, but the actual activities can be manipulated to prepare the child for the daily lesson. When using words instead of pictures, the words can be erased after the task is completed. This system allows students to understand that the activity has ended and the next activity will soon begin.

Physical education sample pictorial schedule. The pictures allow the student to understand what is going to happen in the lesson from start to finish.

As noted previously, children with ASD have difficulty with sensory overload. When they are entering a new environment, such as a gym, the atmosphere may create extreme sensory overload. Structure helps alleviate this stress by creating environments that are easily understood and manageable. In physical education, teachers can structure their space so that the environment is predictable. First, the teacher needs to identify for the child where activities are done (in the gym, on the field, on a mat), where things are located (balls in bin, ropes on hangers, rackets on hooks), and how to move from one place to another (rotating stations, rotating positions, moving from inside to outside). Second, the teacher needs to establish concrete boundaries. For example, if a child is to remain on one-half of the field, cones indicating the halfway point should be in place. Labels can also help organize space. For example, equipment boxes should be clearly labeled so that the child can easily retrieve and put away equipment.

At the conclusion of the lesson, the physical education teacher should have a consistent cue to transition the child back to the classroom. This could be a picture of the classroom teacher or a desk. Forewarning is another effective way to transition a child back to the classroom. For example, the teacher might say, "Justin, in three minutes PE will be over." This helps the child better understand time and prepare for the change in routine. A second warning might be given at 2 minutes and a third at 1 minute. Through proper preparation, anxiety levels are reduced because the child begins to understand that a change in the task will occur after the 1-minute signal from the instructor. Again, the child must understand what will be happening next. When he arrives back in the classroom, physical education can be crossed off his daily schedule and he can begin the next activity on the schedule.

The implementation of routines and structure might at first seem time-consuming for the teacher. However, once these systems are in place, dramatic improvements in behavior and participation usually occur, making the extra time and effort worthwhile.

Natural Environmental Cues and Task Analysis

In teaching new skills to children with ASD, instructors are urged to use natural cues within the environment and to minimize verbal cues. If the goal is for the child to kick a soccer ball into a goal, the natural cues would be a soccer ball and a goal. To achieve the desired objective, the instructor might need to break the task down into smaller steps or task analyze the skills. For example, shooting a soccer ball into a goal might involve the following steps: (1) Line the child up at the shooting line; (2) place the ball on the shooting line; and (3) prompt the child to take a shot. One may break the skill down further by placing a poly spot in front of the child to initiate a stepping action with the opposite kicking foot and prompting the child with either a verbal cue or physical assist to use the kicking foot to make contact with the ball. The degree to which skills should be task analyzed depends on the task and the learner.

Demonstrations also prove helpful in the acquisition of new skills. If the child performs the task correctly, the lesson should continue. For example, the teacher might teach the child how to stop a ball being passed to the shooting line. If the child is unsuccessful in shooting the ball toward the goal, the teacher could use physical assistance to help her gain a better understanding of what the task requires, allowing her to repeat the task until no physical assistance is needed. Once the child has performed the task correctly, the teacher would move on to the rest of the lesson. Figure 10.3 depicts a child working on soccer skills with assistance.

Shooting a soccer ball into a goal can be broken down into steps. Here the child is taking step 3, with the assistant prompting the child to take a shot.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Correction Procedure Rule

Another effective technique in instructing children with ASD is the correction procedure rule, which one applies by taking the child back to the last component of the skill done correctly. Using batting as an example, say a child maintains a proper batting stance and properly swings the bat at the ball but then runs to first base with the bat. In this case, following the correction procedure rule, the instructor would ask the child to repeat the swing and then physically assist her in placing the bat on the ground before running to first. The instructor returns the child to the last correct response before the incorrect response. The application example is another scenario in which the correction procedure rule can be used.

Application Example

Importance of Visual Cues in Learning a New Task

Setting

A physical education class is working on a tee-ball unit.

Student

Kiera, a seven-year-old girl with autism in elementary physical education class

Task

Learning how to hit a ball off the tee and running to first base

Issue

Kiera's physical education teacher, Mr. Greer, has been teaching her how to play tee-ball. They have practiced swinging the bat at the ball (in a hand-over-hand manner), making contact with the ball, putting the bat down, and running to first base. It appeared that Kiera had the hang of the skill, so Mr. Greer allowed her to bat independently. Kiera stood in the ready position; Mr. Greer placed the ball on the tee and took a step back. Just then a gust of wind came, and the ball fell off the tee. Kiera immediately placed the bat on the ground and began running to first base even though she did not make contact with the ball. This showed that Kiera still did not understand the purpose of the game, which was to contact the ball with the bat before running.

Application

Mr. Greer used visual cues to create a positive learning environment by doing the following:

• Mr. Greer demonstrated to Kiera what to do if the ball fell off the tee. Mr. Greer put the ball on the tee loosely so that it would fall off. When the ball fell off, he picked up the ball, replaced it on the tee, and struck it with the bat.
• Mr. Greer then signaled to Kiera to try. Again he placed the ball loosely on the tee and gave the bat to Kiera.
• The ball fell off the tee and Kiera picked up the ball and replaced it on the tee. She then struck the ball and ran to first base.

This example illustrates the need for students with autism to see and understand a task. In no way was Kiera being uncooperative or off task. She simply did not understand the task. When she understood the task, she was able to participate in the game independently.

Kiera practices her swing in tee-ball.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Parallel Talk

To promote language and skill acquisition, instructors are encouraged to embed language throughout the lesson. One way to accomplish this is using parallel talk, in which the teacher verbalizes the actions of the learner. For example, if Marci is rolling a red ball to the teacher, the teacher would say, "Marci is rolling the red ball." Parallel talk can also help children associate certain skills with their verbal meaning, such as spatial concepts (e.g., in, out, under, over) and motor skills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, striking). Another way to foster language acquisition is to create print-rich physical education environments. Pictures, posters, and action words should be displayed prominently around the gym. Labeling the action as it is being performed helps students acquire both receptive and expressive language skills and attach meaning to actions.

Learning Modalities

Learning modalities, or learning styles, refer to the way in which students learn best. The three common categories of learning include auditory, motor, and visual. Auditory learners tend to learn by following commands or prompts and may be easily distracted by background noise. Children who are motor or kinesthetic learners tend to learn by doing. They are active learners and would rather do than watch; they enjoy hands-on projects. Children who are visual learners tend to learn by watching and looking at pictures, and they can be easily distracted by surrounding activities and noise. Research indicates that students with ASD tend to be visual learners (Sicile-Kira, 2014), although all learning modalities should be employed from time to time. As indicated previously, the use of pictures and communication boards is by far the most effective teaching strategy used to communicate with and teach students with ASD.

Support Personnel

Teachers should take advantage of support personnel to assist them in implementing programs. Teaching assistants, paraprofessionals, and peer tutors are all valuable resources that can help in providing individualized instruction to students with ASD in physical education. Teachers can request support personnel through the child's IEP as a necessary component to support the learning of children with ASD.

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Early Childhood Program Standards and Learning Objectives

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges.

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges. Early childhood movement programs should provide children with the opportunity to explore and act on objects in their physical environment (Odom & Wolery, 2003). A well-designed movement curriculum for preschool through third grade should focus on fundamental movement abilities in the preschool years, specialized movement abilities in the early elementary years, and opportunities for all children to be physically active.

The preschool years give instructors the opportunity to guide children through games and activities in order to build a skill foundation and maintain appropriate activity levels. This fundamental movement phase should focus on stability, locomotor, and object-control skills (see chapter 19 for a review of the fundamental movement phase). It follows, then, that the early elementary years (kindergarten through third grade) allow the teacher to integrate the knowledge and skills that children have acquired and begin to refine fundamental skills required for more advanced games and activities. The specialized movement phase gives children the opportunity to use several fundamental skills to complete a single activity that is more specialized (see chapter 19 for a review of the specialized movement phase).

The importance of seeing the connection between the fundamental movement phase and specialized movement phase in the early childhood years is critical for physical education curriculum development. As a guide, national standards for physical education (SHAPE America, 2014) have been written for elementary children in the United States. These five physical education standards are in place for five- to nine-year-old children and are written to reflect what children should be able to do after participation in a quality physical education program. PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008) is a valid and reliable tool developed to assess the first national physical education standard, which reads "The physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 12). A quality physical education program for elementary-aged children should follow national standards and build on the fundamental movement skill programs introduced in preschool.

However, early learning standards vary state by state for preschool-aged children. To assist early childhood educators, the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has organized a standards database on what states have identified as educational priorities for children of prekindergarten age (NIEER, 2014). Using learning standards to guide programming for children with and without disabilities through the early childhood years can be beneficial in all domains of learning, including physical health and development. Early childhood physical educators should be knowledgeable about learning standards and assessing them and how they contribute to program development. Mastering fundamental movements and skills and integrating them into games and activities are processes.

Regarding physical activity for young children, it has been recommended that preschool-aged children accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity per day, and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping (NASPE, 2002). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009) also recommends that playing time (including large motor activities) can benefit young children in physical competence, social skills, self-control, and problem-solving abilities as well as giving them an opportunity to practice emerging skills.

Activity environments designed to provide instruction for young children with developmental delays and those with disabilities should be individualized according to assessment information. Arbitrarily selecting games and activities because they seem fun and the children appear to enjoy them is not necessarily in line with good practice. Specifically, learning environments should parallel the strengths and challenges identified during the assessment process and written in the IEP as instructional objectives. Instruction is based on a good understanding of each child's present level of performance. An activity setting should be carefully planned to build on what children already know and promote the acquisition of new skills.

Developmental theorists support instruction that encourages children to explore and manipulate their environment in order to construct meaning (Lefrancois, 2006). Individualizing instruction for each child in the class is the challenge faced by teachers providing early childhood adapted physical education in an integrated setting. Using a differentiated instructional approach helps teachers address the diverse learning needs of several children in the same class (Sands & Barker, 2004). The child's developmental abilities (physical, social, and cognitive) and the effect that a certain disability might have on this development must be considered.

Developmental Differences Between Preschoolers and Primary-Aged Children

The cognitive and social developmental status of a four-year-old differs from that of a six-year-old. As children develop cognitively and socially, they incorporate their movement strategies in new ways. Teachers providing adapted physical education must understand age-related developmental differences in order to construct appropriate learning environments for children who exhibit delays in one or more areas of learning (Haywood & Getchell, 2014).

Developmentally appropriate movement environments designed for preschool-aged children (three to five years of age) differ from those planned for kindergarten and elementary school children (six to eight years of age). A watered-down kindergarten curriculum presented to children in preschool is not appropriate. Games, activities, and equipment meaningful to a four-year-old might be of little interest to a seven-year-old and vice versa. For example, preschoolers love to experiment with speed, direction change, and space. Figure 22.1 shows a young boy making his way through a tunnel placed within a larger activity area. With a little creativity and imagination, teachers of early childhood physical education can create stimulating and motivating learning environments. A refrigerator box that has holes cut for climbing and hiding might entice a preschooler to explore and move for a long time. Preschoolers are intrigued by new spaces and the opportunity to explore these seemingly simple environments. On the other hand, a seven-year-old might find these activities simplistic and boring. She would be much more interested and challenged by moving under and through a parachute lifted by classmates. A child in first or second grade (six or seven years old) might be challenged by activities that encourage a higher level of problem solving. Children at this age have greater ability to reason and logically integrate thoughts than younger children do. For a three- or four-year-old, a parachute activity that includes anything more than moving the parachute up and down is often frightening and unpredictable.

A young boy makes his way through a tunnel, a familiar play space for preschoolers.
© Lauriece Zittel

The NAEYC (2009) provides guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood and discusses the differences between preschool and primary-aged children in their physical, social, cognitive, and language development. Teachers providing adapted physical education should keep in mind that the cognitive and social development of young children cannot be ignored when developing goals and objectives in the psychomotor domain. The interplay between each of these functional areas of learning and an individual child's development within each area must be considered when planning movement environments and instruction.

Developmental Considerations for Young Children With Disabilities

The effect of a disability on the communication, social, cognitive, or motor development of a child must be recognized before planning instruction. Knowing how a child's disability affects motor learning and performance is essential for the development of an appropriate physical education program. Young children with orthopedic impairments, for example, might begin independently exploring their physical environments by using a walker, wheelchair, or crutches but might also require accommodations in order to benefit from age-appropriate activities. Instructors should be aware of physical barriers that exist in the activity setting and design the environment in a way that encourages interactions with peers and equipment. Assistive devices that allow children with orthopedic impairments to initiate tasks that are both physically and intellectually challenging should be available to promote independence.

Young children with delays in social interaction - for example, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - may require modifications in the introduction and delivery of games and activities. Small- or large-group activities may be difficult for children with ASD, and practicing motor skills might need to occur in social environments that offer options for solitary and parallel play. For young children with ASD, interaction with others might not be the best instructional approach or least restrictive environment for learning new skills. On the other hand, children with intellectual disabilities often benefit from age-appropriate peer interactions that are consistent and repetitive. As shown in figure 22.2, a predictable environment with familiar equipment and routines will enhance opportunities for learning. Physical educators need to be aware of the characteristics of young children with disabilities and plan activities and environments accordingly.

Familiar environments promote learning among children with disabilities.
Photo courtesy of NIU. Photographer: Molly Coleman.

Facilitating Communication in a Movement Lesson

Interacting with others requires some level of communication. Some young children with disabilities use speech and language to communicate, whereas others who are nonverbal might use alternative methods and strategies. Although speech or language impairment is considered the most prevalent disability category among preschoolers, children with many diagnoses might have communication needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The movement setting, typically a motivating setting for young children, can be an ideal environment to enhance communication skills. Collaboration with classroom teachers and speech therapists assists the early childhood physical educator in determining what communication goals and objectives can be integrated within the physical education setting.

Young children with disabilities or developmental delays who are verbal might use speech and language to communicate with peers and teachers. The movement setting is a natural place to incorporate concepts such as under, over, more, through, and around. To reinforce the meaning of movement concepts and model the use of speech, a physical educator should talk with children as they participate in each movement lesson. For example, as children are pretending to be in the jungle climbing over rocks (bolsters under mats) and jumping over cutout ants and snakes (taped to the floor), a teacher might say, "I like the way everyone is jumping over the creatures in the jungle. Everyone find a creature and say ‘over' as we jump. Ready?" Prompting children to use the words to identify the concept (e.g., over) as they practice the skill (e.g., horizontal jump) reinforces the meaning of commonly taught concepts in early childhood and encourages children to use speech. Similarly, identifying shapes, colors, or equipment can become a natural part of an early childhood movement setting.

Children with speech and language delays or those who are nonverbal as a result of a particular disability or multiple disabilities might use augmentative and alternative systems to communicate (Millar, Light, & Schlosser, 2006). Sign language and picture systems are nonverbal options used by teachers to communicate with young children. Sign language is a popular method of communicating with young children of all abilities; however, children with communication delays and those who are hard of hearing might benefit in particular. Physical educators not proficient in sign language should consult with classroom teachers, interpreters, or speech therapists to learn the signs used by young children in the classroom.

Picture systems can also be used in a movement setting to increase communication between the child and teacher. Young children with autism often have sophisticated picture systems in place to assist with identifying activities, equipment, activity directions, and transitions. Picture systems can increase the probability that children with communication delays have the opportunity to engage in movement activities to the maximum extent possible. Helping a child understand what to do and when to do it often decreases the time needed to manage unwanted behaviors. Pictures posted in the activity area or taped to pieces of equipment are a great communication strategy for all children. A sequence of pictures, or visual schedule, posted to a board or paper is a functional method for communicating an activity, skill sequence, or transition to a child who is verbal or nonverbal. Visual schedules help children manage their environment while often decreasing the amount of adult intervention needed. Figure 22.3 shows an example of a young boy removing a picture of a completed activity from his schedule. The pictures remaining on the schedule give him a clear indication of activities to follow. Depending on the learning style of the child, all pictures can be on the board at the beginning of the class, or pictures can be added as the activity is presented.

Visual schedules help children manage their environments.
© Lauriece Zittel

Voice output devices are another method used to communicate with children who are nonverbal. A voice output system makes use of pictures and symbols along with prerecorded words and phrases (Blischak, 2003). Programming movement concepts, names of equipment or activities, and general statements provides a child with functional communication during physical education. For young children using a voice output system, a movement setting might reinforce practice with a new voice output device.

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Combining the Athlete and the Wheelchair

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

Fitting the Wheelchair to the Athlete

Proper fitting of the wheelchair to the athlete is critical for high levels of athletic performance. Most manufacturers provide retail experts who are experienced in measuring athletes for performance wheelchairs.

In fitting the frame, the two most critical considerations are the dimensions of the seat (width, length, and backrest height) and the position of the seat in relation to the main wheels. Both these considerations serve to ensure that the wheelchair fits the athlete perfectly and that she is in an optimal position to apply force and maneuver the wheelchair. Refer to the application example for a list of considerations to keep in mind while helping athletes find the chair that is best for them.

Application Example

Helping a Wheelchair Athlete Find the Right Sport and Chair

Setting

A community-based junior wheelchair sport program

Student

A 16-year-old junior wheelchair basketball player with a spinal cord injury needs recommendations to refine his individualized transition program to incorporate adult wheelchair sports. The player is tall, has played the center and forward positions, and wishes to purchase his own wheelchair.

Issue

What considerations should be taken into account in making recommendations to this athlete?

Application

Considerations for this athlete center on equipment, physical fitness, and individual skills.

Equipment considerations

• Athlete's height
• Desire to play a certain position
• Need to establish athlete's physical impairment, sport classification level, and trunk stability when seated
• Adjustability for height and point of balance (being able to maximize the seat height to about 21 inches [53 centimeters] for the center and forward positions)
• System considerations such as strapping and mobility in the wheelchair
• Reputable manufacturer

Individual physical fitness

• Strength training program that targets the upper body muscles in paired groups (e.g., biceps and triceps)
• Cardiorespiratory conditioning program that uses an arm crank ergometer or, preferably, a training roller

Individual skills targeted

• Wheelchair mobility skills both with and without the basketball
• Shooting skills both stationary and moving
• Passing skills both stationary and moving
• Studying the sophisticated strategies involved in the adult game

System Considerations for Racing Wheelchairs

A number of system considerations apply to racing wheelchairs. The following section identifies propulsion techniques and how to overcome negative forces as important considerations in developing an athlete's wheelchair racing system.

Propulsion Techniques in Track and Road Racing

Coupled with the evolution of the racing wheelchair has been the development of ever more efficient propulsion techniques. A six-phase technique (see figure 29.7) is most frequently used, although not all athletes use each phase with the same degree of effectiveness. An analysis by O'Connor and colleagues (1998) led the authors to conclude that there is a need for coaches to become more knowledgeable concerning appropriate wheelchair propulsion techniques.

Six-phase propulsion cycle.

Basic Stroke

The propulsion cycle starts with the hands drawn up as far above and behind the push rim as possible given the seating position and flexibility of the athlete. The hands are then accelerated as rapidly and forcefully as possible (acceleration phase) until they strike the push rim (see point A on figure 29.7). The moment of contact is the impact energy transfer phase (point B on figure 29.7), during which the kinetic energy stored in the fast-moving hand is transferred to the slower-moving push rim. With the hand in contact with the push rim, there is a force application, or push, phase (point C on figure 29.7), and this continues until the hands reach almost to the bottom of the push rim. During the force application phase, most of the propulsion comes from the muscles acting around the elbow and shoulder.

As the hands reach the bottom of the push rim, the powerful muscles of the forearm are used to pronate the hand, which allows the thumb to be used to give a last, powerful flick to the push rim. This last flicking action is reversed by a few athletes who use supination in the rotational energy transfer phase (point D on figure 29.7) to flick the push rim with the fingers rather than the thumb; and research indicates that this type of backhand technique may be more efficient in endurance races (Chow et al., 2001).

Immediately following the rotational energy transfer, the hands leave the push rim during the castoff phase (see point E on figure 29.7). Here it is important that the hand be moving faster than the push rim as it pulls away, since a slower hand will act as a brake on the wheelchair. Often the athlete will use the pronation or supination of the rotational energy transfer phase to accelerate the hands and arms and thus allow them to be carried up and back under ballistic motion. This upward and backward motion is called the backswing phase (point F on figure 29.7) and is used to get the hands far enough away from the push rim to allow them to accelerate forward to strike the push rim at high speed at the start of the next stroke. Goosey-Tolfrey and colleagues (2000) reported that no single identifiable stroke frequency could be recommended as best for wheelchair racing, but the athlete's own freely chosen frequency was the most economical in laboratory conditions.

This basic propulsion stroke is modified by the terrain over which the athlete is wheeling, by the tactics of the race, and by the athlete's level of disability. On uphill parts of a course, the athlete shortens the backswing and acceleration phases so as to minimize the time during which force is not applied to the push rim and during which the chair could roll backward. Tactically, the athlete is either wheeling at constant speed or is making an attack and needs to accelerate. The basic stroke described previously is used at steady speed; during bursts of acceleration, the major change in stroke takes place during the backswing. At steady speeds, the backswing is a relatively relaxed ballistic movement in which the velocity at castoff is used to raise the hand to its highest and most rearward position. This relaxed backswing is efficient and allows a brief moment of rest during each stroke. During acceleration, however, the major change in stroke dynamics is to increase the number of strokes from approximately 80 per minute to more than 120 per minute. This is achieved by a rapid reduction in the time taken for a more restricted backswing.

Race Start

The stroke is modified during the start of a race. Because the wheelchair is stationary, the hands should grip the push rim (rather than striking it), and for the first few strokes the arc of pushing will be more restricted with as rapid a recovery as possible. The various approaches that have been adopted are dependent on the athlete's preference. Some athletes attempt to make longer, more forceful pushes to get the wheels going, whereas others make shorter, sharper pushes to get the hands moving fast as early as possible.

Retarding Forces and Overcoming Them

While the athlete provides the energy to drive the wheelchair forward, the twin retarding forces of rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag act to slow it down. When propulsive forces are greater than resistance, the wheelchair accelerates, and when the retarding forces are greater, the chair is slowed. Obviously, reductions in rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag translate directly into higher wheeling speeds and improved athletic performance.

Rolling Resistance

On a hard, smooth surface, the majority of the rolling resistance of the wheel occurs at the point where the tire is in contact with the ground. As the tire rotates, each part is compressed as it passes under the hub and is in contact with the surface; then it rebounds as it begins to rise again and contact with the surface is broken. Not all the energy used to compress the tire is recovered on the rebound, and the energy loss (called hysteresis) is the major determinant of rolling resistance.

Rolling resistance of racing wheelchairs is also affected by the camber angle of the main wheel, which increases with camber (Faupin et al., 2004; Mason, van der Woude, de Groot, & Goosey-Tolfrey, 2011) and wheel alignment, referred to as toe-in or toe-out. Wheels that are not toed correctly dramatically increase the rolling resistance of a wheelchair. Athletes should do everything in their power to check and adjust alignment before every important race.

Aerodynamic Drag

The problem of aerodynamic drag of racing wheelchairs and athletes is unique in sport because of the relatively low speeds at which events take place. Races (10,000 meters) on the track take place at average speeds between 6.84 and 8.40 meters per second (female and males, respectively). Although the race times of wheelchairs have dramatically improved over the last decade, the times are still considerably slower than the speeds found in cycling. This creates special low-speed aerodynamic conditions.

Aerodynamic drag is caused by two separate but interrelated forces called surface drag and form drag. Surface drag is caused by the adhesion of air molecules to the surface of an object passing through it, and it is very powerful at low speeds. Form drag, on the other hand, is caused by the difference in air pressure between the front and the back of an object, which in turn is created by the swirls and eddy currents formed as the wheelchair and athlete pass through the air.

For wheelchair racers, the problem is that smooth surfaces increase surface drag while decreasing form drag. Some aspects of aerodynamic drag reduction are beyond doubt; these are the importance of reducing both surface and form drag by minimizing the drag-producing areas of the wheelchair and the athlete's clothing.

Drafting

Because aerodynamic drag represents approximately 40 percent of the force acting to slow down a wheelchair racer, methods of minimizing this can pay considerable dividends. The single most effective way in which drag can be reduced is the process of drafting. Drafting occurs when one wheelchair follows closely behind another wheelchair that acts as a wind deflector. At the end of long races, the energy saved by drafting can be a critical determinant of race outcome. Frequently teams work together, taking turns at both leading and drafting so that their overall performance will be increased.

System Considerations for Court Wheelchairs

This section does not include information on propulsion techniques in court sports. There is less research on propulsion techniques for court sports, presumably because of the wide variability in the propulsion techniques as compared to those in racing; however, Vanlandewijck and colleagues (2001) conducted a review of propulsion biomechanics that included not only wheelchair racing but also basketball and rugby. For those interested in increasing wheelchair sport performance, it is recommended reading.

As mentioned previously, the two fundamental features of a sport wheelchair are the dimensions of the seat and its positioning in relation to the wheels, although there are differences in the reasoning behind both of these features in relation to racing wheelchairs. In wheelchair racing, the key performance indicator is speed or endurance (or both) in a predominantly linear direction. However, in court sports, maneuverability is also a key area of performance. Therefore, whereas wheelchair racers require a perfectly fitting seat so that no energy is lost during propulsion, court sport athletes desire a seat customized to their anthropometrics to facilitate their agility. If a seat is too wide, the athlete can slide around in the chair, which equates to a loss of energy during turning; the body has to then catch up before being in a position whereby force can be applied to the wheels. When the seat is the correct width, the wheelchair should be able to respond more effectively to the athlete. This enables those athletes with sufficient trunk function to be able to maneuver their chair without necessarily having to touch their wheels. This feature of performance can also be facilitated by strapping around the knees or lap, which further secures the athlete to the chair, making movements such as tilting in wheelchair basketball possible.

The backrest is another dimension of the seat that warrants consideration when one is configuring a sport wheelchair. The backrest is essentially designed to improve the athlete's stability, which can be impaired if the backrest is too low for the functional capacity of the athlete. Alternatively, if the backrest is too high, movements can be restricted when the athlete is trying to move backward to reach a ball in basketball or rugby or hitting the ball in tennis. Strapping around the trunk can be applied to facilitate stability, although similar precautions must be taken to ensure that strapping is used only if the functional capacity of the athlete requires. If too much strapping is applied too tightly, the athlete's ability to move can be unnecessarily sacrificed at the expense of stability.

To further facilitate the fitting of the athlete to the sport wheelchair and subsequently maximize maneuverability performance, molded seats have recently emerged in wheelchair tennis and wheelchair basketball (figure 29.8). Since a molded seat will mimic the exact dimensions of each individual athlete, previous limitations associated with a conventional seat, such as energy loss during propulsion and impaired maneuverability, should be eradicated.

Example of (a) a conventional sport wheelchair seat and (b) a molded seat to facilitate maneuverability performance.
Photos courtesy of Dr. John Lenton.

Once the seat is successfully designed for the specific athlete, the next thing to consider is where the seat fits in relation to the main wheels in both a horizontal (anterior - posterior) and vertical position (see figure 29.9).

(a) Anterior - posterior and (b) vertical main-wheel adjustments.

Anterior - Posterior Seat Position

Horizontal positioning of the main wheels affects the mobility of the chair. The farther forward the main wheel from a hypothesized neutral position (see figure 29.9a, position A), the more maneuverable the chair (see figure 29.9a, position B). Unfortunately, the farther forward the main wheel relative to the center of gravity, the more likely it is that the chair will tilt up. Although the introduction of the anti-tip castor wheel prevents the athlete from falling backward, it does place a large percentage of body mass over the rear castors. Consequently, athletes need to reposition their body weight forward in order to drive the wheels forward, which will be limited by their trunk function. However, this is a position that many low-point wheelchair rugby players are forced to adopt since they do not have the triceps function or stability to sit above the wheel and drive it down. Alternatively they choose to sit farther back so that they can make the most of their biceps function and "pull" the wheel up and forward.

Vertical Seat Position

Vertical positioning of the main wheel affects the height at which the athlete sits and the center of gravity of the system. This fundamentally affects the handling properties of the chair. Again, using a hypothetical neutral position (figure 29.9b, position A), the lower the athlete sits relative to this neutral position (figure 29.9b, position D), the more maneuverable the wheelchair. Therefore, all other things being equal, the athlete should sit as low as possible. However, performance considerations place a premium on height in all sports. Shooting is easier in basketball when athletes sit high because they are closer to the basket. Likewise, receiving a rugby pass is easier if one sits higher and can reach above the opponent. Finally, a tennis serve is made easier when the athlete is elevated above the height of the net, as there is now a greater margin for error. Given the advantages associated with sitting high, athletes can often forsake the optimal position for pushing the wheelchair, putting their mobility performance at risk. As the height of the seat increases, the athlete effectively moves farther away from the wheels. In order to access enough of the wheels to effectively apply force, athletes (depending on trunk function) will have to lean forward. In order to reduce the distance that athletes have to lean, many have countered this by selecting a larger wheel size to make the wheels more accessible in a higher seat position. However, this can introduce alternative and potentially negative effects on performance, with a larger wheel thought to impair acceleration and maneuverability performance. Mason and colleagues (2012a, 2012b) have provided a more in-depth evaluation of the effects of wheel size on aspects of mobility performance in wheelchair basketball players.

In summary, when enhancing wheelchair sport performance on the court, athletes should identify the functional aspects of the game and their roles or positions coupled with their strengths and weaknesses. This will depend in part on the disability level of the athlete. After identifying these roles, athletes should select the wheelchair setup that will improve functionality within the roles. It is stressed that the positioning of the main wheel will fundamentally affect the performance characteristics of the chair. After the athlete has identified the appropriate wheelchair setup, consideration needs to be given to combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a performance system through the use of appropriate strapping techniques.

Skill Development

Sport-specific skills are critical to the elite athlete's program. Common to skills in court sports are acceleration, speed (which depends on power, which depends on strength), and maneuverability with the target object, whether it be a basketball, volleyball (as used in wheelchair rugby), or tennis racket. Goosey-Tolfrey (2010b) reports other sport-specific skills as described by key sport coaches for the aforementioned sports. Skills tests have been developed for wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and tennis (Newbery, Richards, Trill, & Whait, 2010; Yilla & Sherrill, 1998), and field-based fitness testing is described in detail in the review article by Goosey-Tolfrey and Leicht (2013). Task analysis of skill performance is also suggested by Davis (2002, 2011).

Instructional materials that focus on the skills and strategies involved in many wheelchair sports are also available (Goosey-Tolfrey, 2010b). Again, the systems approach should be incorporated, with athletes practicing their skills in their competitive system that includes their sport-specific wheelchair and strapping.

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Test Instruments Used in Adapted Physical Education

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments.

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments. Some of these tests, however, do contain alternative elements such as rubric scoring systems (e.g., TGMD-2) or task-analysis sequences and checklists (e.g., Special Olympics coaching guides).

Available tests in physical education measure a range of traits and abilities. Most, however, fall within five traditional areas of physical and motor development and ability: reflexes and reactions, rudimentary movements, fundamental movements, specialized movements (including sport skills, aquatics, dance, and activities of daily living), and health-related physical fitness. (Note that these categories are somewhat arbitrary and do not encompass all possibilities. In some situations, for instance, teachers might routinely test and assess the posture or the perceptual - motor abilities of their students.) More recently, a sixth area, physical activity, has gained attention. The rest of this section is devoted to a discussion of tests or measures from these six areas. One instrument from each area is highlighted. The highlighted instruments are meant to be representative of a particular content area and are recommended or used by many adapted physical educators. Other tests are available within each area, and teachers always have the option of designing alternative measures to augment or replace published instruments. In adapted physical education, there are always circumstances when published instruments prove to be inappropriate for a particular student, and teachers must modify or design instruments in accordance with the student's abilities. (Additional tests are listed in the resources section of this chapter.) The application example illustrates how tests can be used.

Measuring Reflexes and Reactions

The measurement and assessment of primitive reflexes and postural reactions is an important consideration in those with developmental delays, particularly in early intervention and childhood programs. (See chapter 19 for information on reflexes and reactions.) As educational services are extended to infants and toddlers, as well as to persons with more severe disabilities (especially those that are neurologically based, such as cerebral palsy), physical educators need to understand the influence of reflexes and reactions on motor development milestones and motor skill learning.

Because primitive reflexes normally follow a predictable sequence for appearing, maturing, and eventually disappearing, they are particularly helpful in providing information on the maturation of the central nervous system. If a primitive reflex persists beyond schedule, presents an unequal bilateral response (e.g., is present on one side but absent or not as strong on the other), is too strong or too weak, or is completely absent, then neurological problems might be suspected. When primitive reflexes are not inhibited, they will undoubtedly interfere with voluntary movement because muscle tone involuntarily changes when reflexes are elicited.

The adapted physical educator should collaborate closely with a physical therapist to identify the presence of primitive reflexes and postural reactions and further determine an appropriate motor intervention to minimize the effects of the reflex through (a) central nervous system integration, (b) maximizing functional movements through reflexive action, or (c) both. Most adapted physical education programs seek the expertise of the physical therapist who has specialized training in this area. Many early motor development tests incorporate testing of specific reflexes, but all generally involve manipulation of the body to determine evoked responses and spontaneous behaviors (Zafeiriou, 2004).

Application Example

Determining if a Student Should Be Assigned to an Adapted Program

Setting

A new 10-year-old student with mild intellectual disabilities received special education services, including adapted physical education, at his previous school. As a matter of policy, the district will reevaluate the student before determining proper programs and placements. A physical education teacher is invited to be a member of the IEP team.

Issue

How should the physical educator determine if the student should be assigned to the adapted program?

Application

The physical educator might do the following:

• Administer the BPFT to determine if the student's fitness is sufficiently developed. (The expectation would be that the student would achieve at least specific standards for children with intellectual disabilities.)
• Administer the TGMD-2 to determine if fundamental movements are completely developed. (Maximum or near-maximum scores would be expected for a 10-year-old.)
• Compare standardized test results (i.e., BPFT and TGMD) with the district guidelines or criteria for adapted physical education.
• Place the student in one or more trial placements and collect authentic assessment data. (Determine, for instance, if the rubrics being used by other members of the class are reasonably appropriate, with or without modification, for the new student.)
• Consider all assessment data when formulating a recommendation for the IEP team.

Measuring Rudimentary Movements

Rudimentary movements are the first voluntary movements (see chapter 19). Reaching, grasping, sitting, crawling, and creeping are examples of rudimentary movements. Most instruments that assess rudimentary movements use a developmental approach to testing - that is, a series of motor milestones associated with specific ages is arranged chronologically and tested individually. By determining which behaviors the child can perform, the teacher can estimate the child's developmental age (because each milestone has its own age norm) and suggest future learning activities (i.e., the behaviors in the sequence that the child cannot currently do). The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) is an example of this approach, with some additional enhancements (other instruments are discussed in chapters 21 and 22).

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales

• Purpose: The PDMS-2 (Folio & Fewell, 2000) assesses the motor development of children from birth to 83 months in both fine and gross motor areas. Items are subcategorized into the following six areas: reflexes, stationary (balance), locomotion, object manipulation, grasping, and visual - motor integration.
• Description: A total of 249 test items (mostly developmental milestones) are arranged chronologically within age levels (e.g., 0-1 month, 6-7 months, 18-23 months), and each is identified as belonging to one of the six categories being assessed (e.g., reflexes, locomotion). It is recommended that testers begin administering items one level below the child's expected motor age. Items are scored from 0 to 2 according to specified criteria. Testing continues until the ceiling-age level is reached (a level for which a score of 2 is obtained for no more than 1 of the 10 items in that level). Composite scores for gross motor (reflexes, balance, locomotion, and object manipulation), fine motor (grasping and visual - motor integration), and total motor (combination of gross and fine motor subtests) areas of functioning can be determined.
• Reliability and validity: Empirical research has established adequate levels of reliability and validity. Evidence information is provided for subgroups as well as for the general population.
• Comment: The PDMS-2 appears to have certain advantages over other rudimentary movement tests. First, the large number of test items represents a larger sample of behaviors than exists in many other tests. Second, the six categories help teachers pinpoint exactly which areas of gross motor development are problematic. Finally, the scoring system and availability of normative data provide the teacher with more information on student performance than many other tests do. Supplementary materials, including a software scoring and reporting system and a motor activity program, also are available in conjunction with PDMS-2.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The PDMS-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Fundamental Movements

The critical window of opportunity, the time during which experience has the most influence on developing fundamental motor skills, seems to be the early childhood and early elementary years. Fundamental movement skills can be classified as locomotor (traveling, e.g., jumping), nonlocomotor (stationary, e.g., one-foot balance), or manipulative (object control, e.g., throwing). Some fundamental movement test instruments measure how far the performance has progressed along a motor continuum, but most use a point system to evaluate either the process of the fundamental movement or its product. Process-oriented approaches generally attempt to break down (or task analyze) a movement into its component parts and then evaluate each component individually. This approach assesses the quality of the movement, not its result. Product-oriented approaches are concerned primarily with outcome. Product-oriented assessment is more concerned with the quantity of the movement (e.g., how far, how fast, how many) than with its execution. The TGMD-2 emphasizes a process-oriented approach to the assessment of fundamental movements.

Test of Gross Motor Development-2

• Purpose: The TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000) was designed to measure gross motor content frequently taught in preschool and early elementary grades, including special education; to be used by various professionals with a minimum amount of training; to use both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards; and to place a priority on the gross motor skill process rather than the product of performance.
• Description: The test measures locomotor (six test items) and object-control skill functioning (six test items) and provides an overall indication of gross motor functioning. Locomotor subtest items include the run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. Object-control subtest items consist of the two-hand strike, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand roll, and overhand throw. For each skill, the tester is provided with performance criteria used to assess the child's performance. Children receive 1 point for meeting each performance criterion given for each of two trials allowed. These criterion-based scores can be added and compared to norm-referenced standards in order to make summative evaluations regarding locomotor, object-control, and overall gross motor performance. Percentiles, standard scores, and chronological age equivalents can be determined for assessment purposes.
• Reliability and validity: Reliability coefficients are quite high (generally .84 to .96). Acceptable levels of content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related validity are provided.
• Comment: The sound process of test construction should provide the user with a good deal of confidence that scores obtained by children accurately reflect their fundamental movement abilities. Availability of both criterion-referenced and norm-referenced standards enhances the capability of the test to support eligibility, placement, IEP planning, and instructional decisions. Test scores allow for easy monitoring of student progress and reporting to parents.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The TGMD-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Specialized Activity Movements

A wide variety of possible physical education and sport activities could be tested under this category. Sport skills tests can take many forms, but often they are criterion referenced and teacher constructed (in fact, many teachers prefer to use authentic techniques to assess game and sport skills). Often, when teachers measure learning progress in relatively unique skills taught in physical education (e.g., wheelchair locomotion or functional performance using the treadmill at a local health club), a rubric is developed and used. Teachers who work with students with disabilities who compete in special sport programs, including those offered by multisport organizations (e.g., United States Association of Blind Athletes [USABA]), are encouraged to develop their own tests specific to the event in which the athlete competes. One example of a sport skills test that can be used for athletes with disabilities comes from the Special Olympics coaching guides.

Sport Skills Program Guides

• Purpose: Special Olympics, Inc., provides coaching guides that can complement or supplement existing physical education and recreation programs for people with disabilities (aged 8 and older) in sport skills instruction.
• Description: Guides are provided for 32 sports and recreation activities. Although the guides are not test instruments per se, authentic assessment is a critical aspect of the instructional programs recommended in the guides. Assessments consist of both task analyses and checklists. Testers check off task focal points that the student is able to perform. For instance, in athletics there are 14 test items corresponding to track and field events. Within each checklist, testers check the focal points an athlete can demonstrate (e.g., "Performs a single-leg takeoff for a running long jump.").
• Reliability and validity: No information has been reported, but content validity probably could be claimed because the checklists reflect sport skills task analyses developed by content (specific sport activity) experts in the field.
• Comment: A primary advantage of the coaching guides is convenience - a teacher or coach can adopt the existing task-analysis curriculums for many sport activities and further modify accordingly for specific students and situations if needed. The program has been used with participants with intellectual disabilities for some time and has been shown to have good utility for that group. A disadvantage is that neither reliability nor validity of the various test instruments has been formally established.
• Availability: Special Olympics, Inc., 1133 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036-3604. Website: http://resources.specialolympics.org/Taxonomy/Sports_Essentials/__Catalog_of_Sports_Essentials.aspx.

Measuring Health-Related Physical Fitness

Because health-related physical fitness is an increasing concern in the health and well-being of young people, it is crucial to use fitness tests that provide meaningful data and allow sound instructional decision making. Over the years many standardized tests of physical fitness have become available to teachers. The BPFT is one test that is recommended to measure and assess the health-related physical fitness of young people with disabilities. The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) extends the health-related, criterion-referenced approach to young people with disabilities. Access to the proper techniques for conducting the 27 tests in the BPFT has been included with this text. See Accessing the Web Resource for instructions on gaining access to the web resource.

Brockport Physical Fitness Test

• Purpose: The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) is a health-related, criterion-referenced physical fitness test appropriate for young people (aged 10-17) with and without disabilities.
• Description: The test battery includes 27 test items (refer to table 4.2) from which teachers can choose based on disability. Typically, students are tested on four to six test items from three components of fitness: body composition, aerobic functioning, and musculoskeletal functioning (muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility). Although specific test items are recommended for children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, visual impairments, spinal cord injuries, and congenital anomalies and amputations, teachers are encouraged to personalize testing. Personalization involves identifying health-related concerns pertaining to the student, establishing a desired fitness profile for the student, selecting components and subcomponents of fitness to be assessed, selecting test items to measure those components, and selecting health-related, criterion-referenced standards to evaluate fitness. Thus, teachers have the option to modify any of the elements of the testing program as outlined in the test manual. Both general population and disability-specific standards are available for assessment and evaluation. A general standard is one appropriate for the general population and has not been adjusted in any way for the effects of a disability. A specific standard is one that has been adjusted for the effects of a disability. Specific standards are available only for selected test items for particular groups of people.
• Reliability and validity: The test items in the BPFT have been shown to be valid and reliable through various studies. Evidence for validity and reliability is provided in a lengthy technical report published in a special issue of Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 2005 (Winnick, 2005).
• Comment: The BPFT was patterned after Fitnessgram, and many of the standards, especially for the general population, were adopted from that test. Thus, teachers in inclusive settings should find it relatively easy to use both tests as necessary. In addition to the test manual, a training guide is also available (Winnick & Short, 1999).
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Brockport-Physical-Fitness-Test-Manual-2nd-Edition-With-Web-Resource.

Measuring Physical Activity

Much research has established the positive relation between regular physical activity and health, and many physical education programs are promoting physically active lifestyles as a primary goal of the program. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important for physical educators to objectively measure physical activity levels in ways that are sensitive enough to document change. At present, four types of activity measures are available to teachers: heart rate monitors, activity monitors (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, motion sensors), direct observation, and self-report instruments (Welk & Wood, 2000). Despite their accuracy, heart rate monitors have limited applicability in school situations because of cost and limitations in measuring students in large classes at one time. Pedometers are relatively inexpensive and accurate and have good utility for measuring walking activity, but they do not have broad applicability in measuring general physical activity. Coding student activity through direct observation is not expensive, but it can be time-consuming because only a few children can be monitored at one time by a trained observer. (These three approaches - heart rate monitors, activity monitors, and direct observation - might be more effective in settings with fewer students.)

Self-report instruments are appropriate for measuring physical activity in most school settings. Self-report instruments require students to recall and record their participation in physical activity over a set amount of time (usually from one to seven days). Although many self-report instruments are available (see Welk & Wood, 2000, for examples), all seek to quantify the frequency, intensity, and duration of students' physical activity. If students with disabilities have difficulty with self-reports, teachers or parents might need to provide an estimate of the information instead. A computer software program, Activitygram, provides teachers with an easy method for measuring student physical activity.

Activitygram

• Purpose: Activitygram (Cooper Institute, 2017), a program associated with Fitnessgram, records, analyzes, and saves student physical activity data and produces reports based on those data.
• Description: Activitygram is part of the Fitnessgram test program. The program prompts participants to recall their physical activities over the previous two or three days in 30-minute time blocks. Students select activities from within six categories: lifestyle activity, active aerobics, active sports, muscle fitness activities, flexibility exercises, and rest and inactivity. Students are also asked to rate the intensity of the activity (light, moderate, vigorous). Activity Log, a related component of Activitygram, allows students to track their physical activity (in step counts or minutes of activity) and to set personal goals and challenges. Activitygram and Activity Log printed reports provide an analysis of activity habits and personalized messages that give suggestions to increase or maintain physical activity. Recommendations are based on national guidelines endorsed by the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America).
• Reliability and validity: Because of the subjective nature of self-report measures, measurement error may reduce validity. Nevertheless, the Previous Day Physical Activity Recall instrument, on which the Activitygram program is based, has been shown to provide valid and reliable estimates of physical activity and also accurately identifies periods of moderate to vigorous activity (Weston, Petosa, & Pate, 1997). Measurement error can be minimized when parents, teachers, and others can verify activity measures.
• Comment: Although designed primarily with students without disabilities in mind, Activitygram can be useful for students receiving adapted physical education. Specific activities will vary (e.g., running vs. pushing a wheelchair), but the six categories of physical activity are appropriate for most students with or without disabilities. Younger children and those with intellectual disabilities, however, might have trouble recalling and entering activity data. Peer tutors, teacher aides, or parents could be prepared to make direct observations and could enter the data on behalf of a student who has difficulty using the system.
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Fitnessgram-Administration-Manual-5th-Edition-With-Web_Resource.

Specific Approaches for Physical Education and Sport

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

Humanistic Approach

In physical education, students with behavior disabilities ranging from mild to severe can be taught through the humanistic approach. In this context, humanism is applied to skill acquisition and the management of social behaviors. Generally speaking, some techniques suggested by Sherrill (2004) for improving self-concept are singularly applicable with this population; for example, teachers should strive to do the following (p. 234):

• Conceptualize individual and small-group counseling as an integral part of physical education.
• Teach students to care about each other and show that they care.
• Emphasize cooperation and social interaction rather than individual performance.
• Stress the importance of genuineness and honesty in praise.
• Increase perceived competence in relation to motor skill and fitness.
• Convey that they like and respect students as human beings, not just for their motor skills and fitness.

More specifically, the approach outlined by Hellison (2011) has immediate relevance for practitioners confronted with students who are usually high functioning but who lack self-control and consequently present management problems. Hellison has developed a set of alternative goals or levels for physical education that focus on human needs and values rather than on fitness and sport skill development exclusively. The main purpose of Hellison's approach is to develop positive social responsibility. The goals are developmental and reflect a loosely constructed level-by-level progression of attitudes and behaviors. They include self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-direction, and caring and helping.

• Level 0: Irresponsibility. This level defines students who fail to take responsibility for either their actions or inactions; they blame others for their behavior and typically make excuses.
• Level I: Respecting the rights and feelings of others. This level deals with the need for control of one's own behavior. Self-control should be the first goal, according to Hellison, because learning cannot take place effectively if one cannot control impulses to harm others physically and verbally.
• Level II: Participation and effort. Level II focuses on the need for physical activity and offers students one medium for personal stability through experiences in which they can engage on a daily basis. Participation involves getting uninterested students to at least go through the motions, experiencing various degrees of effort expenditure to determine if effort leads to improvement, and redefining success as a personal accomplishment.
• Level III: Self-direction. Level III emphasizes the need for students to take more responsibility for their choices and to link these choices with their own identities. Students at this level can work independently in class and can take responsibility for their intentions and actions. At this level, students begin to assume responsibility for the direction of their lives and to explore options in developing a strong and integrated personal identity. This level includes developing a knowledge base that will enhance achievement of their goals, developing a plan to accomplish their goals, and evaluating their plan to determine their success.
• Level IV: Caring and helping. Level IV is the most difficult for students; it is also not a requirement for successful participation in the responsibility model. At this level, students reach out beyond themselves to others, committing themselves to genuinely caring about other people. Students are motivated to give support, cooperate, show concern, and help. Generally speaking, the goal of level IV is the improvement of the entire group's welfare.
• Level V: Outside the gym. Level V promotes the opportunity to transfer many of the lessons learned in the gym to other areas of life. It also implies being a role model.

Hellison recognized that these five goals provide only a framework and that strategies must be employed to help students interact with self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participate and show effort, be self-directed, and demonstrate caring and helping behavior on a regular basis. He suggests five interaction strategies to help reach the goals. These include awareness talks (e.g., post levels on gym wall and refer to them frequently), the physical education lesson (e.g., students can be taught to solve conflict during a game), group meetings (e.g., students discuss issues of low motivation or difficulty in being self-directed), reflection time (e.g., students record in a journal or discuss how they did during class in relation to the goals they had established), and counseling time (e.g., students discuss their patterns of abusive behavior and possibly their underlying motives for such behavior). This last strategy gives students the opportunity to talk with the teacher about problems preventing them from achieving their goals within specified levels of the responsibility model. These strategies are "processes for helping students to become aware of, experience, make decisions about, and reflect on the model's goals" (Hellison & Templin, 1991, p. 108). See table 9.2 for a brief examination of the relationship between the levels and strategies in Hellison's model.

Many physical education programs use games to accomplish goals and objectives established for individuals and classes. Because students with behavioral disorders often lack fundamental skills, they frequently are incapable of demonstrating even minimal levels of competence in these games. As a result, they have an increased tendency to act out - perhaps with verbal or physical aggression - or to withdraw, which further excludes them from an opportunity to develop skills.

In an effort to promote the most positive learning environment, Hellison (2011) developed a nontraditional approach to working with at-risk students, using basketball as the primary vehicle for empowering students to learn personal and social values. Employing Hellison's responsibility model (discussed previously) as the philosophical underpinning, the coaching club is a before-school program in Chicago's inner city. It offers students the opportunity to explore movement through a progression of five levels: (I) self-control, meaning control of one's body and temper; (II) teamwork, meaning full participation by all team members; (III) self-coaching; (IV) coaching another team member; and (V) applying skills learned in the program outside the gym to school, home, and neighborhood. Playing ability is not a prerequisite. This program promotes social responsibility. Likewise, extrinsic rewards are unnecessary because students are motivated to reach level IV (coach) on the evaluation system (Hellison & Georgiadis, 1992, p. 7). Level IV consists of the following:

• Has good attendance.
• Is coachable and on task at practice.
• Does not abuse others or interrupt practice.
• Is able to set personal goals and work independently on these goals.
• Possesses good helping skills (such as giving cues, observing, and giving positive feedback as well as general praise).
• Encourages teamwork and passing the ball.
• Listens to players; is sensitive to their feelings and needs.
• Puts the welfare of players above own needs (such as the need to win or look good).
• Understands that exhibiting these characteristics is the key to being a good coach, regardless of personal basketball ability.

Behavioral Approach

Students with severe behavior disorders require intense programming efforts. This group includes students who are self-indulgent, aggressive, noncompliant, and self-stimulatory or self-destructive (Dunn & Leitschuh, 2014). Using the basic steps of behavioral programming discussed in chapter 6, Dunn and his coauthor developed the data-based gymnasium (DBG). This program incorporates behavioral principles in a systematic effort to produce procedural consistency for teachers who work with students with behavioral disorders and to bring student behavior under the control of naturally occurring reinforcers. To the latter end, instructors use natural reinforcers available in the environment, such as praising a desirable behavior to strengthen it or ignoring an undesirable behavior to bring about its extinction. Tangible reinforcers such as token economies are introduced only after it has been demonstrated that the consistent use of social reinforcement or extinction will not achieve the desired behavioral outcome.

In an effort to equip teachers with consistent behavioral procedures, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) use a variety of strategies, including rules of thumb, to apply to inappropriate behavior. For each area of inappropriate behavior (e.g., self-indulgent behavior), there exists a rule of thumb or generally accepted way of responding when certain undesirable behaviors occur. The intent of these rules is to make the development and implementation of a formal behavioral program unnecessary.

• Self-indulgent behavior. Behaviors in this category include crying, screaming, throwing tantrums, and performing repetitive, irritating activities or making noises. The rule of thumb for handling students who engage in self-indulgent behaviors is to ignore them until the behavior is discontinued and then socially reinforce the first occurrence of an appropriate behavior. For example, one would ignore children's tantrums when they cannot control a play situation with classmates but reinforce with social praise their initial attempts to play cooperatively.
• Noncompliant behavior. Noncompliant behaviors include instances when students decline to comply when instructed to do something as well as forgetting or failing to do something because they choose not to do what is asked. Noncompliance also includes doing what is requested but in a less than acceptable way. The rule of thumb is that teachers should ignore noncompliant verbalizations, lead students physically through the task, or prevent students from participating in an activity until they follow through on the initial request. Compliance with any request is immediately reinforced socially. For example, one would physically restrict aggressive play and socially praise a child's positive engagement with a classmate or group.
• Aggressive behavior. Verbal or physical abuse directed toward an object or a person is considered aggressive behavior. Examples of aggressive acts include hitting, fighting, pinching, biting, pushing, or deliberately destroying someone's property. The rule of thumb for aggressive behavior is that it is punished immediately with a verbal reprimand and the offending student is removed from the activity. Social reinforcement is given when students demonstrate appropriate interaction with other people or objects. For example, a student who strikes another student is immediately reprimanded verbally (conflict resolution) and is eliminated from the activity (given a time-out; see chapter 6).
• Self-stimulatory behavior. This category includes behaviors that interfere with learning because students become engrossed in the perseverative nature of the activities. Examples include head banging, hand flapping, body rocking, and eye gouging. As a rule of thumb, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) recommend a formal behavioral program to deal with this type of behavior. An in-depth discussion of formal principles and programs for behavior modification is presented in chapter 6.

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The story of Loretta Claiborne

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7.

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7. Forbidden to participate in school sports because she was in special education, Loretta ran to get away from the bullies. At the age of 18, she became a Special Olympics athlete. Twenty-five years later, in 1996, Loretta received the prestigious Arthur Ashe Courage Award at the ESPN Espy Awards. In 1999, Disney aired a made-for-TV movie about her life, The Loretta Claiborne Story, and she appeared on the Oprah Winfrey Show.

Along the way, Loretta completed 26 marathons, including three Boston Marathons, placing among the top 100 of all women each time. In 1988 she finished in the top 25 women in the Pittsburgh Marathon and was named Special Olympics Female Athlete of the Year. In 1991, Loretta was named to the Special Olympics board of directors and was selected by Runner's World magazine as the Special Olympics Athlete of the Quarter Century. The following year she was inducted into the York, Pennsylvania, Sports Hall of Fame and the William Penn High School Alumni Hall of Fame - the same high school that had barred her from the track team because she had intellectual disabilities.

Loretta introduced then-U.S. president Bill Clinton at the 1995 Special Olympics World Summer Games opening ceremonies in New Haven, Connecticut, and received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Quinnipiac College in Hamden, Connecticut, becoming the first person with intellectual disabilities to receive an honorary doctorate. The Loretta Claiborne Building in York, Pennsylvania, was dedicated in 2001. In 2003, she was awarded a second doctorate of humane letters by Villanova University in Pennsylvania. Currently, her uplifting life story is chronicled in the text, In Her Stride, a feature title in the WorldScapes literacy series for grades 3 through 6.

One of Loretta's most memorable races was a marathon in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Running strong, Loretta noticed another runner beginning to falter. Loretta slowed her pace and stayed with the man throughout the race, encouraging him on; they crossed the finish line together. The other runner? Former world heavyweight boxing champion Larry Holmes! Now a black belt in karate, Loretta still runs about 5 miles (8 kilometers) every day and also competes in Special Olympics bowling, figure skating, basketball, golf, soccer, skiing, softball, and swimming.

Implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

Assessment

One method that has been proven helpful in assessing students with ASD is the system known as ecological task analysis (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). Within the model, the instructor examines the interaction of three factors: the student, the environment, and the task. To derive a good understanding of the student, the assessor should seek information from several sources, including parents, teachers, therapists, and aides. One should fully understand reinforcers and modes of communication before attempting to assess the child. The assessor should also spend time developing a rapport with the child before assessment. When beginning the assessment, it is important to start with activities the child understands and is able to perform and then move on to more difficult tasks. It is important also to understand qualities that inhibit or enhance performance. This approach allows for early success and better compliance throughout the assessment.

The second factor that needs to be considered is the task. To determine if the task is appropriate, consider the following questions: Is it age appropriate? Is it functional? Will the information gained assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP) goals and objectives? Will the information be used for program development and instruction? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the task being assessed is appropriate. To assess the task, the assessor might use a task analysis approach in which requisite skills are identified and either further broken down or assessed as a whole. For example, in assessing soccer skills, the assessor would determine the requisite skills for soccer (e.g., dribbling, passing, trapping, shooting). Each of these skills could be broken down into components assessed separately, or the skill could be assessed as a whole. Once the assessment is complete, the information gleaned can be used to develop goals and objectives based on unique needs, serve as a basis for instruction, and aid in activity selection.

Finally the instructor needs to consider the environment. Keeping in mind that children with ASD might be hypersensitive to environmental stimuli, the instructor should provide an environment with limited distractions and focus on one task at a time. In the soccer example, the instructor can provide different-size balls, different-size goals, and different surfaces for performing the task. After considering the individual student, the task, and the environmental parameters involved, the instructor observes the student's behavior and preferences and documents his choices. These choices serve as a baseline and a springboard upon which to teach.

Activity Selection

When selecting activities for children with ASD, the most important consideration is the needs and interests of the learners and their families. In addition, the functional value of the activity should be taken into account. Activities that have a high probability of success for children with ASD are generally more individual, such as swimming, running, and bowling. However, no one should assume that children with ASD cannot participate in and enjoy team sports. Team sports might need modifications to enhance success, but all children should have the opportunity to explore a range of physical education activities.

The learner's age must also be taken into account. Both developmental appropriateness and age appropriateness should always be considered when selecting activities. Although elementary-aged children spend a great deal of time learning and improving their fundamental motor skills, it would be inappropriate to focus on such skills at the middle school or high school level. When selecting activities, instructors should also consider family and community interests. Does the child come from a family that enjoys hiking or skiing? Or is the family more involved in soccer or softball? Considering these factors helps shape the activity selection so that the child with ASD can more fully integrate within the family and community.

One form of movement, known as sensorimotor activities, can be especially beneficial to students with ASD. These activities are designed to stimulate the senses with a focus on kinesthetic awareness, tactile stimulation, auditory processing, and visual - motor coordination. Kinesthetic awareness deals with the relationship of the body to space. Examples of kinesthetic activities include jumping on a trampoline, crawling through tunnels, jumping over a rope, and rolling down an incline mat. Tactile stimulation can be enhanced by having the child interact with objects, such as balls with various sizes, shapes, and textures. Auditory processing can be enhanced through the use of music and songs that instruct the child in a sequence of movements. Finally, visual - motor coordination can be strengthened through playing an array of games that require tracking, such as kickball, softball, soccer, or lacrosse.

Instructional and Management Techniques

Teaching students with ASD is not unlike teaching other children. Teachers need to establish rapport with students, develop trust, relay information in a clear and concise manner, and provide reinforcement and feedback to help shape appropriate motor and social behavior. Specific strategies that prove helpful in instructing and managing students with ASD include the use of picture and communication boards, the consistent use of structure and routines, and the use of natural cues in the environment to facilitate the acquisition and execution of skills. Other methods include the correction procedure rule and parallel talk. The correction procedure rule is a system used when inappropriate skills or social behaviors occur. Here, the instructor takes the child back to the last task that was done correctly in an effort to redirect the inappropriate behavior. Parallel talk is a system in which the instructor talks through the actions that are occurring - for example, "Juan is dribbling the basketball" - which aids in the understanding and purpose of actions. In addition, teaching to the strengths of learners by considering their preferred learning modality will also prove helpful in teaching students with ASD. Finally, the value of using support staff and peer tutors should not be underestimated in teaching students with ASD. Each of these strategies is more fully explained next.

Picture and Communication Boards

One of the most common and most successful methods used to teach children with ASD is the use of picture and communication boards. Types of pictures include photographs, lifelike drawings, and symbolic drawings. Some children may not yet understand pictures and may need objects to represent them, such as dollhouse furniture or small figures of objects. When pictures are used, it is best to have only one item in the picture because children with ASD have a tendency toward overselectivity, meaning that they are not able to screen out irrelevant information. Teachers should help students focus on the most relevant information. For example, if a child is working on basketball skills, it may be preferable not to use a picture of a basketball court with students playing on it because there is too much information in the picture, making it difficult for the child to screen out irrelevant information. Pictures can also be arranged to create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Boardmaker, as described earlier, is one of many commercial software programs that can help create picture boards using universally accepted symbols to depict events and actions.

Routines and Structure

Establishing routines and structure aids in managing and instructing students with ASD. Children with ASD often demonstrate inappropriate behavioral responses when new or incongruent information is presented in a random or haphazard manner. Routines with set beginning and end points allow for more predictability and help to reduce sensory overload. Routines are also useful in introducing new information or behaviors. Keeping some information familiar and gradually introducing new information helps students respond appropriately. Routines also help to reduce verbal directions and allow children to work independently.

The following scenario illustrates a typical routine that incorporates pictures and can be useful in physical education. Before Justin goes to physical education class, a classroom teacher gives him a picture of the physical education teacher and says, "Justin, it is time for PE." The picture of the physical education teacher allows Justin to understand what is going to happen next. When the class enters the gym, Justin gives the picture card to the physical education teacher. The physical education teacher then uses a communication board with pictures to relay to Justin the lesson from start to finish. For example, a picture of a child stretching could indicate the warm-up, and a picture of a child doing curl-ups could indicate the fitness portion of the lesson. Further, the specific focus could be identified, as with a picture of a soccer ball. Finally, goalposts can be used to indicate the game activity. Figure 10.2 presents a sample schedule for a physical education lesson. The components of the schedule can remain the same, but the actual activities can be manipulated to prepare the child for the daily lesson. When using words instead of pictures, the words can be erased after the task is completed. This system allows students to understand that the activity has ended and the next activity will soon begin.

Physical education sample pictorial schedule. The pictures allow the student to understand what is going to happen in the lesson from start to finish.

As noted previously, children with ASD have difficulty with sensory overload. When they are entering a new environment, such as a gym, the atmosphere may create extreme sensory overload. Structure helps alleviate this stress by creating environments that are easily understood and manageable. In physical education, teachers can structure their space so that the environment is predictable. First, the teacher needs to identify for the child where activities are done (in the gym, on the field, on a mat), where things are located (balls in bin, ropes on hangers, rackets on hooks), and how to move from one place to another (rotating stations, rotating positions, moving from inside to outside). Second, the teacher needs to establish concrete boundaries. For example, if a child is to remain on one-half of the field, cones indicating the halfway point should be in place. Labels can also help organize space. For example, equipment boxes should be clearly labeled so that the child can easily retrieve and put away equipment.

At the conclusion of the lesson, the physical education teacher should have a consistent cue to transition the child back to the classroom. This could be a picture of the classroom teacher or a desk. Forewarning is another effective way to transition a child back to the classroom. For example, the teacher might say, "Justin, in three minutes PE will be over." This helps the child better understand time and prepare for the change in routine. A second warning might be given at 2 minutes and a third at 1 minute. Through proper preparation, anxiety levels are reduced because the child begins to understand that a change in the task will occur after the 1-minute signal from the instructor. Again, the child must understand what will be happening next. When he arrives back in the classroom, physical education can be crossed off his daily schedule and he can begin the next activity on the schedule.

The implementation of routines and structure might at first seem time-consuming for the teacher. However, once these systems are in place, dramatic improvements in behavior and participation usually occur, making the extra time and effort worthwhile.

Natural Environmental Cues and Task Analysis

In teaching new skills to children with ASD, instructors are urged to use natural cues within the environment and to minimize verbal cues. If the goal is for the child to kick a soccer ball into a goal, the natural cues would be a soccer ball and a goal. To achieve the desired objective, the instructor might need to break the task down into smaller steps or task analyze the skills. For example, shooting a soccer ball into a goal might involve the following steps: (1) Line the child up at the shooting line; (2) place the ball on the shooting line; and (3) prompt the child to take a shot. One may break the skill down further by placing a poly spot in front of the child to initiate a stepping action with the opposite kicking foot and prompting the child with either a verbal cue or physical assist to use the kicking foot to make contact with the ball. The degree to which skills should be task analyzed depends on the task and the learner.

Demonstrations also prove helpful in the acquisition of new skills. If the child performs the task correctly, the lesson should continue. For example, the teacher might teach the child how to stop a ball being passed to the shooting line. If the child is unsuccessful in shooting the ball toward the goal, the teacher could use physical assistance to help her gain a better understanding of what the task requires, allowing her to repeat the task until no physical assistance is needed. Once the child has performed the task correctly, the teacher would move on to the rest of the lesson. Figure 10.3 depicts a child working on soccer skills with assistance.

Shooting a soccer ball into a goal can be broken down into steps. Here the child is taking step 3, with the assistant prompting the child to take a shot.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Correction Procedure Rule

Another effective technique in instructing children with ASD is the correction procedure rule, which one applies by taking the child back to the last component of the skill done correctly. Using batting as an example, say a child maintains a proper batting stance and properly swings the bat at the ball but then runs to first base with the bat. In this case, following the correction procedure rule, the instructor would ask the child to repeat the swing and then physically assist her in placing the bat on the ground before running to first. The instructor returns the child to the last correct response before the incorrect response. The application example is another scenario in which the correction procedure rule can be used.

Application Example

Importance of Visual Cues in Learning a New Task

Setting

A physical education class is working on a tee-ball unit.

Student

Kiera, a seven-year-old girl with autism in elementary physical education class

Task

Learning how to hit a ball off the tee and running to first base

Issue

Kiera's physical education teacher, Mr. Greer, has been teaching her how to play tee-ball. They have practiced swinging the bat at the ball (in a hand-over-hand manner), making contact with the ball, putting the bat down, and running to first base. It appeared that Kiera had the hang of the skill, so Mr. Greer allowed her to bat independently. Kiera stood in the ready position; Mr. Greer placed the ball on the tee and took a step back. Just then a gust of wind came, and the ball fell off the tee. Kiera immediately placed the bat on the ground and began running to first base even though she did not make contact with the ball. This showed that Kiera still did not understand the purpose of the game, which was to contact the ball with the bat before running.

Application

Mr. Greer used visual cues to create a positive learning environment by doing the following:

• Mr. Greer demonstrated to Kiera what to do if the ball fell off the tee. Mr. Greer put the ball on the tee loosely so that it would fall off. When the ball fell off, he picked up the ball, replaced it on the tee, and struck it with the bat.
• Mr. Greer then signaled to Kiera to try. Again he placed the ball loosely on the tee and gave the bat to Kiera.
• The ball fell off the tee and Kiera picked up the ball and replaced it on the tee. She then struck the ball and ran to first base.

This example illustrates the need for students with autism to see and understand a task. In no way was Kiera being uncooperative or off task. She simply did not understand the task. When she understood the task, she was able to participate in the game independently.

Kiera practices her swing in tee-ball.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Parallel Talk

To promote language and skill acquisition, instructors are encouraged to embed language throughout the lesson. One way to accomplish this is using parallel talk, in which the teacher verbalizes the actions of the learner. For example, if Marci is rolling a red ball to the teacher, the teacher would say, "Marci is rolling the red ball." Parallel talk can also help children associate certain skills with their verbal meaning, such as spatial concepts (e.g., in, out, under, over) and motor skills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, striking). Another way to foster language acquisition is to create print-rich physical education environments. Pictures, posters, and action words should be displayed prominently around the gym. Labeling the action as it is being performed helps students acquire both receptive and expressive language skills and attach meaning to actions.

Learning Modalities

Learning modalities, or learning styles, refer to the way in which students learn best. The three common categories of learning include auditory, motor, and visual. Auditory learners tend to learn by following commands or prompts and may be easily distracted by background noise. Children who are motor or kinesthetic learners tend to learn by doing. They are active learners and would rather do than watch; they enjoy hands-on projects. Children who are visual learners tend to learn by watching and looking at pictures, and they can be easily distracted by surrounding activities and noise. Research indicates that students with ASD tend to be visual learners (Sicile-Kira, 2014), although all learning modalities should be employed from time to time. As indicated previously, the use of pictures and communication boards is by far the most effective teaching strategy used to communicate with and teach students with ASD.

Support Personnel

Teachers should take advantage of support personnel to assist them in implementing programs. Teaching assistants, paraprofessionals, and peer tutors are all valuable resources that can help in providing individualized instruction to students with ASD in physical education. Teachers can request support personnel through the child's IEP as a necessary component to support the learning of children with ASD.

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Early Childhood Program Standards and Learning Objectives

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges.

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges. Early childhood movement programs should provide children with the opportunity to explore and act on objects in their physical environment (Odom & Wolery, 2003). A well-designed movement curriculum for preschool through third grade should focus on fundamental movement abilities in the preschool years, specialized movement abilities in the early elementary years, and opportunities for all children to be physically active.

The preschool years give instructors the opportunity to guide children through games and activities in order to build a skill foundation and maintain appropriate activity levels. This fundamental movement phase should focus on stability, locomotor, and object-control skills (see chapter 19 for a review of the fundamental movement phase). It follows, then, that the early elementary years (kindergarten through third grade) allow the teacher to integrate the knowledge and skills that children have acquired and begin to refine fundamental skills required for more advanced games and activities. The specialized movement phase gives children the opportunity to use several fundamental skills to complete a single activity that is more specialized (see chapter 19 for a review of the specialized movement phase).

The importance of seeing the connection between the fundamental movement phase and specialized movement phase in the early childhood years is critical for physical education curriculum development. As a guide, national standards for physical education (SHAPE America, 2014) have been written for elementary children in the United States. These five physical education standards are in place for five- to nine-year-old children and are written to reflect what children should be able to do after participation in a quality physical education program. PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008) is a valid and reliable tool developed to assess the first national physical education standard, which reads "The physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 12). A quality physical education program for elementary-aged children should follow national standards and build on the fundamental movement skill programs introduced in preschool.

However, early learning standards vary state by state for preschool-aged children. To assist early childhood educators, the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has organized a standards database on what states have identified as educational priorities for children of prekindergarten age (NIEER, 2014). Using learning standards to guide programming for children with and without disabilities through the early childhood years can be beneficial in all domains of learning, including physical health and development. Early childhood physical educators should be knowledgeable about learning standards and assessing them and how they contribute to program development. Mastering fundamental movements and skills and integrating them into games and activities are processes.

Regarding physical activity for young children, it has been recommended that preschool-aged children accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity per day, and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping (NASPE, 2002). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009) also recommends that playing time (including large motor activities) can benefit young children in physical competence, social skills, self-control, and problem-solving abilities as well as giving them an opportunity to practice emerging skills.

Activity environments designed to provide instruction for young children with developmental delays and those with disabilities should be individualized according to assessment information. Arbitrarily selecting games and activities because they seem fun and the children appear to enjoy them is not necessarily in line with good practice. Specifically, learning environments should parallel the strengths and challenges identified during the assessment process and written in the IEP as instructional objectives. Instruction is based on a good understanding of each child's present level of performance. An activity setting should be carefully planned to build on what children already know and promote the acquisition of new skills.

Developmental theorists support instruction that encourages children to explore and manipulate their environment in order to construct meaning (Lefrancois, 2006). Individualizing instruction for each child in the class is the challenge faced by teachers providing early childhood adapted physical education in an integrated setting. Using a differentiated instructional approach helps teachers address the diverse learning needs of several children in the same class (Sands & Barker, 2004). The child's developmental abilities (physical, social, and cognitive) and the effect that a certain disability might have on this development must be considered.

Developmental Differences Between Preschoolers and Primary-Aged Children

The cognitive and social developmental status of a four-year-old differs from that of a six-year-old. As children develop cognitively and socially, they incorporate their movement strategies in new ways. Teachers providing adapted physical education must understand age-related developmental differences in order to construct appropriate learning environments for children who exhibit delays in one or more areas of learning (Haywood & Getchell, 2014).

Developmentally appropriate movement environments designed for preschool-aged children (three to five years of age) differ from those planned for kindergarten and elementary school children (six to eight years of age). A watered-down kindergarten curriculum presented to children in preschool is not appropriate. Games, activities, and equipment meaningful to a four-year-old might be of little interest to a seven-year-old and vice versa. For example, preschoolers love to experiment with speed, direction change, and space. Figure 22.1 shows a young boy making his way through a tunnel placed within a larger activity area. With a little creativity and imagination, teachers of early childhood physical education can create stimulating and motivating learning environments. A refrigerator box that has holes cut for climbing and hiding might entice a preschooler to explore and move for a long time. Preschoolers are intrigued by new spaces and the opportunity to explore these seemingly simple environments. On the other hand, a seven-year-old might find these activities simplistic and boring. She would be much more interested and challenged by moving under and through a parachute lifted by classmates. A child in first or second grade (six or seven years old) might be challenged by activities that encourage a higher level of problem solving. Children at this age have greater ability to reason and logically integrate thoughts than younger children do. For a three- or four-year-old, a parachute activity that includes anything more than moving the parachute up and down is often frightening and unpredictable.

A young boy makes his way through a tunnel, a familiar play space for preschoolers.
© Lauriece Zittel

The NAEYC (2009) provides guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood and discusses the differences between preschool and primary-aged children in their physical, social, cognitive, and language development. Teachers providing adapted physical education should keep in mind that the cognitive and social development of young children cannot be ignored when developing goals and objectives in the psychomotor domain. The interplay between each of these functional areas of learning and an individual child's development within each area must be considered when planning movement environments and instruction.

Developmental Considerations for Young Children With Disabilities

The effect of a disability on the communication, social, cognitive, or motor development of a child must be recognized before planning instruction. Knowing how a child's disability affects motor learning and performance is essential for the development of an appropriate physical education program. Young children with orthopedic impairments, for example, might begin independently exploring their physical environments by using a walker, wheelchair, or crutches but might also require accommodations in order to benefit from age-appropriate activities. Instructors should be aware of physical barriers that exist in the activity setting and design the environment in a way that encourages interactions with peers and equipment. Assistive devices that allow children with orthopedic impairments to initiate tasks that are both physically and intellectually challenging should be available to promote independence.

Young children with delays in social interaction - for example, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - may require modifications in the introduction and delivery of games and activities. Small- or large-group activities may be difficult for children with ASD, and practicing motor skills might need to occur in social environments that offer options for solitary and parallel play. For young children with ASD, interaction with others might not be the best instructional approach or least restrictive environment for learning new skills. On the other hand, children with intellectual disabilities often benefit from age-appropriate peer interactions that are consistent and repetitive. As shown in figure 22.2, a predictable environment with familiar equipment and routines will enhance opportunities for learning. Physical educators need to be aware of the characteristics of young children with disabilities and plan activities and environments accordingly.

Familiar environments promote learning among children with disabilities.
Photo courtesy of NIU. Photographer: Molly Coleman.

Facilitating Communication in a Movement Lesson

Interacting with others requires some level of communication. Some young children with disabilities use speech and language to communicate, whereas others who are nonverbal might use alternative methods and strategies. Although speech or language impairment is considered the most prevalent disability category among preschoolers, children with many diagnoses might have communication needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The movement setting, typically a motivating setting for young children, can be an ideal environment to enhance communication skills. Collaboration with classroom teachers and speech therapists assists the early childhood physical educator in determining what communication goals and objectives can be integrated within the physical education setting.

Young children with disabilities or developmental delays who are verbal might use speech and language to communicate with peers and teachers. The movement setting is a natural place to incorporate concepts such as under, over, more, through, and around. To reinforce the meaning of movement concepts and model the use of speech, a physical educator should talk with children as they participate in each movement lesson. For example, as children are pretending to be in the jungle climbing over rocks (bolsters under mats) and jumping over cutout ants and snakes (taped to the floor), a teacher might say, "I like the way everyone is jumping over the creatures in the jungle. Everyone find a creature and say ‘over' as we jump. Ready?" Prompting children to use the words to identify the concept (e.g., over) as they practice the skill (e.g., horizontal jump) reinforces the meaning of commonly taught concepts in early childhood and encourages children to use speech. Similarly, identifying shapes, colors, or equipment can become a natural part of an early childhood movement setting.

Children with speech and language delays or those who are nonverbal as a result of a particular disability or multiple disabilities might use augmentative and alternative systems to communicate (Millar, Light, & Schlosser, 2006). Sign language and picture systems are nonverbal options used by teachers to communicate with young children. Sign language is a popular method of communicating with young children of all abilities; however, children with communication delays and those who are hard of hearing might benefit in particular. Physical educators not proficient in sign language should consult with classroom teachers, interpreters, or speech therapists to learn the signs used by young children in the classroom.

Picture systems can also be used in a movement setting to increase communication between the child and teacher. Young children with autism often have sophisticated picture systems in place to assist with identifying activities, equipment, activity directions, and transitions. Picture systems can increase the probability that children with communication delays have the opportunity to engage in movement activities to the maximum extent possible. Helping a child understand what to do and when to do it often decreases the time needed to manage unwanted behaviors. Pictures posted in the activity area or taped to pieces of equipment are a great communication strategy for all children. A sequence of pictures, or visual schedule, posted to a board or paper is a functional method for communicating an activity, skill sequence, or transition to a child who is verbal or nonverbal. Visual schedules help children manage their environment while often decreasing the amount of adult intervention needed. Figure 22.3 shows an example of a young boy removing a picture of a completed activity from his schedule. The pictures remaining on the schedule give him a clear indication of activities to follow. Depending on the learning style of the child, all pictures can be on the board at the beginning of the class, or pictures can be added as the activity is presented.

Visual schedules help children manage their environments.
© Lauriece Zittel

Voice output devices are another method used to communicate with children who are nonverbal. A voice output system makes use of pictures and symbols along with prerecorded words and phrases (Blischak, 2003). Programming movement concepts, names of equipment or activities, and general statements provides a child with functional communication during physical education. For young children using a voice output system, a movement setting might reinforce practice with a new voice output device.

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Combining the Athlete and the Wheelchair

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

Fitting the Wheelchair to the Athlete

Proper fitting of the wheelchair to the athlete is critical for high levels of athletic performance. Most manufacturers provide retail experts who are experienced in measuring athletes for performance wheelchairs.

In fitting the frame, the two most critical considerations are the dimensions of the seat (width, length, and backrest height) and the position of the seat in relation to the main wheels. Both these considerations serve to ensure that the wheelchair fits the athlete perfectly and that she is in an optimal position to apply force and maneuver the wheelchair. Refer to the application example for a list of considerations to keep in mind while helping athletes find the chair that is best for them.

Application Example

Helping a Wheelchair Athlete Find the Right Sport and Chair

Setting

A community-based junior wheelchair sport program

Student

A 16-year-old junior wheelchair basketball player with a spinal cord injury needs recommendations to refine his individualized transition program to incorporate adult wheelchair sports. The player is tall, has played the center and forward positions, and wishes to purchase his own wheelchair.

Issue

What considerations should be taken into account in making recommendations to this athlete?

Application

Considerations for this athlete center on equipment, physical fitness, and individual skills.

Equipment considerations

• Athlete's height
• Desire to play a certain position
• Need to establish athlete's physical impairment, sport classification level, and trunk stability when seated
• Adjustability for height and point of balance (being able to maximize the seat height to about 21 inches [53 centimeters] for the center and forward positions)
• System considerations such as strapping and mobility in the wheelchair
• Reputable manufacturer

Individual physical fitness

• Strength training program that targets the upper body muscles in paired groups (e.g., biceps and triceps)
• Cardiorespiratory conditioning program that uses an arm crank ergometer or, preferably, a training roller

Individual skills targeted

• Wheelchair mobility skills both with and without the basketball
• Shooting skills both stationary and moving
• Passing skills both stationary and moving
• Studying the sophisticated strategies involved in the adult game

System Considerations for Racing Wheelchairs

A number of system considerations apply to racing wheelchairs. The following section identifies propulsion techniques and how to overcome negative forces as important considerations in developing an athlete's wheelchair racing system.

Propulsion Techniques in Track and Road Racing

Coupled with the evolution of the racing wheelchair has been the development of ever more efficient propulsion techniques. A six-phase technique (see figure 29.7) is most frequently used, although not all athletes use each phase with the same degree of effectiveness. An analysis by O'Connor and colleagues (1998) led the authors to conclude that there is a need for coaches to become more knowledgeable concerning appropriate wheelchair propulsion techniques.

Six-phase propulsion cycle.

Basic Stroke

The propulsion cycle starts with the hands drawn up as far above and behind the push rim as possible given the seating position and flexibility of the athlete. The hands are then accelerated as rapidly and forcefully as possible (acceleration phase) until they strike the push rim (see point A on figure 29.7). The moment of contact is the impact energy transfer phase (point B on figure 29.7), during which the kinetic energy stored in the fast-moving hand is transferred to the slower-moving push rim. With the hand in contact with the push rim, there is a force application, or push, phase (point C on figure 29.7), and this continues until the hands reach almost to the bottom of the push rim. During the force application phase, most of the propulsion comes from the muscles acting around the elbow and shoulder.

As the hands reach the bottom of the push rim, the powerful muscles of the forearm are used to pronate the hand, which allows the thumb to be used to give a last, powerful flick to the push rim. This last flicking action is reversed by a few athletes who use supination in the rotational energy transfer phase (point D on figure 29.7) to flick the push rim with the fingers rather than the thumb; and research indicates that this type of backhand technique may be more efficient in endurance races (Chow et al., 2001).

Immediately following the rotational energy transfer, the hands leave the push rim during the castoff phase (see point E on figure 29.7). Here it is important that the hand be moving faster than the push rim as it pulls away, since a slower hand will act as a brake on the wheelchair. Often the athlete will use the pronation or supination of the rotational energy transfer phase to accelerate the hands and arms and thus allow them to be carried up and back under ballistic motion. This upward and backward motion is called the backswing phase (point F on figure 29.7) and is used to get the hands far enough away from the push rim to allow them to accelerate forward to strike the push rim at high speed at the start of the next stroke. Goosey-Tolfrey and colleagues (2000) reported that no single identifiable stroke frequency could be recommended as best for wheelchair racing, but the athlete's own freely chosen frequency was the most economical in laboratory conditions.

This basic propulsion stroke is modified by the terrain over which the athlete is wheeling, by the tactics of the race, and by the athlete's level of disability. On uphill parts of a course, the athlete shortens the backswing and acceleration phases so as to minimize the time during which force is not applied to the push rim and during which the chair could roll backward. Tactically, the athlete is either wheeling at constant speed or is making an attack and needs to accelerate. The basic stroke described previously is used at steady speed; during bursts of acceleration, the major change in stroke takes place during the backswing. At steady speeds, the backswing is a relatively relaxed ballistic movement in which the velocity at castoff is used to raise the hand to its highest and most rearward position. This relaxed backswing is efficient and allows a brief moment of rest during each stroke. During acceleration, however, the major change in stroke dynamics is to increase the number of strokes from approximately 80 per minute to more than 120 per minute. This is achieved by a rapid reduction in the time taken for a more restricted backswing.

Race Start

The stroke is modified during the start of a race. Because the wheelchair is stationary, the hands should grip the push rim (rather than striking it), and for the first few strokes the arc of pushing will be more restricted with as rapid a recovery as possible. The various approaches that have been adopted are dependent on the athlete's preference. Some athletes attempt to make longer, more forceful pushes to get the wheels going, whereas others make shorter, sharper pushes to get the hands moving fast as early as possible.

Retarding Forces and Overcoming Them

While the athlete provides the energy to drive the wheelchair forward, the twin retarding forces of rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag act to slow it down. When propulsive forces are greater than resistance, the wheelchair accelerates, and when the retarding forces are greater, the chair is slowed. Obviously, reductions in rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag translate directly into higher wheeling speeds and improved athletic performance.

Rolling Resistance

On a hard, smooth surface, the majority of the rolling resistance of the wheel occurs at the point where the tire is in contact with the ground. As the tire rotates, each part is compressed as it passes under the hub and is in contact with the surface; then it rebounds as it begins to rise again and contact with the surface is broken. Not all the energy used to compress the tire is recovered on the rebound, and the energy loss (called hysteresis) is the major determinant of rolling resistance.

Rolling resistance of racing wheelchairs is also affected by the camber angle of the main wheel, which increases with camber (Faupin et al., 2004; Mason, van der Woude, de Groot, & Goosey-Tolfrey, 2011) and wheel alignment, referred to as toe-in or toe-out. Wheels that are not toed correctly dramatically increase the rolling resistance of a wheelchair. Athletes should do everything in their power to check and adjust alignment before every important race.

Aerodynamic Drag

The problem of aerodynamic drag of racing wheelchairs and athletes is unique in sport because of the relatively low speeds at which events take place. Races (10,000 meters) on the track take place at average speeds between 6.84 and 8.40 meters per second (female and males, respectively). Although the race times of wheelchairs have dramatically improved over the last decade, the times are still considerably slower than the speeds found in cycling. This creates special low-speed aerodynamic conditions.

Aerodynamic drag is caused by two separate but interrelated forces called surface drag and form drag. Surface drag is caused by the adhesion of air molecules to the surface of an object passing through it, and it is very powerful at low speeds. Form drag, on the other hand, is caused by the difference in air pressure between the front and the back of an object, which in turn is created by the swirls and eddy currents formed as the wheelchair and athlete pass through the air.

For wheelchair racers, the problem is that smooth surfaces increase surface drag while decreasing form drag. Some aspects of aerodynamic drag reduction are beyond doubt; these are the importance of reducing both surface and form drag by minimizing the drag-producing areas of the wheelchair and the athlete's clothing.

Drafting

Because aerodynamic drag represents approximately 40 percent of the force acting to slow down a wheelchair racer, methods of minimizing this can pay considerable dividends. The single most effective way in which drag can be reduced is the process of drafting. Drafting occurs when one wheelchair follows closely behind another wheelchair that acts as a wind deflector. At the end of long races, the energy saved by drafting can be a critical determinant of race outcome. Frequently teams work together, taking turns at both leading and drafting so that their overall performance will be increased.

System Considerations for Court Wheelchairs

This section does not include information on propulsion techniques in court sports. There is less research on propulsion techniques for court sports, presumably because of the wide variability in the propulsion techniques as compared to those in racing; however, Vanlandewijck and colleagues (2001) conducted a review of propulsion biomechanics that included not only wheelchair racing but also basketball and rugby. For those interested in increasing wheelchair sport performance, it is recommended reading.

As mentioned previously, the two fundamental features of a sport wheelchair are the dimensions of the seat and its positioning in relation to the wheels, although there are differences in the reasoning behind both of these features in relation to racing wheelchairs. In wheelchair racing, the key performance indicator is speed or endurance (or both) in a predominantly linear direction. However, in court sports, maneuverability is also a key area of performance. Therefore, whereas wheelchair racers require a perfectly fitting seat so that no energy is lost during propulsion, court sport athletes desire a seat customized to their anthropometrics to facilitate their agility. If a seat is too wide, the athlete can slide around in the chair, which equates to a loss of energy during turning; the body has to then catch up before being in a position whereby force can be applied to the wheels. When the seat is the correct width, the wheelchair should be able to respond more effectively to the athlete. This enables those athletes with sufficient trunk function to be able to maneuver their chair without necessarily having to touch their wheels. This feature of performance can also be facilitated by strapping around the knees or lap, which further secures the athlete to the chair, making movements such as tilting in wheelchair basketball possible.

The backrest is another dimension of the seat that warrants consideration when one is configuring a sport wheelchair. The backrest is essentially designed to improve the athlete's stability, which can be impaired if the backrest is too low for the functional capacity of the athlete. Alternatively, if the backrest is too high, movements can be restricted when the athlete is trying to move backward to reach a ball in basketball or rugby or hitting the ball in tennis. Strapping around the trunk can be applied to facilitate stability, although similar precautions must be taken to ensure that strapping is used only if the functional capacity of the athlete requires. If too much strapping is applied too tightly, the athlete's ability to move can be unnecessarily sacrificed at the expense of stability.

To further facilitate the fitting of the athlete to the sport wheelchair and subsequently maximize maneuverability performance, molded seats have recently emerged in wheelchair tennis and wheelchair basketball (figure 29.8). Since a molded seat will mimic the exact dimensions of each individual athlete, previous limitations associated with a conventional seat, such as energy loss during propulsion and impaired maneuverability, should be eradicated.

Example of (a) a conventional sport wheelchair seat and (b) a molded seat to facilitate maneuverability performance.
Photos courtesy of Dr. John Lenton.

Once the seat is successfully designed for the specific athlete, the next thing to consider is where the seat fits in relation to the main wheels in both a horizontal (anterior - posterior) and vertical position (see figure 29.9).

(a) Anterior - posterior and (b) vertical main-wheel adjustments.

Anterior - Posterior Seat Position

Horizontal positioning of the main wheels affects the mobility of the chair. The farther forward the main wheel from a hypothesized neutral position (see figure 29.9a, position A), the more maneuverable the chair (see figure 29.9a, position B). Unfortunately, the farther forward the main wheel relative to the center of gravity, the more likely it is that the chair will tilt up. Although the introduction of the anti-tip castor wheel prevents the athlete from falling backward, it does place a large percentage of body mass over the rear castors. Consequently, athletes need to reposition their body weight forward in order to drive the wheels forward, which will be limited by their trunk function. However, this is a position that many low-point wheelchair rugby players are forced to adopt since they do not have the triceps function or stability to sit above the wheel and drive it down. Alternatively they choose to sit farther back so that they can make the most of their biceps function and "pull" the wheel up and forward.

Vertical Seat Position

Vertical positioning of the main wheel affects the height at which the athlete sits and the center of gravity of the system. This fundamentally affects the handling properties of the chair. Again, using a hypothetical neutral position (figure 29.9b, position A), the lower the athlete sits relative to this neutral position (figure 29.9b, position D), the more maneuverable the wheelchair. Therefore, all other things being equal, the athlete should sit as low as possible. However, performance considerations place a premium on height in all sports. Shooting is easier in basketball when athletes sit high because they are closer to the basket. Likewise, receiving a rugby pass is easier if one sits higher and can reach above the opponent. Finally, a tennis serve is made easier when the athlete is elevated above the height of the net, as there is now a greater margin for error. Given the advantages associated with sitting high, athletes can often forsake the optimal position for pushing the wheelchair, putting their mobility performance at risk. As the height of the seat increases, the athlete effectively moves farther away from the wheels. In order to access enough of the wheels to effectively apply force, athletes (depending on trunk function) will have to lean forward. In order to reduce the distance that athletes have to lean, many have countered this by selecting a larger wheel size to make the wheels more accessible in a higher seat position. However, this can introduce alternative and potentially negative effects on performance, with a larger wheel thought to impair acceleration and maneuverability performance. Mason and colleagues (2012a, 2012b) have provided a more in-depth evaluation of the effects of wheel size on aspects of mobility performance in wheelchair basketball players.

In summary, when enhancing wheelchair sport performance on the court, athletes should identify the functional aspects of the game and their roles or positions coupled with their strengths and weaknesses. This will depend in part on the disability level of the athlete. After identifying these roles, athletes should select the wheelchair setup that will improve functionality within the roles. It is stressed that the positioning of the main wheel will fundamentally affect the performance characteristics of the chair. After the athlete has identified the appropriate wheelchair setup, consideration needs to be given to combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a performance system through the use of appropriate strapping techniques.

Skill Development

Sport-specific skills are critical to the elite athlete's program. Common to skills in court sports are acceleration, speed (which depends on power, which depends on strength), and maneuverability with the target object, whether it be a basketball, volleyball (as used in wheelchair rugby), or tennis racket. Goosey-Tolfrey (2010b) reports other sport-specific skills as described by key sport coaches for the aforementioned sports. Skills tests have been developed for wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and tennis (Newbery, Richards, Trill, & Whait, 2010; Yilla & Sherrill, 1998), and field-based fitness testing is described in detail in the review article by Goosey-Tolfrey and Leicht (2013). Task analysis of skill performance is also suggested by Davis (2002, 2011).

Instructional materials that focus on the skills and strategies involved in many wheelchair sports are also available (Goosey-Tolfrey, 2010b). Again, the systems approach should be incorporated, with athletes practicing their skills in their competitive system that includes their sport-specific wheelchair and strapping.

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Test Instruments Used in Adapted Physical Education

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments.

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments. Some of these tests, however, do contain alternative elements such as rubric scoring systems (e.g., TGMD-2) or task-analysis sequences and checklists (e.g., Special Olympics coaching guides).

Available tests in physical education measure a range of traits and abilities. Most, however, fall within five traditional areas of physical and motor development and ability: reflexes and reactions, rudimentary movements, fundamental movements, specialized movements (including sport skills, aquatics, dance, and activities of daily living), and health-related physical fitness. (Note that these categories are somewhat arbitrary and do not encompass all possibilities. In some situations, for instance, teachers might routinely test and assess the posture or the perceptual - motor abilities of their students.) More recently, a sixth area, physical activity, has gained attention. The rest of this section is devoted to a discussion of tests or measures from these six areas. One instrument from each area is highlighted. The highlighted instruments are meant to be representative of a particular content area and are recommended or used by many adapted physical educators. Other tests are available within each area, and teachers always have the option of designing alternative measures to augment or replace published instruments. In adapted physical education, there are always circumstances when published instruments prove to be inappropriate for a particular student, and teachers must modify or design instruments in accordance with the student's abilities. (Additional tests are listed in the resources section of this chapter.) The application example illustrates how tests can be used.

Measuring Reflexes and Reactions

The measurement and assessment of primitive reflexes and postural reactions is an important consideration in those with developmental delays, particularly in early intervention and childhood programs. (See chapter 19 for information on reflexes and reactions.) As educational services are extended to infants and toddlers, as well as to persons with more severe disabilities (especially those that are neurologically based, such as cerebral palsy), physical educators need to understand the influence of reflexes and reactions on motor development milestones and motor skill learning.

Because primitive reflexes normally follow a predictable sequence for appearing, maturing, and eventually disappearing, they are particularly helpful in providing information on the maturation of the central nervous system. If a primitive reflex persists beyond schedule, presents an unequal bilateral response (e.g., is present on one side but absent or not as strong on the other), is too strong or too weak, or is completely absent, then neurological problems might be suspected. When primitive reflexes are not inhibited, they will undoubtedly interfere with voluntary movement because muscle tone involuntarily changes when reflexes are elicited.

The adapted physical educator should collaborate closely with a physical therapist to identify the presence of primitive reflexes and postural reactions and further determine an appropriate motor intervention to minimize the effects of the reflex through (a) central nervous system integration, (b) maximizing functional movements through reflexive action, or (c) both. Most adapted physical education programs seek the expertise of the physical therapist who has specialized training in this area. Many early motor development tests incorporate testing of specific reflexes, but all generally involve manipulation of the body to determine evoked responses and spontaneous behaviors (Zafeiriou, 2004).

Application Example

Determining if a Student Should Be Assigned to an Adapted Program

Setting

A new 10-year-old student with mild intellectual disabilities received special education services, including adapted physical education, at his previous school. As a matter of policy, the district will reevaluate the student before determining proper programs and placements. A physical education teacher is invited to be a member of the IEP team.

Issue

How should the physical educator determine if the student should be assigned to the adapted program?

Application

The physical educator might do the following:

• Administer the BPFT to determine if the student's fitness is sufficiently developed. (The expectation would be that the student would achieve at least specific standards for children with intellectual disabilities.)
• Administer the TGMD-2 to determine if fundamental movements are completely developed. (Maximum or near-maximum scores would be expected for a 10-year-old.)
• Compare standardized test results (i.e., BPFT and TGMD) with the district guidelines or criteria for adapted physical education.
• Place the student in one or more trial placements and collect authentic assessment data. (Determine, for instance, if the rubrics being used by other members of the class are reasonably appropriate, with or without modification, for the new student.)
• Consider all assessment data when formulating a recommendation for the IEP team.

Measuring Rudimentary Movements

Rudimentary movements are the first voluntary movements (see chapter 19). Reaching, grasping, sitting, crawling, and creeping are examples of rudimentary movements. Most instruments that assess rudimentary movements use a developmental approach to testing - that is, a series of motor milestones associated with specific ages is arranged chronologically and tested individually. By determining which behaviors the child can perform, the teacher can estimate the child's developmental age (because each milestone has its own age norm) and suggest future learning activities (i.e., the behaviors in the sequence that the child cannot currently do). The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) is an example of this approach, with some additional enhancements (other instruments are discussed in chapters 21 and 22).

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales

• Purpose: The PDMS-2 (Folio & Fewell, 2000) assesses the motor development of children from birth to 83 months in both fine and gross motor areas. Items are subcategorized into the following six areas: reflexes, stationary (balance), locomotion, object manipulation, grasping, and visual - motor integration.
• Description: A total of 249 test items (mostly developmental milestones) are arranged chronologically within age levels (e.g., 0-1 month, 6-7 months, 18-23 months), and each is identified as belonging to one of the six categories being assessed (e.g., reflexes, locomotion). It is recommended that testers begin administering items one level below the child's expected motor age. Items are scored from 0 to 2 according to specified criteria. Testing continues until the ceiling-age level is reached (a level for which a score of 2 is obtained for no more than 1 of the 10 items in that level). Composite scores for gross motor (reflexes, balance, locomotion, and object manipulation), fine motor (grasping and visual - motor integration), and total motor (combination of gross and fine motor subtests) areas of functioning can be determined.
• Reliability and validity: Empirical research has established adequate levels of reliability and validity. Evidence information is provided for subgroups as well as for the general population.
• Comment: The PDMS-2 appears to have certain advantages over other rudimentary movement tests. First, the large number of test items represents a larger sample of behaviors than exists in many other tests. Second, the six categories help teachers pinpoint exactly which areas of gross motor development are problematic. Finally, the scoring system and availability of normative data provide the teacher with more information on student performance than many other tests do. Supplementary materials, including a software scoring and reporting system and a motor activity program, also are available in conjunction with PDMS-2.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The PDMS-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Fundamental Movements

The critical window of opportunity, the time during which experience has the most influence on developing fundamental motor skills, seems to be the early childhood and early elementary years. Fundamental movement skills can be classified as locomotor (traveling, e.g., jumping), nonlocomotor (stationary, e.g., one-foot balance), or manipulative (object control, e.g., throwing). Some fundamental movement test instruments measure how far the performance has progressed along a motor continuum, but most use a point system to evaluate either the process of the fundamental movement or its product. Process-oriented approaches generally attempt to break down (or task analyze) a movement into its component parts and then evaluate each component individually. This approach assesses the quality of the movement, not its result. Product-oriented approaches are concerned primarily with outcome. Product-oriented assessment is more concerned with the quantity of the movement (e.g., how far, how fast, how many) than with its execution. The TGMD-2 emphasizes a process-oriented approach to the assessment of fundamental movements.

Test of Gross Motor Development-2

• Purpose: The TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000) was designed to measure gross motor content frequently taught in preschool and early elementary grades, including special education; to be used by various professionals with a minimum amount of training; to use both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards; and to place a priority on the gross motor skill process rather than the product of performance.
• Description: The test measures locomotor (six test items) and object-control skill functioning (six test items) and provides an overall indication of gross motor functioning. Locomotor subtest items include the run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. Object-control subtest items consist of the two-hand strike, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand roll, and overhand throw. For each skill, the tester is provided with performance criteria used to assess the child's performance. Children receive 1 point for meeting each performance criterion given for each of two trials allowed. These criterion-based scores can be added and compared to norm-referenced standards in order to make summative evaluations regarding locomotor, object-control, and overall gross motor performance. Percentiles, standard scores, and chronological age equivalents can be determined for assessment purposes.
• Reliability and validity: Reliability coefficients are quite high (generally .84 to .96). Acceptable levels of content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related validity are provided.
• Comment: The sound process of test construction should provide the user with a good deal of confidence that scores obtained by children accurately reflect their fundamental movement abilities. Availability of both criterion-referenced and norm-referenced standards enhances the capability of the test to support eligibility, placement, IEP planning, and instructional decisions. Test scores allow for easy monitoring of student progress and reporting to parents.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The TGMD-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Specialized Activity Movements

A wide variety of possible physical education and sport activities could be tested under this category. Sport skills tests can take many forms, but often they are criterion referenced and teacher constructed (in fact, many teachers prefer to use authentic techniques to assess game and sport skills). Often, when teachers measure learning progress in relatively unique skills taught in physical education (e.g., wheelchair locomotion or functional performance using the treadmill at a local health club), a rubric is developed and used. Teachers who work with students with disabilities who compete in special sport programs, including those offered by multisport organizations (e.g., United States Association of Blind Athletes [USABA]), are encouraged to develop their own tests specific to the event in which the athlete competes. One example of a sport skills test that can be used for athletes with disabilities comes from the Special Olympics coaching guides.

Sport Skills Program Guides

• Purpose: Special Olympics, Inc., provides coaching guides that can complement or supplement existing physical education and recreation programs for people with disabilities (aged 8 and older) in sport skills instruction.
• Description: Guides are provided for 32 sports and recreation activities. Although the guides are not test instruments per se, authentic assessment is a critical aspect of the instructional programs recommended in the guides. Assessments consist of both task analyses and checklists. Testers check off task focal points that the student is able to perform. For instance, in athletics there are 14 test items corresponding to track and field events. Within each checklist, testers check the focal points an athlete can demonstrate (e.g., "Performs a single-leg takeoff for a running long jump.").
• Reliability and validity: No information has been reported, but content validity probably could be claimed because the checklists reflect sport skills task analyses developed by content (specific sport activity) experts in the field.
• Comment: A primary advantage of the coaching guides is convenience - a teacher or coach can adopt the existing task-analysis curriculums for many sport activities and further modify accordingly for specific students and situations if needed. The program has been used with participants with intellectual disabilities for some time and has been shown to have good utility for that group. A disadvantage is that neither reliability nor validity of the various test instruments has been formally established.
• Availability: Special Olympics, Inc., 1133 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036-3604. Website: http://resources.specialolympics.org/Taxonomy/Sports_Essentials/__Catalog_of_Sports_Essentials.aspx.

Measuring Health-Related Physical Fitness

Because health-related physical fitness is an increasing concern in the health and well-being of young people, it is crucial to use fitness tests that provide meaningful data and allow sound instructional decision making. Over the years many standardized tests of physical fitness have become available to teachers. The BPFT is one test that is recommended to measure and assess the health-related physical fitness of young people with disabilities. The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) extends the health-related, criterion-referenced approach to young people with disabilities. Access to the proper techniques for conducting the 27 tests in the BPFT has been included with this text. See Accessing the Web Resource for instructions on gaining access to the web resource.

Brockport Physical Fitness Test

• Purpose: The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) is a health-related, criterion-referenced physical fitness test appropriate for young people (aged 10-17) with and without disabilities.
• Description: The test battery includes 27 test items (refer to table 4.2) from which teachers can choose based on disability. Typically, students are tested on four to six test items from three components of fitness: body composition, aerobic functioning, and musculoskeletal functioning (muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility). Although specific test items are recommended for children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, visual impairments, spinal cord injuries, and congenital anomalies and amputations, teachers are encouraged to personalize testing. Personalization involves identifying health-related concerns pertaining to the student, establishing a desired fitness profile for the student, selecting components and subcomponents of fitness to be assessed, selecting test items to measure those components, and selecting health-related, criterion-referenced standards to evaluate fitness. Thus, teachers have the option to modify any of the elements of the testing program as outlined in the test manual. Both general population and disability-specific standards are available for assessment and evaluation. A general standard is one appropriate for the general population and has not been adjusted in any way for the effects of a disability. A specific standard is one that has been adjusted for the effects of a disability. Specific standards are available only for selected test items for particular groups of people.
• Reliability and validity: The test items in the BPFT have been shown to be valid and reliable through various studies. Evidence for validity and reliability is provided in a lengthy technical report published in a special issue of Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 2005 (Winnick, 2005).
• Comment: The BPFT was patterned after Fitnessgram, and many of the standards, especially for the general population, were adopted from that test. Thus, teachers in inclusive settings should find it relatively easy to use both tests as necessary. In addition to the test manual, a training guide is also available (Winnick & Short, 1999).
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Brockport-Physical-Fitness-Test-Manual-2nd-Edition-With-Web-Resource.

Measuring Physical Activity

Much research has established the positive relation between regular physical activity and health, and many physical education programs are promoting physically active lifestyles as a primary goal of the program. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important for physical educators to objectively measure physical activity levels in ways that are sensitive enough to document change. At present, four types of activity measures are available to teachers: heart rate monitors, activity monitors (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, motion sensors), direct observation, and self-report instruments (Welk & Wood, 2000). Despite their accuracy, heart rate monitors have limited applicability in school situations because of cost and limitations in measuring students in large classes at one time. Pedometers are relatively inexpensive and accurate and have good utility for measuring walking activity, but they do not have broad applicability in measuring general physical activity. Coding student activity through direct observation is not expensive, but it can be time-consuming because only a few children can be monitored at one time by a trained observer. (These three approaches - heart rate monitors, activity monitors, and direct observation - might be more effective in settings with fewer students.)

Self-report instruments are appropriate for measuring physical activity in most school settings. Self-report instruments require students to recall and record their participation in physical activity over a set amount of time (usually from one to seven days). Although many self-report instruments are available (see Welk & Wood, 2000, for examples), all seek to quantify the frequency, intensity, and duration of students' physical activity. If students with disabilities have difficulty with self-reports, teachers or parents might need to provide an estimate of the information instead. A computer software program, Activitygram, provides teachers with an easy method for measuring student physical activity.

Activitygram

• Purpose: Activitygram (Cooper Institute, 2017), a program associated with Fitnessgram, records, analyzes, and saves student physical activity data and produces reports based on those data.
• Description: Activitygram is part of the Fitnessgram test program. The program prompts participants to recall their physical activities over the previous two or three days in 30-minute time blocks. Students select activities from within six categories: lifestyle activity, active aerobics, active sports, muscle fitness activities, flexibility exercises, and rest and inactivity. Students are also asked to rate the intensity of the activity (light, moderate, vigorous). Activity Log, a related component of Activitygram, allows students to track their physical activity (in step counts or minutes of activity) and to set personal goals and challenges. Activitygram and Activity Log printed reports provide an analysis of activity habits and personalized messages that give suggestions to increase or maintain physical activity. Recommendations are based on national guidelines endorsed by the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America).
• Reliability and validity: Because of the subjective nature of self-report measures, measurement error may reduce validity. Nevertheless, the Previous Day Physical Activity Recall instrument, on which the Activitygram program is based, has been shown to provide valid and reliable estimates of physical activity and also accurately identifies periods of moderate to vigorous activity (Weston, Petosa, & Pate, 1997). Measurement error can be minimized when parents, teachers, and others can verify activity measures.
• Comment: Although designed primarily with students without disabilities in mind, Activitygram can be useful for students receiving adapted physical education. Specific activities will vary (e.g., running vs. pushing a wheelchair), but the six categories of physical activity are appropriate for most students with or without disabilities. Younger children and those with intellectual disabilities, however, might have trouble recalling and entering activity data. Peer tutors, teacher aides, or parents could be prepared to make direct observations and could enter the data on behalf of a student who has difficulty using the system.
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Fitnessgram-Administration-Manual-5th-Edition-With-Web_Resource.

Specific Approaches for Physical Education and Sport

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

Humanistic Approach

In physical education, students with behavior disabilities ranging from mild to severe can be taught through the humanistic approach. In this context, humanism is applied to skill acquisition and the management of social behaviors. Generally speaking, some techniques suggested by Sherrill (2004) for improving self-concept are singularly applicable with this population; for example, teachers should strive to do the following (p. 234):

• Conceptualize individual and small-group counseling as an integral part of physical education.
• Teach students to care about each other and show that they care.
• Emphasize cooperation and social interaction rather than individual performance.
• Stress the importance of genuineness and honesty in praise.
• Increase perceived competence in relation to motor skill and fitness.
• Convey that they like and respect students as human beings, not just for their motor skills and fitness.

More specifically, the approach outlined by Hellison (2011) has immediate relevance for practitioners confronted with students who are usually high functioning but who lack self-control and consequently present management problems. Hellison has developed a set of alternative goals or levels for physical education that focus on human needs and values rather than on fitness and sport skill development exclusively. The main purpose of Hellison's approach is to develop positive social responsibility. The goals are developmental and reflect a loosely constructed level-by-level progression of attitudes and behaviors. They include self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-direction, and caring and helping.

• Level 0: Irresponsibility. This level defines students who fail to take responsibility for either their actions or inactions; they blame others for their behavior and typically make excuses.
• Level I: Respecting the rights and feelings of others. This level deals with the need for control of one's own behavior. Self-control should be the first goal, according to Hellison, because learning cannot take place effectively if one cannot control impulses to harm others physically and verbally.
• Level II: Participation and effort. Level II focuses on the need for physical activity and offers students one medium for personal stability through experiences in which they can engage on a daily basis. Participation involves getting uninterested students to at least go through the motions, experiencing various degrees of effort expenditure to determine if effort leads to improvement, and redefining success as a personal accomplishment.
• Level III: Self-direction. Level III emphasizes the need for students to take more responsibility for their choices and to link these choices with their own identities. Students at this level can work independently in class and can take responsibility for their intentions and actions. At this level, students begin to assume responsibility for the direction of their lives and to explore options in developing a strong and integrated personal identity. This level includes developing a knowledge base that will enhance achievement of their goals, developing a plan to accomplish their goals, and evaluating their plan to determine their success.
• Level IV: Caring and helping. Level IV is the most difficult for students; it is also not a requirement for successful participation in the responsibility model. At this level, students reach out beyond themselves to others, committing themselves to genuinely caring about other people. Students are motivated to give support, cooperate, show concern, and help. Generally speaking, the goal of level IV is the improvement of the entire group's welfare.
• Level V: Outside the gym. Level V promotes the opportunity to transfer many of the lessons learned in the gym to other areas of life. It also implies being a role model.

Hellison recognized that these five goals provide only a framework and that strategies must be employed to help students interact with self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participate and show effort, be self-directed, and demonstrate caring and helping behavior on a regular basis. He suggests five interaction strategies to help reach the goals. These include awareness talks (e.g., post levels on gym wall and refer to them frequently), the physical education lesson (e.g., students can be taught to solve conflict during a game), group meetings (e.g., students discuss issues of low motivation or difficulty in being self-directed), reflection time (e.g., students record in a journal or discuss how they did during class in relation to the goals they had established), and counseling time (e.g., students discuss their patterns of abusive behavior and possibly their underlying motives for such behavior). This last strategy gives students the opportunity to talk with the teacher about problems preventing them from achieving their goals within specified levels of the responsibility model. These strategies are "processes for helping students to become aware of, experience, make decisions about, and reflect on the model's goals" (Hellison & Templin, 1991, p. 108). See table 9.2 for a brief examination of the relationship between the levels and strategies in Hellison's model.

Many physical education programs use games to accomplish goals and objectives established for individuals and classes. Because students with behavioral disorders often lack fundamental skills, they frequently are incapable of demonstrating even minimal levels of competence in these games. As a result, they have an increased tendency to act out - perhaps with verbal or physical aggression - or to withdraw, which further excludes them from an opportunity to develop skills.

In an effort to promote the most positive learning environment, Hellison (2011) developed a nontraditional approach to working with at-risk students, using basketball as the primary vehicle for empowering students to learn personal and social values. Employing Hellison's responsibility model (discussed previously) as the philosophical underpinning, the coaching club is a before-school program in Chicago's inner city. It offers students the opportunity to explore movement through a progression of five levels: (I) self-control, meaning control of one's body and temper; (II) teamwork, meaning full participation by all team members; (III) self-coaching; (IV) coaching another team member; and (V) applying skills learned in the program outside the gym to school, home, and neighborhood. Playing ability is not a prerequisite. This program promotes social responsibility. Likewise, extrinsic rewards are unnecessary because students are motivated to reach level IV (coach) on the evaluation system (Hellison & Georgiadis, 1992, p. 7). Level IV consists of the following:

• Has good attendance.
• Is coachable and on task at practice.
• Does not abuse others or interrupt practice.
• Is able to set personal goals and work independently on these goals.
• Possesses good helping skills (such as giving cues, observing, and giving positive feedback as well as general praise).
• Encourages teamwork and passing the ball.
• Listens to players; is sensitive to their feelings and needs.
• Puts the welfare of players above own needs (such as the need to win or look good).
• Understands that exhibiting these characteristics is the key to being a good coach, regardless of personal basketball ability.

Behavioral Approach

Students with severe behavior disorders require intense programming efforts. This group includes students who are self-indulgent, aggressive, noncompliant, and self-stimulatory or self-destructive (Dunn & Leitschuh, 2014). Using the basic steps of behavioral programming discussed in chapter 6, Dunn and his coauthor developed the data-based gymnasium (DBG). This program incorporates behavioral principles in a systematic effort to produce procedural consistency for teachers who work with students with behavioral disorders and to bring student behavior under the control of naturally occurring reinforcers. To the latter end, instructors use natural reinforcers available in the environment, such as praising a desirable behavior to strengthen it or ignoring an undesirable behavior to bring about its extinction. Tangible reinforcers such as token economies are introduced only after it has been demonstrated that the consistent use of social reinforcement or extinction will not achieve the desired behavioral outcome.

In an effort to equip teachers with consistent behavioral procedures, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) use a variety of strategies, including rules of thumb, to apply to inappropriate behavior. For each area of inappropriate behavior (e.g., self-indulgent behavior), there exists a rule of thumb or generally accepted way of responding when certain undesirable behaviors occur. The intent of these rules is to make the development and implementation of a formal behavioral program unnecessary.

• Self-indulgent behavior. Behaviors in this category include crying, screaming, throwing tantrums, and performing repetitive, irritating activities or making noises. The rule of thumb for handling students who engage in self-indulgent behaviors is to ignore them until the behavior is discontinued and then socially reinforce the first occurrence of an appropriate behavior. For example, one would ignore children's tantrums when they cannot control a play situation with classmates but reinforce with social praise their initial attempts to play cooperatively.
• Noncompliant behavior. Noncompliant behaviors include instances when students decline to comply when instructed to do something as well as forgetting or failing to do something because they choose not to do what is asked. Noncompliance also includes doing what is requested but in a less than acceptable way. The rule of thumb is that teachers should ignore noncompliant verbalizations, lead students physically through the task, or prevent students from participating in an activity until they follow through on the initial request. Compliance with any request is immediately reinforced socially. For example, one would physically restrict aggressive play and socially praise a child's positive engagement with a classmate or group.
• Aggressive behavior. Verbal or physical abuse directed toward an object or a person is considered aggressive behavior. Examples of aggressive acts include hitting, fighting, pinching, biting, pushing, or deliberately destroying someone's property. The rule of thumb for aggressive behavior is that it is punished immediately with a verbal reprimand and the offending student is removed from the activity. Social reinforcement is given when students demonstrate appropriate interaction with other people or objects. For example, a student who strikes another student is immediately reprimanded verbally (conflict resolution) and is eliminated from the activity (given a time-out; see chapter 6).
• Self-stimulatory behavior. This category includes behaviors that interfere with learning because students become engrossed in the perseverative nature of the activities. Examples include head banging, hand flapping, body rocking, and eye gouging. As a rule of thumb, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) recommend a formal behavioral program to deal with this type of behavior. An in-depth discussion of formal principles and programs for behavior modification is presented in chapter 6.

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The story of Loretta Claiborne

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7.

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7. Forbidden to participate in school sports because she was in special education, Loretta ran to get away from the bullies. At the age of 18, she became a Special Olympics athlete. Twenty-five years later, in 1996, Loretta received the prestigious Arthur Ashe Courage Award at the ESPN Espy Awards. In 1999, Disney aired a made-for-TV movie about her life, The Loretta Claiborne Story, and she appeared on the Oprah Winfrey Show.

Along the way, Loretta completed 26 marathons, including three Boston Marathons, placing among the top 100 of all women each time. In 1988 she finished in the top 25 women in the Pittsburgh Marathon and was named Special Olympics Female Athlete of the Year. In 1991, Loretta was named to the Special Olympics board of directors and was selected by Runner's World magazine as the Special Olympics Athlete of the Quarter Century. The following year she was inducted into the York, Pennsylvania, Sports Hall of Fame and the William Penn High School Alumni Hall of Fame - the same high school that had barred her from the track team because she had intellectual disabilities.

Loretta introduced then-U.S. president Bill Clinton at the 1995 Special Olympics World Summer Games opening ceremonies in New Haven, Connecticut, and received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Quinnipiac College in Hamden, Connecticut, becoming the first person with intellectual disabilities to receive an honorary doctorate. The Loretta Claiborne Building in York, Pennsylvania, was dedicated in 2001. In 2003, she was awarded a second doctorate of humane letters by Villanova University in Pennsylvania. Currently, her uplifting life story is chronicled in the text, In Her Stride, a feature title in the WorldScapes literacy series for grades 3 through 6.

One of Loretta's most memorable races was a marathon in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Running strong, Loretta noticed another runner beginning to falter. Loretta slowed her pace and stayed with the man throughout the race, encouraging him on; they crossed the finish line together. The other runner? Former world heavyweight boxing champion Larry Holmes! Now a black belt in karate, Loretta still runs about 5 miles (8 kilometers) every day and also competes in Special Olympics bowling, figure skating, basketball, golf, soccer, skiing, softball, and swimming.

Implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

Assessment

One method that has been proven helpful in assessing students with ASD is the system known as ecological task analysis (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). Within the model, the instructor examines the interaction of three factors: the student, the environment, and the task. To derive a good understanding of the student, the assessor should seek information from several sources, including parents, teachers, therapists, and aides. One should fully understand reinforcers and modes of communication before attempting to assess the child. The assessor should also spend time developing a rapport with the child before assessment. When beginning the assessment, it is important to start with activities the child understands and is able to perform and then move on to more difficult tasks. It is important also to understand qualities that inhibit or enhance performance. This approach allows for early success and better compliance throughout the assessment.

The second factor that needs to be considered is the task. To determine if the task is appropriate, consider the following questions: Is it age appropriate? Is it functional? Will the information gained assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP) goals and objectives? Will the information be used for program development and instruction? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the task being assessed is appropriate. To assess the task, the assessor might use a task analysis approach in which requisite skills are identified and either further broken down or assessed as a whole. For example, in assessing soccer skills, the assessor would determine the requisite skills for soccer (e.g., dribbling, passing, trapping, shooting). Each of these skills could be broken down into components assessed separately, or the skill could be assessed as a whole. Once the assessment is complete, the information gleaned can be used to develop goals and objectives based on unique needs, serve as a basis for instruction, and aid in activity selection.

Finally the instructor needs to consider the environment. Keeping in mind that children with ASD might be hypersensitive to environmental stimuli, the instructor should provide an environment with limited distractions and focus on one task at a time. In the soccer example, the instructor can provide different-size balls, different-size goals, and different surfaces for performing the task. After considering the individual student, the task, and the environmental parameters involved, the instructor observes the student's behavior and preferences and documents his choices. These choices serve as a baseline and a springboard upon which to teach.

Activity Selection

When selecting activities for children with ASD, the most important consideration is the needs and interests of the learners and their families. In addition, the functional value of the activity should be taken into account. Activities that have a high probability of success for children with ASD are generally more individual, such as swimming, running, and bowling. However, no one should assume that children with ASD cannot participate in and enjoy team sports. Team sports might need modifications to enhance success, but all children should have the opportunity to explore a range of physical education activities.

The learner's age must also be taken into account. Both developmental appropriateness and age appropriateness should always be considered when selecting activities. Although elementary-aged children spend a great deal of time learning and improving their fundamental motor skills, it would be inappropriate to focus on such skills at the middle school or high school level. When selecting activities, instructors should also consider family and community interests. Does the child come from a family that enjoys hiking or skiing? Or is the family more involved in soccer or softball? Considering these factors helps shape the activity selection so that the child with ASD can more fully integrate within the family and community.

One form of movement, known as sensorimotor activities, can be especially beneficial to students with ASD. These activities are designed to stimulate the senses with a focus on kinesthetic awareness, tactile stimulation, auditory processing, and visual - motor coordination. Kinesthetic awareness deals with the relationship of the body to space. Examples of kinesthetic activities include jumping on a trampoline, crawling through tunnels, jumping over a rope, and rolling down an incline mat. Tactile stimulation can be enhanced by having the child interact with objects, such as balls with various sizes, shapes, and textures. Auditory processing can be enhanced through the use of music and songs that instruct the child in a sequence of movements. Finally, visual - motor coordination can be strengthened through playing an array of games that require tracking, such as kickball, softball, soccer, or lacrosse.

Instructional and Management Techniques

Teaching students with ASD is not unlike teaching other children. Teachers need to establish rapport with students, develop trust, relay information in a clear and concise manner, and provide reinforcement and feedback to help shape appropriate motor and social behavior. Specific strategies that prove helpful in instructing and managing students with ASD include the use of picture and communication boards, the consistent use of structure and routines, and the use of natural cues in the environment to facilitate the acquisition and execution of skills. Other methods include the correction procedure rule and parallel talk. The correction procedure rule is a system used when inappropriate skills or social behaviors occur. Here, the instructor takes the child back to the last task that was done correctly in an effort to redirect the inappropriate behavior. Parallel talk is a system in which the instructor talks through the actions that are occurring - for example, "Juan is dribbling the basketball" - which aids in the understanding and purpose of actions. In addition, teaching to the strengths of learners by considering their preferred learning modality will also prove helpful in teaching students with ASD. Finally, the value of using support staff and peer tutors should not be underestimated in teaching students with ASD. Each of these strategies is more fully explained next.

Picture and Communication Boards

One of the most common and most successful methods used to teach children with ASD is the use of picture and communication boards. Types of pictures include photographs, lifelike drawings, and symbolic drawings. Some children may not yet understand pictures and may need objects to represent them, such as dollhouse furniture or small figures of objects. When pictures are used, it is best to have only one item in the picture because children with ASD have a tendency toward overselectivity, meaning that they are not able to screen out irrelevant information. Teachers should help students focus on the most relevant information. For example, if a child is working on basketball skills, it may be preferable not to use a picture of a basketball court with students playing on it because there is too much information in the picture, making it difficult for the child to screen out irrelevant information. Pictures can also be arranged to create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Boardmaker, as described earlier, is one of many commercial software programs that can help create picture boards using universally accepted symbols to depict events and actions.

Routines and Structure

Establishing routines and structure aids in managing and instructing students with ASD. Children with ASD often demonstrate inappropriate behavioral responses when new or incongruent information is presented in a random or haphazard manner. Routines with set beginning and end points allow for more predictability and help to reduce sensory overload. Routines are also useful in introducing new information or behaviors. Keeping some information familiar and gradually introducing new information helps students respond appropriately. Routines also help to reduce verbal directions and allow children to work independently.

The following scenario illustrates a typical routine that incorporates pictures and can be useful in physical education. Before Justin goes to physical education class, a classroom teacher gives him a picture of the physical education teacher and says, "Justin, it is time for PE." The picture of the physical education teacher allows Justin to understand what is going to happen next. When the class enters the gym, Justin gives the picture card to the physical education teacher. The physical education teacher then uses a communication board with pictures to relay to Justin the lesson from start to finish. For example, a picture of a child stretching could indicate the warm-up, and a picture of a child doing curl-ups could indicate the fitness portion of the lesson. Further, the specific focus could be identified, as with a picture of a soccer ball. Finally, goalposts can be used to indicate the game activity. Figure 10.2 presents a sample schedule for a physical education lesson. The components of the schedule can remain the same, but the actual activities can be manipulated to prepare the child for the daily lesson. When using words instead of pictures, the words can be erased after the task is completed. This system allows students to understand that the activity has ended and the next activity will soon begin.

Physical education sample pictorial schedule. The pictures allow the student to understand what is going to happen in the lesson from start to finish.

As noted previously, children with ASD have difficulty with sensory overload. When they are entering a new environment, such as a gym, the atmosphere may create extreme sensory overload. Structure helps alleviate this stress by creating environments that are easily understood and manageable. In physical education, teachers can structure their space so that the environment is predictable. First, the teacher needs to identify for the child where activities are done (in the gym, on the field, on a mat), where things are located (balls in bin, ropes on hangers, rackets on hooks), and how to move from one place to another (rotating stations, rotating positions, moving from inside to outside). Second, the teacher needs to establish concrete boundaries. For example, if a child is to remain on one-half of the field, cones indicating the halfway point should be in place. Labels can also help organize space. For example, equipment boxes should be clearly labeled so that the child can easily retrieve and put away equipment.

At the conclusion of the lesson, the physical education teacher should have a consistent cue to transition the child back to the classroom. This could be a picture of the classroom teacher or a desk. Forewarning is another effective way to transition a child back to the classroom. For example, the teacher might say, "Justin, in three minutes PE will be over." This helps the child better understand time and prepare for the change in routine. A second warning might be given at 2 minutes and a third at 1 minute. Through proper preparation, anxiety levels are reduced because the child begins to understand that a change in the task will occur after the 1-minute signal from the instructor. Again, the child must understand what will be happening next. When he arrives back in the classroom, physical education can be crossed off his daily schedule and he can begin the next activity on the schedule.

The implementation of routines and structure might at first seem time-consuming for the teacher. However, once these systems are in place, dramatic improvements in behavior and participation usually occur, making the extra time and effort worthwhile.

Natural Environmental Cues and Task Analysis

In teaching new skills to children with ASD, instructors are urged to use natural cues within the environment and to minimize verbal cues. If the goal is for the child to kick a soccer ball into a goal, the natural cues would be a soccer ball and a goal. To achieve the desired objective, the instructor might need to break the task down into smaller steps or task analyze the skills. For example, shooting a soccer ball into a goal might involve the following steps: (1) Line the child up at the shooting line; (2) place the ball on the shooting line; and (3) prompt the child to take a shot. One may break the skill down further by placing a poly spot in front of the child to initiate a stepping action with the opposite kicking foot and prompting the child with either a verbal cue or physical assist to use the kicking foot to make contact with the ball. The degree to which skills should be task analyzed depends on the task and the learner.

Demonstrations also prove helpful in the acquisition of new skills. If the child performs the task correctly, the lesson should continue. For example, the teacher might teach the child how to stop a ball being passed to the shooting line. If the child is unsuccessful in shooting the ball toward the goal, the teacher could use physical assistance to help her gain a better understanding of what the task requires, allowing her to repeat the task until no physical assistance is needed. Once the child has performed the task correctly, the teacher would move on to the rest of the lesson. Figure 10.3 depicts a child working on soccer skills with assistance.

Shooting a soccer ball into a goal can be broken down into steps. Here the child is taking step 3, with the assistant prompting the child to take a shot.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Correction Procedure Rule

Another effective technique in instructing children with ASD is the correction procedure rule, which one applies by taking the child back to the last component of the skill done correctly. Using batting as an example, say a child maintains a proper batting stance and properly swings the bat at the ball but then runs to first base with the bat. In this case, following the correction procedure rule, the instructor would ask the child to repeat the swing and then physically assist her in placing the bat on the ground before running to first. The instructor returns the child to the last correct response before the incorrect response. The application example is another scenario in which the correction procedure rule can be used.

Application Example

Importance of Visual Cues in Learning a New Task

Setting

A physical education class is working on a tee-ball unit.

Student

Kiera, a seven-year-old girl with autism in elementary physical education class

Task

Learning how to hit a ball off the tee and running to first base

Issue

Kiera's physical education teacher, Mr. Greer, has been teaching her how to play tee-ball. They have practiced swinging the bat at the ball (in a hand-over-hand manner), making contact with the ball, putting the bat down, and running to first base. It appeared that Kiera had the hang of the skill, so Mr. Greer allowed her to bat independently. Kiera stood in the ready position; Mr. Greer placed the ball on the tee and took a step back. Just then a gust of wind came, and the ball fell off the tee. Kiera immediately placed the bat on the ground and began running to first base even though she did not make contact with the ball. This showed that Kiera still did not understand the purpose of the game, which was to contact the ball with the bat before running.

Application

Mr. Greer used visual cues to create a positive learning environment by doing the following:

• Mr. Greer demonstrated to Kiera what to do if the ball fell off the tee. Mr. Greer put the ball on the tee loosely so that it would fall off. When the ball fell off, he picked up the ball, replaced it on the tee, and struck it with the bat.
• Mr. Greer then signaled to Kiera to try. Again he placed the ball loosely on the tee and gave the bat to Kiera.
• The ball fell off the tee and Kiera picked up the ball and replaced it on the tee. She then struck the ball and ran to first base.

This example illustrates the need for students with autism to see and understand a task. In no way was Kiera being uncooperative or off task. She simply did not understand the task. When she understood the task, she was able to participate in the game independently.

Kiera practices her swing in tee-ball.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Parallel Talk

To promote language and skill acquisition, instructors are encouraged to embed language throughout the lesson. One way to accomplish this is using parallel talk, in which the teacher verbalizes the actions of the learner. For example, if Marci is rolling a red ball to the teacher, the teacher would say, "Marci is rolling the red ball." Parallel talk can also help children associate certain skills with their verbal meaning, such as spatial concepts (e.g., in, out, under, over) and motor skills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, striking). Another way to foster language acquisition is to create print-rich physical education environments. Pictures, posters, and action words should be displayed prominently around the gym. Labeling the action as it is being performed helps students acquire both receptive and expressive language skills and attach meaning to actions.

Learning Modalities

Learning modalities, or learning styles, refer to the way in which students learn best. The three common categories of learning include auditory, motor, and visual. Auditory learners tend to learn by following commands or prompts and may be easily distracted by background noise. Children who are motor or kinesthetic learners tend to learn by doing. They are active learners and would rather do than watch; they enjoy hands-on projects. Children who are visual learners tend to learn by watching and looking at pictures, and they can be easily distracted by surrounding activities and noise. Research indicates that students with ASD tend to be visual learners (Sicile-Kira, 2014), although all learning modalities should be employed from time to time. As indicated previously, the use of pictures and communication boards is by far the most effective teaching strategy used to communicate with and teach students with ASD.

Support Personnel

Teachers should take advantage of support personnel to assist them in implementing programs. Teaching assistants, paraprofessionals, and peer tutors are all valuable resources that can help in providing individualized instruction to students with ASD in physical education. Teachers can request support personnel through the child's IEP as a necessary component to support the learning of children with ASD.

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Early Childhood Program Standards and Learning Objectives

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges.

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges. Early childhood movement programs should provide children with the opportunity to explore and act on objects in their physical environment (Odom & Wolery, 2003). A well-designed movement curriculum for preschool through third grade should focus on fundamental movement abilities in the preschool years, specialized movement abilities in the early elementary years, and opportunities for all children to be physically active.

The preschool years give instructors the opportunity to guide children through games and activities in order to build a skill foundation and maintain appropriate activity levels. This fundamental movement phase should focus on stability, locomotor, and object-control skills (see chapter 19 for a review of the fundamental movement phase). It follows, then, that the early elementary years (kindergarten through third grade) allow the teacher to integrate the knowledge and skills that children have acquired and begin to refine fundamental skills required for more advanced games and activities. The specialized movement phase gives children the opportunity to use several fundamental skills to complete a single activity that is more specialized (see chapter 19 for a review of the specialized movement phase).

The importance of seeing the connection between the fundamental movement phase and specialized movement phase in the early childhood years is critical for physical education curriculum development. As a guide, national standards for physical education (SHAPE America, 2014) have been written for elementary children in the United States. These five physical education standards are in place for five- to nine-year-old children and are written to reflect what children should be able to do after participation in a quality physical education program. PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008) is a valid and reliable tool developed to assess the first national physical education standard, which reads "The physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 12). A quality physical education program for elementary-aged children should follow national standards and build on the fundamental movement skill programs introduced in preschool.

However, early learning standards vary state by state for preschool-aged children. To assist early childhood educators, the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has organized a standards database on what states have identified as educational priorities for children of prekindergarten age (NIEER, 2014). Using learning standards to guide programming for children with and without disabilities through the early childhood years can be beneficial in all domains of learning, including physical health and development. Early childhood physical educators should be knowledgeable about learning standards and assessing them and how they contribute to program development. Mastering fundamental movements and skills and integrating them into games and activities are processes.

Regarding physical activity for young children, it has been recommended that preschool-aged children accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity per day, and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping (NASPE, 2002). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009) also recommends that playing time (including large motor activities) can benefit young children in physical competence, social skills, self-control, and problem-solving abilities as well as giving them an opportunity to practice emerging skills.

Activity environments designed to provide instruction for young children with developmental delays and those with disabilities should be individualized according to assessment information. Arbitrarily selecting games and activities because they seem fun and the children appear to enjoy them is not necessarily in line with good practice. Specifically, learning environments should parallel the strengths and challenges identified during the assessment process and written in the IEP as instructional objectives. Instruction is based on a good understanding of each child's present level of performance. An activity setting should be carefully planned to build on what children already know and promote the acquisition of new skills.

Developmental theorists support instruction that encourages children to explore and manipulate their environment in order to construct meaning (Lefrancois, 2006). Individualizing instruction for each child in the class is the challenge faced by teachers providing early childhood adapted physical education in an integrated setting. Using a differentiated instructional approach helps teachers address the diverse learning needs of several children in the same class (Sands & Barker, 2004). The child's developmental abilities (physical, social, and cognitive) and the effect that a certain disability might have on this development must be considered.

Developmental Differences Between Preschoolers and Primary-Aged Children

The cognitive and social developmental status of a four-year-old differs from that of a six-year-old. As children develop cognitively and socially, they incorporate their movement strategies in new ways. Teachers providing adapted physical education must understand age-related developmental differences in order to construct appropriate learning environments for children who exhibit delays in one or more areas of learning (Haywood & Getchell, 2014).

Developmentally appropriate movement environments designed for preschool-aged children (three to five years of age) differ from those planned for kindergarten and elementary school children (six to eight years of age). A watered-down kindergarten curriculum presented to children in preschool is not appropriate. Games, activities, and equipment meaningful to a four-year-old might be of little interest to a seven-year-old and vice versa. For example, preschoolers love to experiment with speed, direction change, and space. Figure 22.1 shows a young boy making his way through a tunnel placed within a larger activity area. With a little creativity and imagination, teachers of early childhood physical education can create stimulating and motivating learning environments. A refrigerator box that has holes cut for climbing and hiding might entice a preschooler to explore and move for a long time. Preschoolers are intrigued by new spaces and the opportunity to explore these seemingly simple environments. On the other hand, a seven-year-old might find these activities simplistic and boring. She would be much more interested and challenged by moving under and through a parachute lifted by classmates. A child in first or second grade (six or seven years old) might be challenged by activities that encourage a higher level of problem solving. Children at this age have greater ability to reason and logically integrate thoughts than younger children do. For a three- or four-year-old, a parachute activity that includes anything more than moving the parachute up and down is often frightening and unpredictable.

A young boy makes his way through a tunnel, a familiar play space for preschoolers.
© Lauriece Zittel

The NAEYC (2009) provides guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood and discusses the differences between preschool and primary-aged children in their physical, social, cognitive, and language development. Teachers providing adapted physical education should keep in mind that the cognitive and social development of young children cannot be ignored when developing goals and objectives in the psychomotor domain. The interplay between each of these functional areas of learning and an individual child's development within each area must be considered when planning movement environments and instruction.

Developmental Considerations for Young Children With Disabilities

The effect of a disability on the communication, social, cognitive, or motor development of a child must be recognized before planning instruction. Knowing how a child's disability affects motor learning and performance is essential for the development of an appropriate physical education program. Young children with orthopedic impairments, for example, might begin independently exploring their physical environments by using a walker, wheelchair, or crutches but might also require accommodations in order to benefit from age-appropriate activities. Instructors should be aware of physical barriers that exist in the activity setting and design the environment in a way that encourages interactions with peers and equipment. Assistive devices that allow children with orthopedic impairments to initiate tasks that are both physically and intellectually challenging should be available to promote independence.

Young children with delays in social interaction - for example, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - may require modifications in the introduction and delivery of games and activities. Small- or large-group activities may be difficult for children with ASD, and practicing motor skills might need to occur in social environments that offer options for solitary and parallel play. For young children with ASD, interaction with others might not be the best instructional approach or least restrictive environment for learning new skills. On the other hand, children with intellectual disabilities often benefit from age-appropriate peer interactions that are consistent and repetitive. As shown in figure 22.2, a predictable environment with familiar equipment and routines will enhance opportunities for learning. Physical educators need to be aware of the characteristics of young children with disabilities and plan activities and environments accordingly.

Familiar environments promote learning among children with disabilities.
Photo courtesy of NIU. Photographer: Molly Coleman.

Facilitating Communication in a Movement Lesson

Interacting with others requires some level of communication. Some young children with disabilities use speech and language to communicate, whereas others who are nonverbal might use alternative methods and strategies. Although speech or language impairment is considered the most prevalent disability category among preschoolers, children with many diagnoses might have communication needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The movement setting, typically a motivating setting for young children, can be an ideal environment to enhance communication skills. Collaboration with classroom teachers and speech therapists assists the early childhood physical educator in determining what communication goals and objectives can be integrated within the physical education setting.

Young children with disabilities or developmental delays who are verbal might use speech and language to communicate with peers and teachers. The movement setting is a natural place to incorporate concepts such as under, over, more, through, and around. To reinforce the meaning of movement concepts and model the use of speech, a physical educator should talk with children as they participate in each movement lesson. For example, as children are pretending to be in the jungle climbing over rocks (bolsters under mats) and jumping over cutout ants and snakes (taped to the floor), a teacher might say, "I like the way everyone is jumping over the creatures in the jungle. Everyone find a creature and say ‘over' as we jump. Ready?" Prompting children to use the words to identify the concept (e.g., over) as they practice the skill (e.g., horizontal jump) reinforces the meaning of commonly taught concepts in early childhood and encourages children to use speech. Similarly, identifying shapes, colors, or equipment can become a natural part of an early childhood movement setting.

Children with speech and language delays or those who are nonverbal as a result of a particular disability or multiple disabilities might use augmentative and alternative systems to communicate (Millar, Light, & Schlosser, 2006). Sign language and picture systems are nonverbal options used by teachers to communicate with young children. Sign language is a popular method of communicating with young children of all abilities; however, children with communication delays and those who are hard of hearing might benefit in particular. Physical educators not proficient in sign language should consult with classroom teachers, interpreters, or speech therapists to learn the signs used by young children in the classroom.

Picture systems can also be used in a movement setting to increase communication between the child and teacher. Young children with autism often have sophisticated picture systems in place to assist with identifying activities, equipment, activity directions, and transitions. Picture systems can increase the probability that children with communication delays have the opportunity to engage in movement activities to the maximum extent possible. Helping a child understand what to do and when to do it often decreases the time needed to manage unwanted behaviors. Pictures posted in the activity area or taped to pieces of equipment are a great communication strategy for all children. A sequence of pictures, or visual schedule, posted to a board or paper is a functional method for communicating an activity, skill sequence, or transition to a child who is verbal or nonverbal. Visual schedules help children manage their environment while often decreasing the amount of adult intervention needed. Figure 22.3 shows an example of a young boy removing a picture of a completed activity from his schedule. The pictures remaining on the schedule give him a clear indication of activities to follow. Depending on the learning style of the child, all pictures can be on the board at the beginning of the class, or pictures can be added as the activity is presented.

Visual schedules help children manage their environments.
© Lauriece Zittel

Voice output devices are another method used to communicate with children who are nonverbal. A voice output system makes use of pictures and symbols along with prerecorded words and phrases (Blischak, 2003). Programming movement concepts, names of equipment or activities, and general statements provides a child with functional communication during physical education. For young children using a voice output system, a movement setting might reinforce practice with a new voice output device.

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Combining the Athlete and the Wheelchair

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

Fitting the Wheelchair to the Athlete

Proper fitting of the wheelchair to the athlete is critical for high levels of athletic performance. Most manufacturers provide retail experts who are experienced in measuring athletes for performance wheelchairs.

In fitting the frame, the two most critical considerations are the dimensions of the seat (width, length, and backrest height) and the position of the seat in relation to the main wheels. Both these considerations serve to ensure that the wheelchair fits the athlete perfectly and that she is in an optimal position to apply force and maneuver the wheelchair. Refer to the application example for a list of considerations to keep in mind while helping athletes find the chair that is best for them.

Application Example

Helping a Wheelchair Athlete Find the Right Sport and Chair

Setting

A community-based junior wheelchair sport program

Student

A 16-year-old junior wheelchair basketball player with a spinal cord injury needs recommendations to refine his individualized transition program to incorporate adult wheelchair sports. The player is tall, has played the center and forward positions, and wishes to purchase his own wheelchair.

Issue

What considerations should be taken into account in making recommendations to this athlete?

Application

Considerations for this athlete center on equipment, physical fitness, and individual skills.

Equipment considerations

• Athlete's height
• Desire to play a certain position
• Need to establish athlete's physical impairment, sport classification level, and trunk stability when seated
• Adjustability for height and point of balance (being able to maximize the seat height to about 21 inches [53 centimeters] for the center and forward positions)
• System considerations such as strapping and mobility in the wheelchair
• Reputable manufacturer

Individual physical fitness

• Strength training program that targets the upper body muscles in paired groups (e.g., biceps and triceps)
• Cardiorespiratory conditioning program that uses an arm crank ergometer or, preferably, a training roller

Individual skills targeted

• Wheelchair mobility skills both with and without the basketball
• Shooting skills both stationary and moving
• Passing skills both stationary and moving
• Studying the sophisticated strategies involved in the adult game

System Considerations for Racing Wheelchairs

A number of system considerations apply to racing wheelchairs. The following section identifies propulsion techniques and how to overcome negative forces as important considerations in developing an athlete's wheelchair racing system.

Propulsion Techniques in Track and Road Racing

Coupled with the evolution of the racing wheelchair has been the development of ever more efficient propulsion techniques. A six-phase technique (see figure 29.7) is most frequently used, although not all athletes use each phase with the same degree of effectiveness. An analysis by O'Connor and colleagues (1998) led the authors to conclude that there is a need for coaches to become more knowledgeable concerning appropriate wheelchair propulsion techniques.

Six-phase propulsion cycle.

Basic Stroke

The propulsion cycle starts with the hands drawn up as far above and behind the push rim as possible given the seating position and flexibility of the athlete. The hands are then accelerated as rapidly and forcefully as possible (acceleration phase) until they strike the push rim (see point A on figure 29.7). The moment of contact is the impact energy transfer phase (point B on figure 29.7), during which the kinetic energy stored in the fast-moving hand is transferred to the slower-moving push rim. With the hand in contact with the push rim, there is a force application, or push, phase (point C on figure 29.7), and this continues until the hands reach almost to the bottom of the push rim. During the force application phase, most of the propulsion comes from the muscles acting around the elbow and shoulder.

As the hands reach the bottom of the push rim, the powerful muscles of the forearm are used to pronate the hand, which allows the thumb to be used to give a last, powerful flick to the push rim. This last flicking action is reversed by a few athletes who use supination in the rotational energy transfer phase (point D on figure 29.7) to flick the push rim with the fingers rather than the thumb; and research indicates that this type of backhand technique may be more efficient in endurance races (Chow et al., 2001).

Immediately following the rotational energy transfer, the hands leave the push rim during the castoff phase (see point E on figure 29.7). Here it is important that the hand be moving faster than the push rim as it pulls away, since a slower hand will act as a brake on the wheelchair. Often the athlete will use the pronation or supination of the rotational energy transfer phase to accelerate the hands and arms and thus allow them to be carried up and back under ballistic motion. This upward and backward motion is called the backswing phase (point F on figure 29.7) and is used to get the hands far enough away from the push rim to allow them to accelerate forward to strike the push rim at high speed at the start of the next stroke. Goosey-Tolfrey and colleagues (2000) reported that no single identifiable stroke frequency could be recommended as best for wheelchair racing, but the athlete's own freely chosen frequency was the most economical in laboratory conditions.

This basic propulsion stroke is modified by the terrain over which the athlete is wheeling, by the tactics of the race, and by the athlete's level of disability. On uphill parts of a course, the athlete shortens the backswing and acceleration phases so as to minimize the time during which force is not applied to the push rim and during which the chair could roll backward. Tactically, the athlete is either wheeling at constant speed or is making an attack and needs to accelerate. The basic stroke described previously is used at steady speed; during bursts of acceleration, the major change in stroke takes place during the backswing. At steady speeds, the backswing is a relatively relaxed ballistic movement in which the velocity at castoff is used to raise the hand to its highest and most rearward position. This relaxed backswing is efficient and allows a brief moment of rest during each stroke. During acceleration, however, the major change in stroke dynamics is to increase the number of strokes from approximately 80 per minute to more than 120 per minute. This is achieved by a rapid reduction in the time taken for a more restricted backswing.

Race Start

The stroke is modified during the start of a race. Because the wheelchair is stationary, the hands should grip the push rim (rather than striking it), and for the first few strokes the arc of pushing will be more restricted with as rapid a recovery as possible. The various approaches that have been adopted are dependent on the athlete's preference. Some athletes attempt to make longer, more forceful pushes to get the wheels going, whereas others make shorter, sharper pushes to get the hands moving fast as early as possible.

Retarding Forces and Overcoming Them

While the athlete provides the energy to drive the wheelchair forward, the twin retarding forces of rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag act to slow it down. When propulsive forces are greater than resistance, the wheelchair accelerates, and when the retarding forces are greater, the chair is slowed. Obviously, reductions in rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag translate directly into higher wheeling speeds and improved athletic performance.

Rolling Resistance

On a hard, smooth surface, the majority of the rolling resistance of the wheel occurs at the point where the tire is in contact with the ground. As the tire rotates, each part is compressed as it passes under the hub and is in contact with the surface; then it rebounds as it begins to rise again and contact with the surface is broken. Not all the energy used to compress the tire is recovered on the rebound, and the energy loss (called hysteresis) is the major determinant of rolling resistance.

Rolling resistance of racing wheelchairs is also affected by the camber angle of the main wheel, which increases with camber (Faupin et al., 2004; Mason, van der Woude, de Groot, & Goosey-Tolfrey, 2011) and wheel alignment, referred to as toe-in or toe-out. Wheels that are not toed correctly dramatically increase the rolling resistance of a wheelchair. Athletes should do everything in their power to check and adjust alignment before every important race.

Aerodynamic Drag

The problem of aerodynamic drag of racing wheelchairs and athletes is unique in sport because of the relatively low speeds at which events take place. Races (10,000 meters) on the track take place at average speeds between 6.84 and 8.40 meters per second (female and males, respectively). Although the race times of wheelchairs have dramatically improved over the last decade, the times are still considerably slower than the speeds found in cycling. This creates special low-speed aerodynamic conditions.

Aerodynamic drag is caused by two separate but interrelated forces called surface drag and form drag. Surface drag is caused by the adhesion of air molecules to the surface of an object passing through it, and it is very powerful at low speeds. Form drag, on the other hand, is caused by the difference in air pressure between the front and the back of an object, which in turn is created by the swirls and eddy currents formed as the wheelchair and athlete pass through the air.

For wheelchair racers, the problem is that smooth surfaces increase surface drag while decreasing form drag. Some aspects of aerodynamic drag reduction are beyond doubt; these are the importance of reducing both surface and form drag by minimizing the drag-producing areas of the wheelchair and the athlete's clothing.

Drafting

Because aerodynamic drag represents approximately 40 percent of the force acting to slow down a wheelchair racer, methods of minimizing this can pay considerable dividends. The single most effective way in which drag can be reduced is the process of drafting. Drafting occurs when one wheelchair follows closely behind another wheelchair that acts as a wind deflector. At the end of long races, the energy saved by drafting can be a critical determinant of race outcome. Frequently teams work together, taking turns at both leading and drafting so that their overall performance will be increased.

System Considerations for Court Wheelchairs

This section does not include information on propulsion techniques in court sports. There is less research on propulsion techniques for court sports, presumably because of the wide variability in the propulsion techniques as compared to those in racing; however, Vanlandewijck and colleagues (2001) conducted a review of propulsion biomechanics that included not only wheelchair racing but also basketball and rugby. For those interested in increasing wheelchair sport performance, it is recommended reading.

As mentioned previously, the two fundamental features of a sport wheelchair are the dimensions of the seat and its positioning in relation to the wheels, although there are differences in the reasoning behind both of these features in relation to racing wheelchairs. In wheelchair racing, the key performance indicator is speed or endurance (or both) in a predominantly linear direction. However, in court sports, maneuverability is also a key area of performance. Therefore, whereas wheelchair racers require a perfectly fitting seat so that no energy is lost during propulsion, court sport athletes desire a seat customized to their anthropometrics to facilitate their agility. If a seat is too wide, the athlete can slide around in the chair, which equates to a loss of energy during turning; the body has to then catch up before being in a position whereby force can be applied to the wheels. When the seat is the correct width, the wheelchair should be able to respond more effectively to the athlete. This enables those athletes with sufficient trunk function to be able to maneuver their chair without necessarily having to touch their wheels. This feature of performance can also be facilitated by strapping around the knees or lap, which further secures the athlete to the chair, making movements such as tilting in wheelchair basketball possible.

The backrest is another dimension of the seat that warrants consideration when one is configuring a sport wheelchair. The backrest is essentially designed to improve the athlete's stability, which can be impaired if the backrest is too low for the functional capacity of the athlete. Alternatively, if the backrest is too high, movements can be restricted when the athlete is trying to move backward to reach a ball in basketball or rugby or hitting the ball in tennis. Strapping around the trunk can be applied to facilitate stability, although similar precautions must be taken to ensure that strapping is used only if the functional capacity of the athlete requires. If too much strapping is applied too tightly, the athlete's ability to move can be unnecessarily sacrificed at the expense of stability.

To further facilitate the fitting of the athlete to the sport wheelchair and subsequently maximize maneuverability performance, molded seats have recently emerged in wheelchair tennis and wheelchair basketball (figure 29.8). Since a molded seat will mimic the exact dimensions of each individual athlete, previous limitations associated with a conventional seat, such as energy loss during propulsion and impaired maneuverability, should be eradicated.

Example of (a) a conventional sport wheelchair seat and (b) a molded seat to facilitate maneuverability performance.
Photos courtesy of Dr. John Lenton.

Once the seat is successfully designed for the specific athlete, the next thing to consider is where the seat fits in relation to the main wheels in both a horizontal (anterior - posterior) and vertical position (see figure 29.9).

(a) Anterior - posterior and (b) vertical main-wheel adjustments.

Anterior - Posterior Seat Position

Horizontal positioning of the main wheels affects the mobility of the chair. The farther forward the main wheel from a hypothesized neutral position (see figure 29.9a, position A), the more maneuverable the chair (see figure 29.9a, position B). Unfortunately, the farther forward the main wheel relative to the center of gravity, the more likely it is that the chair will tilt up. Although the introduction of the anti-tip castor wheel prevents the athlete from falling backward, it does place a large percentage of body mass over the rear castors. Consequently, athletes need to reposition their body weight forward in order to drive the wheels forward, which will be limited by their trunk function. However, this is a position that many low-point wheelchair rugby players are forced to adopt since they do not have the triceps function or stability to sit above the wheel and drive it down. Alternatively they choose to sit farther back so that they can make the most of their biceps function and "pull" the wheel up and forward.

Vertical Seat Position

Vertical positioning of the main wheel affects the height at which the athlete sits and the center of gravity of the system. This fundamentally affects the handling properties of the chair. Again, using a hypothetical neutral position (figure 29.9b, position A), the lower the athlete sits relative to this neutral position (figure 29.9b, position D), the more maneuverable the wheelchair. Therefore, all other things being equal, the athlete should sit as low as possible. However, performance considerations place a premium on height in all sports. Shooting is easier in basketball when athletes sit high because they are closer to the basket. Likewise, receiving a rugby pass is easier if one sits higher and can reach above the opponent. Finally, a tennis serve is made easier when the athlete is elevated above the height of the net, as there is now a greater margin for error. Given the advantages associated with sitting high, athletes can often forsake the optimal position for pushing the wheelchair, putting their mobility performance at risk. As the height of the seat increases, the athlete effectively moves farther away from the wheels. In order to access enough of the wheels to effectively apply force, athletes (depending on trunk function) will have to lean forward. In order to reduce the distance that athletes have to lean, many have countered this by selecting a larger wheel size to make the wheels more accessible in a higher seat position. However, this can introduce alternative and potentially negative effects on performance, with a larger wheel thought to impair acceleration and maneuverability performance. Mason and colleagues (2012a, 2012b) have provided a more in-depth evaluation of the effects of wheel size on aspects of mobility performance in wheelchair basketball players.

In summary, when enhancing wheelchair sport performance on the court, athletes should identify the functional aspects of the game and their roles or positions coupled with their strengths and weaknesses. This will depend in part on the disability level of the athlete. After identifying these roles, athletes should select the wheelchair setup that will improve functionality within the roles. It is stressed that the positioning of the main wheel will fundamentally affect the performance characteristics of the chair. After the athlete has identified the appropriate wheelchair setup, consideration needs to be given to combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a performance system through the use of appropriate strapping techniques.

Skill Development

Sport-specific skills are critical to the elite athlete's program. Common to skills in court sports are acceleration, speed (which depends on power, which depends on strength), and maneuverability with the target object, whether it be a basketball, volleyball (as used in wheelchair rugby), or tennis racket. Goosey-Tolfrey (2010b) reports other sport-specific skills as described by key sport coaches for the aforementioned sports. Skills tests have been developed for wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and tennis (Newbery, Richards, Trill, & Whait, 2010; Yilla & Sherrill, 1998), and field-based fitness testing is described in detail in the review article by Goosey-Tolfrey and Leicht (2013). Task analysis of skill performance is also suggested by Davis (2002, 2011).

Instructional materials that focus on the skills and strategies involved in many wheelchair sports are also available (Goosey-Tolfrey, 2010b). Again, the systems approach should be incorporated, with athletes practicing their skills in their competitive system that includes their sport-specific wheelchair and strapping.

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Test Instruments Used in Adapted Physical Education

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments.

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments. Some of these tests, however, do contain alternative elements such as rubric scoring systems (e.g., TGMD-2) or task-analysis sequences and checklists (e.g., Special Olympics coaching guides).

Available tests in physical education measure a range of traits and abilities. Most, however, fall within five traditional areas of physical and motor development and ability: reflexes and reactions, rudimentary movements, fundamental movements, specialized movements (including sport skills, aquatics, dance, and activities of daily living), and health-related physical fitness. (Note that these categories are somewhat arbitrary and do not encompass all possibilities. In some situations, for instance, teachers might routinely test and assess the posture or the perceptual - motor abilities of their students.) More recently, a sixth area, physical activity, has gained attention. The rest of this section is devoted to a discussion of tests or measures from these six areas. One instrument from each area is highlighted. The highlighted instruments are meant to be representative of a particular content area and are recommended or used by many adapted physical educators. Other tests are available within each area, and teachers always have the option of designing alternative measures to augment or replace published instruments. In adapted physical education, there are always circumstances when published instruments prove to be inappropriate for a particular student, and teachers must modify or design instruments in accordance with the student's abilities. (Additional tests are listed in the resources section of this chapter.) The application example illustrates how tests can be used.

Measuring Reflexes and Reactions

The measurement and assessment of primitive reflexes and postural reactions is an important consideration in those with developmental delays, particularly in early intervention and childhood programs. (See chapter 19 for information on reflexes and reactions.) As educational services are extended to infants and toddlers, as well as to persons with more severe disabilities (especially those that are neurologically based, such as cerebral palsy), physical educators need to understand the influence of reflexes and reactions on motor development milestones and motor skill learning.

Because primitive reflexes normally follow a predictable sequence for appearing, maturing, and eventually disappearing, they are particularly helpful in providing information on the maturation of the central nervous system. If a primitive reflex persists beyond schedule, presents an unequal bilateral response (e.g., is present on one side but absent or not as strong on the other), is too strong or too weak, or is completely absent, then neurological problems might be suspected. When primitive reflexes are not inhibited, they will undoubtedly interfere with voluntary movement because muscle tone involuntarily changes when reflexes are elicited.

The adapted physical educator should collaborate closely with a physical therapist to identify the presence of primitive reflexes and postural reactions and further determine an appropriate motor intervention to minimize the effects of the reflex through (a) central nervous system integration, (b) maximizing functional movements through reflexive action, or (c) both. Most adapted physical education programs seek the expertise of the physical therapist who has specialized training in this area. Many early motor development tests incorporate testing of specific reflexes, but all generally involve manipulation of the body to determine evoked responses and spontaneous behaviors (Zafeiriou, 2004).

Application Example

Determining if a Student Should Be Assigned to an Adapted Program

Setting

A new 10-year-old student with mild intellectual disabilities received special education services, including adapted physical education, at his previous school. As a matter of policy, the district will reevaluate the student before determining proper programs and placements. A physical education teacher is invited to be a member of the IEP team.

Issue

How should the physical educator determine if the student should be assigned to the adapted program?

Application

The physical educator might do the following:

• Administer the BPFT to determine if the student's fitness is sufficiently developed. (The expectation would be that the student would achieve at least specific standards for children with intellectual disabilities.)
• Administer the TGMD-2 to determine if fundamental movements are completely developed. (Maximum or near-maximum scores would be expected for a 10-year-old.)
• Compare standardized test results (i.e., BPFT and TGMD) with the district guidelines or criteria for adapted physical education.
• Place the student in one or more trial placements and collect authentic assessment data. (Determine, for instance, if the rubrics being used by other members of the class are reasonably appropriate, with or without modification, for the new student.)
• Consider all assessment data when formulating a recommendation for the IEP team.

Measuring Rudimentary Movements

Rudimentary movements are the first voluntary movements (see chapter 19). Reaching, grasping, sitting, crawling, and creeping are examples of rudimentary movements. Most instruments that assess rudimentary movements use a developmental approach to testing - that is, a series of motor milestones associated with specific ages is arranged chronologically and tested individually. By determining which behaviors the child can perform, the teacher can estimate the child's developmental age (because each milestone has its own age norm) and suggest future learning activities (i.e., the behaviors in the sequence that the child cannot currently do). The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) is an example of this approach, with some additional enhancements (other instruments are discussed in chapters 21 and 22).

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales

• Purpose: The PDMS-2 (Folio & Fewell, 2000) assesses the motor development of children from birth to 83 months in both fine and gross motor areas. Items are subcategorized into the following six areas: reflexes, stationary (balance), locomotion, object manipulation, grasping, and visual - motor integration.
• Description: A total of 249 test items (mostly developmental milestones) are arranged chronologically within age levels (e.g., 0-1 month, 6-7 months, 18-23 months), and each is identified as belonging to one of the six categories being assessed (e.g., reflexes, locomotion). It is recommended that testers begin administering items one level below the child's expected motor age. Items are scored from 0 to 2 according to specified criteria. Testing continues until the ceiling-age level is reached (a level for which a score of 2 is obtained for no more than 1 of the 10 items in that level). Composite scores for gross motor (reflexes, balance, locomotion, and object manipulation), fine motor (grasping and visual - motor integration), and total motor (combination of gross and fine motor subtests) areas of functioning can be determined.
• Reliability and validity: Empirical research has established adequate levels of reliability and validity. Evidence information is provided for subgroups as well as for the general population.
• Comment: The PDMS-2 appears to have certain advantages over other rudimentary movement tests. First, the large number of test items represents a larger sample of behaviors than exists in many other tests. Second, the six categories help teachers pinpoint exactly which areas of gross motor development are problematic. Finally, the scoring system and availability of normative data provide the teacher with more information on student performance than many other tests do. Supplementary materials, including a software scoring and reporting system and a motor activity program, also are available in conjunction with PDMS-2.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The PDMS-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Fundamental Movements

The critical window of opportunity, the time during which experience has the most influence on developing fundamental motor skills, seems to be the early childhood and early elementary years. Fundamental movement skills can be classified as locomotor (traveling, e.g., jumping), nonlocomotor (stationary, e.g., one-foot balance), or manipulative (object control, e.g., throwing). Some fundamental movement test instruments measure how far the performance has progressed along a motor continuum, but most use a point system to evaluate either the process of the fundamental movement or its product. Process-oriented approaches generally attempt to break down (or task analyze) a movement into its component parts and then evaluate each component individually. This approach assesses the quality of the movement, not its result. Product-oriented approaches are concerned primarily with outcome. Product-oriented assessment is more concerned with the quantity of the movement (e.g., how far, how fast, how many) than with its execution. The TGMD-2 emphasizes a process-oriented approach to the assessment of fundamental movements.

Test of Gross Motor Development-2

• Purpose: The TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000) was designed to measure gross motor content frequently taught in preschool and early elementary grades, including special education; to be used by various professionals with a minimum amount of training; to use both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards; and to place a priority on the gross motor skill process rather than the product of performance.
• Description: The test measures locomotor (six test items) and object-control skill functioning (six test items) and provides an overall indication of gross motor functioning. Locomotor subtest items include the run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. Object-control subtest items consist of the two-hand strike, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand roll, and overhand throw. For each skill, the tester is provided with performance criteria used to assess the child's performance. Children receive 1 point for meeting each performance criterion given for each of two trials allowed. These criterion-based scores can be added and compared to norm-referenced standards in order to make summative evaluations regarding locomotor, object-control, and overall gross motor performance. Percentiles, standard scores, and chronological age equivalents can be determined for assessment purposes.
• Reliability and validity: Reliability coefficients are quite high (generally .84 to .96). Acceptable levels of content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related validity are provided.
• Comment: The sound process of test construction should provide the user with a good deal of confidence that scores obtained by children accurately reflect their fundamental movement abilities. Availability of both criterion-referenced and norm-referenced standards enhances the capability of the test to support eligibility, placement, IEP planning, and instructional decisions. Test scores allow for easy monitoring of student progress and reporting to parents.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The TGMD-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Specialized Activity Movements

A wide variety of possible physical education and sport activities could be tested under this category. Sport skills tests can take many forms, but often they are criterion referenced and teacher constructed (in fact, many teachers prefer to use authentic techniques to assess game and sport skills). Often, when teachers measure learning progress in relatively unique skills taught in physical education (e.g., wheelchair locomotion or functional performance using the treadmill at a local health club), a rubric is developed and used. Teachers who work with students with disabilities who compete in special sport programs, including those offered by multisport organizations (e.g., United States Association of Blind Athletes [USABA]), are encouraged to develop their own tests specific to the event in which the athlete competes. One example of a sport skills test that can be used for athletes with disabilities comes from the Special Olympics coaching guides.

Sport Skills Program Guides

• Purpose: Special Olympics, Inc., provides coaching guides that can complement or supplement existing physical education and recreation programs for people with disabilities (aged 8 and older) in sport skills instruction.
• Description: Guides are provided for 32 sports and recreation activities. Although the guides are not test instruments per se, authentic assessment is a critical aspect of the instructional programs recommended in the guides. Assessments consist of both task analyses and checklists. Testers check off task focal points that the student is able to perform. For instance, in athletics there are 14 test items corresponding to track and field events. Within each checklist, testers check the focal points an athlete can demonstrate (e.g., "Performs a single-leg takeoff for a running long jump.").
• Reliability and validity: No information has been reported, but content validity probably could be claimed because the checklists reflect sport skills task analyses developed by content (specific sport activity) experts in the field.
• Comment: A primary advantage of the coaching guides is convenience - a teacher or coach can adopt the existing task-analysis curriculums for many sport activities and further modify accordingly for specific students and situations if needed. The program has been used with participants with intellectual disabilities for some time and has been shown to have good utility for that group. A disadvantage is that neither reliability nor validity of the various test instruments has been formally established.
• Availability: Special Olympics, Inc., 1133 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036-3604. Website: http://resources.specialolympics.org/Taxonomy/Sports_Essentials/__Catalog_of_Sports_Essentials.aspx.

Measuring Health-Related Physical Fitness

Because health-related physical fitness is an increasing concern in the health and well-being of young people, it is crucial to use fitness tests that provide meaningful data and allow sound instructional decision making. Over the years many standardized tests of physical fitness have become available to teachers. The BPFT is one test that is recommended to measure and assess the health-related physical fitness of young people with disabilities. The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) extends the health-related, criterion-referenced approach to young people with disabilities. Access to the proper techniques for conducting the 27 tests in the BPFT has been included with this text. See Accessing the Web Resource for instructions on gaining access to the web resource.

Brockport Physical Fitness Test

• Purpose: The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) is a health-related, criterion-referenced physical fitness test appropriate for young people (aged 10-17) with and without disabilities.
• Description: The test battery includes 27 test items (refer to table 4.2) from which teachers can choose based on disability. Typically, students are tested on four to six test items from three components of fitness: body composition, aerobic functioning, and musculoskeletal functioning (muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility). Although specific test items are recommended for children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, visual impairments, spinal cord injuries, and congenital anomalies and amputations, teachers are encouraged to personalize testing. Personalization involves identifying health-related concerns pertaining to the student, establishing a desired fitness profile for the student, selecting components and subcomponents of fitness to be assessed, selecting test items to measure those components, and selecting health-related, criterion-referenced standards to evaluate fitness. Thus, teachers have the option to modify any of the elements of the testing program as outlined in the test manual. Both general population and disability-specific standards are available for assessment and evaluation. A general standard is one appropriate for the general population and has not been adjusted in any way for the effects of a disability. A specific standard is one that has been adjusted for the effects of a disability. Specific standards are available only for selected test items for particular groups of people.
• Reliability and validity: The test items in the BPFT have been shown to be valid and reliable through various studies. Evidence for validity and reliability is provided in a lengthy technical report published in a special issue of Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 2005 (Winnick, 2005).
• Comment: The BPFT was patterned after Fitnessgram, and many of the standards, especially for the general population, were adopted from that test. Thus, teachers in inclusive settings should find it relatively easy to use both tests as necessary. In addition to the test manual, a training guide is also available (Winnick & Short, 1999).
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Brockport-Physical-Fitness-Test-Manual-2nd-Edition-With-Web-Resource.

Measuring Physical Activity

Much research has established the positive relation between regular physical activity and health, and many physical education programs are promoting physically active lifestyles as a primary goal of the program. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important for physical educators to objectively measure physical activity levels in ways that are sensitive enough to document change. At present, four types of activity measures are available to teachers: heart rate monitors, activity monitors (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, motion sensors), direct observation, and self-report instruments (Welk & Wood, 2000). Despite their accuracy, heart rate monitors have limited applicability in school situations because of cost and limitations in measuring students in large classes at one time. Pedometers are relatively inexpensive and accurate and have good utility for measuring walking activity, but they do not have broad applicability in measuring general physical activity. Coding student activity through direct observation is not expensive, but it can be time-consuming because only a few children can be monitored at one time by a trained observer. (These three approaches - heart rate monitors, activity monitors, and direct observation - might be more effective in settings with fewer students.)

Self-report instruments are appropriate for measuring physical activity in most school settings. Self-report instruments require students to recall and record their participation in physical activity over a set amount of time (usually from one to seven days). Although many self-report instruments are available (see Welk & Wood, 2000, for examples), all seek to quantify the frequency, intensity, and duration of students' physical activity. If students with disabilities have difficulty with self-reports, teachers or parents might need to provide an estimate of the information instead. A computer software program, Activitygram, provides teachers with an easy method for measuring student physical activity.

Activitygram

• Purpose: Activitygram (Cooper Institute, 2017), a program associated with Fitnessgram, records, analyzes, and saves student physical activity data and produces reports based on those data.
• Description: Activitygram is part of the Fitnessgram test program. The program prompts participants to recall their physical activities over the previous two or three days in 30-minute time blocks. Students select activities from within six categories: lifestyle activity, active aerobics, active sports, muscle fitness activities, flexibility exercises, and rest and inactivity. Students are also asked to rate the intensity of the activity (light, moderate, vigorous). Activity Log, a related component of Activitygram, allows students to track their physical activity (in step counts or minutes of activity) and to set personal goals and challenges. Activitygram and Activity Log printed reports provide an analysis of activity habits and personalized messages that give suggestions to increase or maintain physical activity. Recommendations are based on national guidelines endorsed by the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America).
• Reliability and validity: Because of the subjective nature of self-report measures, measurement error may reduce validity. Nevertheless, the Previous Day Physical Activity Recall instrument, on which the Activitygram program is based, has been shown to provide valid and reliable estimates of physical activity and also accurately identifies periods of moderate to vigorous activity (Weston, Petosa, & Pate, 1997). Measurement error can be minimized when parents, teachers, and others can verify activity measures.
• Comment: Although designed primarily with students without disabilities in mind, Activitygram can be useful for students receiving adapted physical education. Specific activities will vary (e.g., running vs. pushing a wheelchair), but the six categories of physical activity are appropriate for most students with or without disabilities. Younger children and those with intellectual disabilities, however, might have trouble recalling and entering activity data. Peer tutors, teacher aides, or parents could be prepared to make direct observations and could enter the data on behalf of a student who has difficulty using the system.
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Fitnessgram-Administration-Manual-5th-Edition-With-Web_Resource.

Specific Approaches for Physical Education and Sport

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

Humanistic Approach

In physical education, students with behavior disabilities ranging from mild to severe can be taught through the humanistic approach. In this context, humanism is applied to skill acquisition and the management of social behaviors. Generally speaking, some techniques suggested by Sherrill (2004) for improving self-concept are singularly applicable with this population; for example, teachers should strive to do the following (p. 234):

• Conceptualize individual and small-group counseling as an integral part of physical education.
• Teach students to care about each other and show that they care.
• Emphasize cooperation and social interaction rather than individual performance.
• Stress the importance of genuineness and honesty in praise.
• Increase perceived competence in relation to motor skill and fitness.
• Convey that they like and respect students as human beings, not just for their motor skills and fitness.

More specifically, the approach outlined by Hellison (2011) has immediate relevance for practitioners confronted with students who are usually high functioning but who lack self-control and consequently present management problems. Hellison has developed a set of alternative goals or levels for physical education that focus on human needs and values rather than on fitness and sport skill development exclusively. The main purpose of Hellison's approach is to develop positive social responsibility. The goals are developmental and reflect a loosely constructed level-by-level progression of attitudes and behaviors. They include self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-direction, and caring and helping.

• Level 0: Irresponsibility. This level defines students who fail to take responsibility for either their actions or inactions; they blame others for their behavior and typically make excuses.
• Level I: Respecting the rights and feelings of others. This level deals with the need for control of one's own behavior. Self-control should be the first goal, according to Hellison, because learning cannot take place effectively if one cannot control impulses to harm others physically and verbally.
• Level II: Participation and effort. Level II focuses on the need for physical activity and offers students one medium for personal stability through experiences in which they can engage on a daily basis. Participation involves getting uninterested students to at least go through the motions, experiencing various degrees of effort expenditure to determine if effort leads to improvement, and redefining success as a personal accomplishment.
• Level III: Self-direction. Level III emphasizes the need for students to take more responsibility for their choices and to link these choices with their own identities. Students at this level can work independently in class and can take responsibility for their intentions and actions. At this level, students begin to assume responsibility for the direction of their lives and to explore options in developing a strong and integrated personal identity. This level includes developing a knowledge base that will enhance achievement of their goals, developing a plan to accomplish their goals, and evaluating their plan to determine their success.
• Level IV: Caring and helping. Level IV is the most difficult for students; it is also not a requirement for successful participation in the responsibility model. At this level, students reach out beyond themselves to others, committing themselves to genuinely caring about other people. Students are motivated to give support, cooperate, show concern, and help. Generally speaking, the goal of level IV is the improvement of the entire group's welfare.
• Level V: Outside the gym. Level V promotes the opportunity to transfer many of the lessons learned in the gym to other areas of life. It also implies being a role model.

Hellison recognized that these five goals provide only a framework and that strategies must be employed to help students interact with self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participate and show effort, be self-directed, and demonstrate caring and helping behavior on a regular basis. He suggests five interaction strategies to help reach the goals. These include awareness talks (e.g., post levels on gym wall and refer to them frequently), the physical education lesson (e.g., students can be taught to solve conflict during a game), group meetings (e.g., students discuss issues of low motivation or difficulty in being self-directed), reflection time (e.g., students record in a journal or discuss how they did during class in relation to the goals they had established), and counseling time (e.g., students discuss their patterns of abusive behavior and possibly their underlying motives for such behavior). This last strategy gives students the opportunity to talk with the teacher about problems preventing them from achieving their goals within specified levels of the responsibility model. These strategies are "processes for helping students to become aware of, experience, make decisions about, and reflect on the model's goals" (Hellison & Templin, 1991, p. 108). See table 9.2 for a brief examination of the relationship between the levels and strategies in Hellison's model.

Many physical education programs use games to accomplish goals and objectives established for individuals and classes. Because students with behavioral disorders often lack fundamental skills, they frequently are incapable of demonstrating even minimal levels of competence in these games. As a result, they have an increased tendency to act out - perhaps with verbal or physical aggression - or to withdraw, which further excludes them from an opportunity to develop skills.

In an effort to promote the most positive learning environment, Hellison (2011) developed a nontraditional approach to working with at-risk students, using basketball as the primary vehicle for empowering students to learn personal and social values. Employing Hellison's responsibility model (discussed previously) as the philosophical underpinning, the coaching club is a before-school program in Chicago's inner city. It offers students the opportunity to explore movement through a progression of five levels: (I) self-control, meaning control of one's body and temper; (II) teamwork, meaning full participation by all team members; (III) self-coaching; (IV) coaching another team member; and (V) applying skills learned in the program outside the gym to school, home, and neighborhood. Playing ability is not a prerequisite. This program promotes social responsibility. Likewise, extrinsic rewards are unnecessary because students are motivated to reach level IV (coach) on the evaluation system (Hellison & Georgiadis, 1992, p. 7). Level IV consists of the following:

• Has good attendance.
• Is coachable and on task at practice.
• Does not abuse others or interrupt practice.
• Is able to set personal goals and work independently on these goals.
• Possesses good helping skills (such as giving cues, observing, and giving positive feedback as well as general praise).
• Encourages teamwork and passing the ball.
• Listens to players; is sensitive to their feelings and needs.
• Puts the welfare of players above own needs (such as the need to win or look good).
• Understands that exhibiting these characteristics is the key to being a good coach, regardless of personal basketball ability.

Behavioral Approach

Students with severe behavior disorders require intense programming efforts. This group includes students who are self-indulgent, aggressive, noncompliant, and self-stimulatory or self-destructive (Dunn & Leitschuh, 2014). Using the basic steps of behavioral programming discussed in chapter 6, Dunn and his coauthor developed the data-based gymnasium (DBG). This program incorporates behavioral principles in a systematic effort to produce procedural consistency for teachers who work with students with behavioral disorders and to bring student behavior under the control of naturally occurring reinforcers. To the latter end, instructors use natural reinforcers available in the environment, such as praising a desirable behavior to strengthen it or ignoring an undesirable behavior to bring about its extinction. Tangible reinforcers such as token economies are introduced only after it has been demonstrated that the consistent use of social reinforcement or extinction will not achieve the desired behavioral outcome.

In an effort to equip teachers with consistent behavioral procedures, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) use a variety of strategies, including rules of thumb, to apply to inappropriate behavior. For each area of inappropriate behavior (e.g., self-indulgent behavior), there exists a rule of thumb or generally accepted way of responding when certain undesirable behaviors occur. The intent of these rules is to make the development and implementation of a formal behavioral program unnecessary.

• Self-indulgent behavior. Behaviors in this category include crying, screaming, throwing tantrums, and performing repetitive, irritating activities or making noises. The rule of thumb for handling students who engage in self-indulgent behaviors is to ignore them until the behavior is discontinued and then socially reinforce the first occurrence of an appropriate behavior. For example, one would ignore children's tantrums when they cannot control a play situation with classmates but reinforce with social praise their initial attempts to play cooperatively.
• Noncompliant behavior. Noncompliant behaviors include instances when students decline to comply when instructed to do something as well as forgetting or failing to do something because they choose not to do what is asked. Noncompliance also includes doing what is requested but in a less than acceptable way. The rule of thumb is that teachers should ignore noncompliant verbalizations, lead students physically through the task, or prevent students from participating in an activity until they follow through on the initial request. Compliance with any request is immediately reinforced socially. For example, one would physically restrict aggressive play and socially praise a child's positive engagement with a classmate or group.
• Aggressive behavior. Verbal or physical abuse directed toward an object or a person is considered aggressive behavior. Examples of aggressive acts include hitting, fighting, pinching, biting, pushing, or deliberately destroying someone's property. The rule of thumb for aggressive behavior is that it is punished immediately with a verbal reprimand and the offending student is removed from the activity. Social reinforcement is given when students demonstrate appropriate interaction with other people or objects. For example, a student who strikes another student is immediately reprimanded verbally (conflict resolution) and is eliminated from the activity (given a time-out; see chapter 6).
• Self-stimulatory behavior. This category includes behaviors that interfere with learning because students become engrossed in the perseverative nature of the activities. Examples include head banging, hand flapping, body rocking, and eye gouging. As a rule of thumb, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) recommend a formal behavioral program to deal with this type of behavior. An in-depth discussion of formal principles and programs for behavior modification is presented in chapter 6.

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The story of Loretta Claiborne

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7.

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7. Forbidden to participate in school sports because she was in special education, Loretta ran to get away from the bullies. At the age of 18, she became a Special Olympics athlete. Twenty-five years later, in 1996, Loretta received the prestigious Arthur Ashe Courage Award at the ESPN Espy Awards. In 1999, Disney aired a made-for-TV movie about her life, The Loretta Claiborne Story, and she appeared on the Oprah Winfrey Show.

Along the way, Loretta completed 26 marathons, including three Boston Marathons, placing among the top 100 of all women each time. In 1988 she finished in the top 25 women in the Pittsburgh Marathon and was named Special Olympics Female Athlete of the Year. In 1991, Loretta was named to the Special Olympics board of directors and was selected by Runner's World magazine as the Special Olympics Athlete of the Quarter Century. The following year she was inducted into the York, Pennsylvania, Sports Hall of Fame and the William Penn High School Alumni Hall of Fame - the same high school that had barred her from the track team because she had intellectual disabilities.

Loretta introduced then-U.S. president Bill Clinton at the 1995 Special Olympics World Summer Games opening ceremonies in New Haven, Connecticut, and received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Quinnipiac College in Hamden, Connecticut, becoming the first person with intellectual disabilities to receive an honorary doctorate. The Loretta Claiborne Building in York, Pennsylvania, was dedicated in 2001. In 2003, she was awarded a second doctorate of humane letters by Villanova University in Pennsylvania. Currently, her uplifting life story is chronicled in the text, In Her Stride, a feature title in the WorldScapes literacy series for grades 3 through 6.

One of Loretta's most memorable races was a marathon in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Running strong, Loretta noticed another runner beginning to falter. Loretta slowed her pace and stayed with the man throughout the race, encouraging him on; they crossed the finish line together. The other runner? Former world heavyweight boxing champion Larry Holmes! Now a black belt in karate, Loretta still runs about 5 miles (8 kilometers) every day and also competes in Special Olympics bowling, figure skating, basketball, golf, soccer, skiing, softball, and swimming.

The web resource contains Brockport Physical Fitness Test videos, fitness charts, and reproducible forms from the book. The instructor guide includes chapter objectives, additional resources, and learning and enrichment activities that will help students master the content and extend their knowledge. The test package helps in building custom tests using hundreds of test questions and answers. The presentation package includes a comprehensive series of PowerPoint slides for each chapter. Text slides list key points and cover the major topics in each chapter. Select figures and tables represent the outstanding graphics found in the text. The presentation package has more than 750 slides that can be used directly with PowerPoint to print transparencies and slides or to make copies for distribution to students. Instructors can easily add, modify, or rearrange the order of the slides. All ancillary materials for this text are FREE to course adopters and available online at www.HumanKinetics.com/AdaptedPhysicalEducationAndSport.

Implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

Assessment

One method that has been proven helpful in assessing students with ASD is the system known as ecological task analysis (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). Within the model, the instructor examines the interaction of three factors: the student, the environment, and the task. To derive a good understanding of the student, the assessor should seek information from several sources, including parents, teachers, therapists, and aides. One should fully understand reinforcers and modes of communication before attempting to assess the child. The assessor should also spend time developing a rapport with the child before assessment. When beginning the assessment, it is important to start with activities the child understands and is able to perform and then move on to more difficult tasks. It is important also to understand qualities that inhibit or enhance performance. This approach allows for early success and better compliance throughout the assessment.

The second factor that needs to be considered is the task. To determine if the task is appropriate, consider the following questions: Is it age appropriate? Is it functional? Will the information gained assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP) goals and objectives? Will the information be used for program development and instruction? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the task being assessed is appropriate. To assess the task, the assessor might use a task analysis approach in which requisite skills are identified and either further broken down or assessed as a whole. For example, in assessing soccer skills, the assessor would determine the requisite skills for soccer (e.g., dribbling, passing, trapping, shooting). Each of these skills could be broken down into components assessed separately, or the skill could be assessed as a whole. Once the assessment is complete, the information gleaned can be used to develop goals and objectives based on unique needs, serve as a basis for instruction, and aid in activity selection.

Finally the instructor needs to consider the environment. Keeping in mind that children with ASD might be hypersensitive to environmental stimuli, the instructor should provide an environment with limited distractions and focus on one task at a time. In the soccer example, the instructor can provide different-size balls, different-size goals, and different surfaces for performing the task. After considering the individual student, the task, and the environmental parameters involved, the instructor observes the student's behavior and preferences and documents his choices. These choices serve as a baseline and a springboard upon which to teach.

Activity Selection

When selecting activities for children with ASD, the most important consideration is the needs and interests of the learners and their families. In addition, the functional value of the activity should be taken into account. Activities that have a high probability of success for children with ASD are generally more individual, such as swimming, running, and bowling. However, no one should assume that children with ASD cannot participate in and enjoy team sports. Team sports might need modifications to enhance success, but all children should have the opportunity to explore a range of physical education activities.

The learner's age must also be taken into account. Both developmental appropriateness and age appropriateness should always be considered when selecting activities. Although elementary-aged children spend a great deal of time learning and improving their fundamental motor skills, it would be inappropriate to focus on such skills at the middle school or high school level. When selecting activities, instructors should also consider family and community interests. Does the child come from a family that enjoys hiking or skiing? Or is the family more involved in soccer or softball? Considering these factors helps shape the activity selection so that the child with ASD can more fully integrate within the family and community.

One form of movement, known as sensorimotor activities, can be especially beneficial to students with ASD. These activities are designed to stimulate the senses with a focus on kinesthetic awareness, tactile stimulation, auditory processing, and visual - motor coordination. Kinesthetic awareness deals with the relationship of the body to space. Examples of kinesthetic activities include jumping on a trampoline, crawling through tunnels, jumping over a rope, and rolling down an incline mat. Tactile stimulation can be enhanced by having the child interact with objects, such as balls with various sizes, shapes, and textures. Auditory processing can be enhanced through the use of music and songs that instruct the child in a sequence of movements. Finally, visual - motor coordination can be strengthened through playing an array of games that require tracking, such as kickball, softball, soccer, or lacrosse.

Instructional and Management Techniques

Teaching students with ASD is not unlike teaching other children. Teachers need to establish rapport with students, develop trust, relay information in a clear and concise manner, and provide reinforcement and feedback to help shape appropriate motor and social behavior. Specific strategies that prove helpful in instructing and managing students with ASD include the use of picture and communication boards, the consistent use of structure and routines, and the use of natural cues in the environment to facilitate the acquisition and execution of skills. Other methods include the correction procedure rule and parallel talk. The correction procedure rule is a system used when inappropriate skills or social behaviors occur. Here, the instructor takes the child back to the last task that was done correctly in an effort to redirect the inappropriate behavior. Parallel talk is a system in which the instructor talks through the actions that are occurring - for example, "Juan is dribbling the basketball" - which aids in the understanding and purpose of actions. In addition, teaching to the strengths of learners by considering their preferred learning modality will also prove helpful in teaching students with ASD. Finally, the value of using support staff and peer tutors should not be underestimated in teaching students with ASD. Each of these strategies is more fully explained next.

Picture and Communication Boards

One of the most common and most successful methods used to teach children with ASD is the use of picture and communication boards. Types of pictures include photographs, lifelike drawings, and symbolic drawings. Some children may not yet understand pictures and may need objects to represent them, such as dollhouse furniture or small figures of objects. When pictures are used, it is best to have only one item in the picture because children with ASD have a tendency toward overselectivity, meaning that they are not able to screen out irrelevant information. Teachers should help students focus on the most relevant information. For example, if a child is working on basketball skills, it may be preferable not to use a picture of a basketball court with students playing on it because there is too much information in the picture, making it difficult for the child to screen out irrelevant information. Pictures can also be arranged to create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Boardmaker, as described earlier, is one of many commercial software programs that can help create picture boards using universally accepted symbols to depict events and actions.

Routines and Structure

Establishing routines and structure aids in managing and instructing students with ASD. Children with ASD often demonstrate inappropriate behavioral responses when new or incongruent information is presented in a random or haphazard manner. Routines with set beginning and end points allow for more predictability and help to reduce sensory overload. Routines are also useful in introducing new information or behaviors. Keeping some information familiar and gradually introducing new information helps students respond appropriately. Routines also help to reduce verbal directions and allow children to work independently.

The following scenario illustrates a typical routine that incorporates pictures and can be useful in physical education. Before Justin goes to physical education class, a classroom teacher gives him a picture of the physical education teacher and says, "Justin, it is time for PE." The picture of the physical education teacher allows Justin to understand what is going to happen next. When the class enters the gym, Justin gives the picture card to the physical education teacher. The physical education teacher then uses a communication board with pictures to relay to Justin the lesson from start to finish. For example, a picture of a child stretching could indicate the warm-up, and a picture of a child doing curl-ups could indicate the fitness portion of the lesson. Further, the specific focus could be identified, as with a picture of a soccer ball. Finally, goalposts can be used to indicate the game activity. Figure 10.2 presents a sample schedule for a physical education lesson. The components of the schedule can remain the same, but the actual activities can be manipulated to prepare the child for the daily lesson. When using words instead of pictures, the words can be erased after the task is completed. This system allows students to understand that the activity has ended and the next activity will soon begin.

Physical education sample pictorial schedule. The pictures allow the student to understand what is going to happen in the lesson from start to finish.

As noted previously, children with ASD have difficulty with sensory overload. When they are entering a new environment, such as a gym, the atmosphere may create extreme sensory overload. Structure helps alleviate this stress by creating environments that are easily understood and manageable. In physical education, teachers can structure their space so that the environment is predictable. First, the teacher needs to identify for the child where activities are done (in the gym, on the field, on a mat), where things are located (balls in bin, ropes on hangers, rackets on hooks), and how to move from one place to another (rotating stations, rotating positions, moving from inside to outside). Second, the teacher needs to establish concrete boundaries. For example, if a child is to remain on one-half of the field, cones indicating the halfway point should be in place. Labels can also help organize space. For example, equipment boxes should be clearly labeled so that the child can easily retrieve and put away equipment.

At the conclusion of the lesson, the physical education teacher should have a consistent cue to transition the child back to the classroom. This could be a picture of the classroom teacher or a desk. Forewarning is another effective way to transition a child back to the classroom. For example, the teacher might say, "Justin, in three minutes PE will be over." This helps the child better understand time and prepare for the change in routine. A second warning might be given at 2 minutes and a third at 1 minute. Through proper preparation, anxiety levels are reduced because the child begins to understand that a change in the task will occur after the 1-minute signal from the instructor. Again, the child must understand what will be happening next. When he arrives back in the classroom, physical education can be crossed off his daily schedule and he can begin the next activity on the schedule.

The implementation of routines and structure might at first seem time-consuming for the teacher. However, once these systems are in place, dramatic improvements in behavior and participation usually occur, making the extra time and effort worthwhile.

Natural Environmental Cues and Task Analysis

In teaching new skills to children with ASD, instructors are urged to use natural cues within the environment and to minimize verbal cues. If the goal is for the child to kick a soccer ball into a goal, the natural cues would be a soccer ball and a goal. To achieve the desired objective, the instructor might need to break the task down into smaller steps or task analyze the skills. For example, shooting a soccer ball into a goal might involve the following steps: (1) Line the child up at the shooting line; (2) place the ball on the shooting line; and (3) prompt the child to take a shot. One may break the skill down further by placing a poly spot in front of the child to initiate a stepping action with the opposite kicking foot and prompting the child with either a verbal cue or physical assist to use the kicking foot to make contact with the ball. The degree to which skills should be task analyzed depends on the task and the learner.

Demonstrations also prove helpful in the acquisition of new skills. If the child performs the task correctly, the lesson should continue. For example, the teacher might teach the child how to stop a ball being passed to the shooting line. If the child is unsuccessful in shooting the ball toward the goal, the teacher could use physical assistance to help her gain a better understanding of what the task requires, allowing her to repeat the task until no physical assistance is needed. Once the child has performed the task correctly, the teacher would move on to the rest of the lesson. Figure 10.3 depicts a child working on soccer skills with assistance.

Shooting a soccer ball into a goal can be broken down into steps. Here the child is taking step 3, with the assistant prompting the child to take a shot.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Correction Procedure Rule

Another effective technique in instructing children with ASD is the correction procedure rule, which one applies by taking the child back to the last component of the skill done correctly. Using batting as an example, say a child maintains a proper batting stance and properly swings the bat at the ball but then runs to first base with the bat. In this case, following the correction procedure rule, the instructor would ask the child to repeat the swing and then physically assist her in placing the bat on the ground before running to first. The instructor returns the child to the last correct response before the incorrect response. The application example is another scenario in which the correction procedure rule can be used.

Application Example

Importance of Visual Cues in Learning a New Task

Setting

A physical education class is working on a tee-ball unit.

Student

Kiera, a seven-year-old girl with autism in elementary physical education class

Task

Learning how to hit a ball off the tee and running to first base

Issue

Kiera's physical education teacher, Mr. Greer, has been teaching her how to play tee-ball. They have practiced swinging the bat at the ball (in a hand-over-hand manner), making contact with the ball, putting the bat down, and running to first base. It appeared that Kiera had the hang of the skill, so Mr. Greer allowed her to bat independently. Kiera stood in the ready position; Mr. Greer placed the ball on the tee and took a step back. Just then a gust of wind came, and the ball fell off the tee. Kiera immediately placed the bat on the ground and began running to first base even though she did not make contact with the ball. This showed that Kiera still did not understand the purpose of the game, which was to contact the ball with the bat before running.

Application

Mr. Greer used visual cues to create a positive learning environment by doing the following:

• Mr. Greer demonstrated to Kiera what to do if the ball fell off the tee. Mr. Greer put the ball on the tee loosely so that it would fall off. When the ball fell off, he picked up the ball, replaced it on the tee, and struck it with the bat.
• Mr. Greer then signaled to Kiera to try. Again he placed the ball loosely on the tee and gave the bat to Kiera.
• The ball fell off the tee and Kiera picked up the ball and replaced it on the tee. She then struck the ball and ran to first base.

This example illustrates the need for students with autism to see and understand a task. In no way was Kiera being uncooperative or off task. She simply did not understand the task. When she understood the task, she was able to participate in the game independently.

Kiera practices her swing in tee-ball.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Parallel Talk

To promote language and skill acquisition, instructors are encouraged to embed language throughout the lesson. One way to accomplish this is using parallel talk, in which the teacher verbalizes the actions of the learner. For example, if Marci is rolling a red ball to the teacher, the teacher would say, "Marci is rolling the red ball." Parallel talk can also help children associate certain skills with their verbal meaning, such as spatial concepts (e.g., in, out, under, over) and motor skills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, striking). Another way to foster language acquisition is to create print-rich physical education environments. Pictures, posters, and action words should be displayed prominently around the gym. Labeling the action as it is being performed helps students acquire both receptive and expressive language skills and attach meaning to actions.

Learning Modalities

Learning modalities, or learning styles, refer to the way in which students learn best. The three common categories of learning include auditory, motor, and visual. Auditory learners tend to learn by following commands or prompts and may be easily distracted by background noise. Children who are motor or kinesthetic learners tend to learn by doing. They are active learners and would rather do than watch; they enjoy hands-on projects. Children who are visual learners tend to learn by watching and looking at pictures, and they can be easily distracted by surrounding activities and noise. Research indicates that students with ASD tend to be visual learners (Sicile-Kira, 2014), although all learning modalities should be employed from time to time. As indicated previously, the use of pictures and communication boards is by far the most effective teaching strategy used to communicate with and teach students with ASD.

Support Personnel

Teachers should take advantage of support personnel to assist them in implementing programs. Teaching assistants, paraprofessionals, and peer tutors are all valuable resources that can help in providing individualized instruction to students with ASD in physical education. Teachers can request support personnel through the child's IEP as a necessary component to support the learning of children with ASD.

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Early Childhood Program Standards and Learning Objectives

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges.

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges. Early childhood movement programs should provide children with the opportunity to explore and act on objects in their physical environment (Odom & Wolery, 2003). A well-designed movement curriculum for preschool through third grade should focus on fundamental movement abilities in the preschool years, specialized movement abilities in the early elementary years, and opportunities for all children to be physically active.

The preschool years give instructors the opportunity to guide children through games and activities in order to build a skill foundation and maintain appropriate activity levels. This fundamental movement phase should focus on stability, locomotor, and object-control skills (see chapter 19 for a review of the fundamental movement phase). It follows, then, that the early elementary years (kindergarten through third grade) allow the teacher to integrate the knowledge and skills that children have acquired and begin to refine fundamental skills required for more advanced games and activities. The specialized movement phase gives children the opportunity to use several fundamental skills to complete a single activity that is more specialized (see chapter 19 for a review of the specialized movement phase).

The importance of seeing the connection between the fundamental movement phase and specialized movement phase in the early childhood years is critical for physical education curriculum development. As a guide, national standards for physical education (SHAPE America, 2014) have been written for elementary children in the United States. These five physical education standards are in place for five- to nine-year-old children and are written to reflect what children should be able to do after participation in a quality physical education program. PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008) is a valid and reliable tool developed to assess the first national physical education standard, which reads "The physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 12). A quality physical education program for elementary-aged children should follow national standards and build on the fundamental movement skill programs introduced in preschool.

However, early learning standards vary state by state for preschool-aged children. To assist early childhood educators, the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has organized a standards database on what states have identified as educational priorities for children of prekindergarten age (NIEER, 2014). Using learning standards to guide programming for children with and without disabilities through the early childhood years can be beneficial in all domains of learning, including physical health and development. Early childhood physical educators should be knowledgeable about learning standards and assessing them and how they contribute to program development. Mastering fundamental movements and skills and integrating them into games and activities are processes.

Regarding physical activity for young children, it has been recommended that preschool-aged children accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity per day, and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping (NASPE, 2002). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009) also recommends that playing time (including large motor activities) can benefit young children in physical competence, social skills, self-control, and problem-solving abilities as well as giving them an opportunity to practice emerging skills.

Activity environments designed to provide instruction for young children with developmental delays and those with disabilities should be individualized according to assessment information. Arbitrarily selecting games and activities because they seem fun and the children appear to enjoy them is not necessarily in line with good practice. Specifically, learning environments should parallel the strengths and challenges identified during the assessment process and written in the IEP as instructional objectives. Instruction is based on a good understanding of each child's present level of performance. An activity setting should be carefully planned to build on what children already know and promote the acquisition of new skills.

Developmental theorists support instruction that encourages children to explore and manipulate their environment in order to construct meaning (Lefrancois, 2006). Individualizing instruction for each child in the class is the challenge faced by teachers providing early childhood adapted physical education in an integrated setting. Using a differentiated instructional approach helps teachers address the diverse learning needs of several children in the same class (Sands & Barker, 2004). The child's developmental abilities (physical, social, and cognitive) and the effect that a certain disability might have on this development must be considered.

Developmental Differences Between Preschoolers and Primary-Aged Children

The cognitive and social developmental status of a four-year-old differs from that of a six-year-old. As children develop cognitively and socially, they incorporate their movement strategies in new ways. Teachers providing adapted physical education must understand age-related developmental differences in order to construct appropriate learning environments for children who exhibit delays in one or more areas of learning (Haywood & Getchell, 2014).

Developmentally appropriate movement environments designed for preschool-aged children (three to five years of age) differ from those planned for kindergarten and elementary school children (six to eight years of age). A watered-down kindergarten curriculum presented to children in preschool is not appropriate. Games, activities, and equipment meaningful to a four-year-old might be of little interest to a seven-year-old and vice versa. For example, preschoolers love to experiment with speed, direction change, and space. Figure 22.1 shows a young boy making his way through a tunnel placed within a larger activity area. With a little creativity and imagination, teachers of early childhood physical education can create stimulating and motivating learning environments. A refrigerator box that has holes cut for climbing and hiding might entice a preschooler to explore and move for a long time. Preschoolers are intrigued by new spaces and the opportunity to explore these seemingly simple environments. On the other hand, a seven-year-old might find these activities simplistic and boring. She would be much more interested and challenged by moving under and through a parachute lifted by classmates. A child in first or second grade (six or seven years old) might be challenged by activities that encourage a higher level of problem solving. Children at this age have greater ability to reason and logically integrate thoughts than younger children do. For a three- or four-year-old, a parachute activity that includes anything more than moving the parachute up and down is often frightening and unpredictable.

A young boy makes his way through a tunnel, a familiar play space for preschoolers.
© Lauriece Zittel

The NAEYC (2009) provides guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood and discusses the differences between preschool and primary-aged children in their physical, social, cognitive, and language development. Teachers providing adapted physical education should keep in mind that the cognitive and social development of young children cannot be ignored when developing goals and objectives in the psychomotor domain. The interplay between each of these functional areas of learning and an individual child's development within each area must be considered when planning movement environments and instruction.

Developmental Considerations for Young Children With Disabilities

The effect of a disability on the communication, social, cognitive, or motor development of a child must be recognized before planning instruction. Knowing how a child's disability affects motor learning and performance is essential for the development of an appropriate physical education program. Young children with orthopedic impairments, for example, might begin independently exploring their physical environments by using a walker, wheelchair, or crutches but might also require accommodations in order to benefit from age-appropriate activities. Instructors should be aware of physical barriers that exist in the activity setting and design the environment in a way that encourages interactions with peers and equipment. Assistive devices that allow children with orthopedic impairments to initiate tasks that are both physically and intellectually challenging should be available to promote independence.

Young children with delays in social interaction - for example, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - may require modifications in the introduction and delivery of games and activities. Small- or large-group activities may be difficult for children with ASD, and practicing motor skills might need to occur in social environments that offer options for solitary and parallel play. For young children with ASD, interaction with others might not be the best instructional approach or least restrictive environment for learning new skills. On the other hand, children with intellectual disabilities often benefit from age-appropriate peer interactions that are consistent and repetitive. As shown in figure 22.2, a predictable environment with familiar equipment and routines will enhance opportunities for learning. Physical educators need to be aware of the characteristics of young children with disabilities and plan activities and environments accordingly.

Familiar environments promote learning among children with disabilities.
Photo courtesy of NIU. Photographer: Molly Coleman.

Facilitating Communication in a Movement Lesson

Interacting with others requires some level of communication. Some young children with disabilities use speech and language to communicate, whereas others who are nonverbal might use alternative methods and strategies. Although speech or language impairment is considered the most prevalent disability category among preschoolers, children with many diagnoses might have communication needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The movement setting, typically a motivating setting for young children, can be an ideal environment to enhance communication skills. Collaboration with classroom teachers and speech therapists assists the early childhood physical educator in determining what communication goals and objectives can be integrated within the physical education setting.

Young children with disabilities or developmental delays who are verbal might use speech and language to communicate with peers and teachers. The movement setting is a natural place to incorporate concepts such as under, over, more, through, and around. To reinforce the meaning of movement concepts and model the use of speech, a physical educator should talk with children as they participate in each movement lesson. For example, as children are pretending to be in the jungle climbing over rocks (bolsters under mats) and jumping over cutout ants and snakes (taped to the floor), a teacher might say, "I like the way everyone is jumping over the creatures in the jungle. Everyone find a creature and say ‘over' as we jump. Ready?" Prompting children to use the words to identify the concept (e.g., over) as they practice the skill (e.g., horizontal jump) reinforces the meaning of commonly taught concepts in early childhood and encourages children to use speech. Similarly, identifying shapes, colors, or equipment can become a natural part of an early childhood movement setting.

Children with speech and language delays or those who are nonverbal as a result of a particular disability or multiple disabilities might use augmentative and alternative systems to communicate (Millar, Light, & Schlosser, 2006). Sign language and picture systems are nonverbal options used by teachers to communicate with young children. Sign language is a popular method of communicating with young children of all abilities; however, children with communication delays and those who are hard of hearing might benefit in particular. Physical educators not proficient in sign language should consult with classroom teachers, interpreters, or speech therapists to learn the signs used by young children in the classroom.

Picture systems can also be used in a movement setting to increase communication between the child and teacher. Young children with autism often have sophisticated picture systems in place to assist with identifying activities, equipment, activity directions, and transitions. Picture systems can increase the probability that children with communication delays have the opportunity to engage in movement activities to the maximum extent possible. Helping a child understand what to do and when to do it often decreases the time needed to manage unwanted behaviors. Pictures posted in the activity area or taped to pieces of equipment are a great communication strategy for all children. A sequence of pictures, or visual schedule, posted to a board or paper is a functional method for communicating an activity, skill sequence, or transition to a child who is verbal or nonverbal. Visual schedules help children manage their environment while often decreasing the amount of adult intervention needed. Figure 22.3 shows an example of a young boy removing a picture of a completed activity from his schedule. The pictures remaining on the schedule give him a clear indication of activities to follow. Depending on the learning style of the child, all pictures can be on the board at the beginning of the class, or pictures can be added as the activity is presented.

Visual schedules help children manage their environments.
© Lauriece Zittel

Voice output devices are another method used to communicate with children who are nonverbal. A voice output system makes use of pictures and symbols along with prerecorded words and phrases (Blischak, 2003). Programming movement concepts, names of equipment or activities, and general statements provides a child with functional communication during physical education. For young children using a voice output system, a movement setting might reinforce practice with a new voice output device.

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Combining the Athlete and the Wheelchair

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

Fitting the Wheelchair to the Athlete

Proper fitting of the wheelchair to the athlete is critical for high levels of athletic performance. Most manufacturers provide retail experts who are experienced in measuring athletes for performance wheelchairs.

In fitting the frame, the two most critical considerations are the dimensions of the seat (width, length, and backrest height) and the position of the seat in relation to the main wheels. Both these considerations serve to ensure that the wheelchair fits the athlete perfectly and that she is in an optimal position to apply force and maneuver the wheelchair. Refer to the application example for a list of considerations to keep in mind while helping athletes find the chair that is best for them.

Application Example

Helping a Wheelchair Athlete Find the Right Sport and Chair

Setting

A community-based junior wheelchair sport program

Student

A 16-year-old junior wheelchair basketball player with a spinal cord injury needs recommendations to refine his individualized transition program to incorporate adult wheelchair sports. The player is tall, has played the center and forward positions, and wishes to purchase his own wheelchair.

Issue

What considerations should be taken into account in making recommendations to this athlete?

Application

Considerations for this athlete center on equipment, physical fitness, and individual skills.

Equipment considerations

• Athlete's height
• Desire to play a certain position
• Need to establish athlete's physical impairment, sport classification level, and trunk stability when seated
• Adjustability for height and point of balance (being able to maximize the seat height to about 21 inches [53 centimeters] for the center and forward positions)
• System considerations such as strapping and mobility in the wheelchair
• Reputable manufacturer

Individual physical fitness

• Strength training program that targets the upper body muscles in paired groups (e.g., biceps and triceps)
• Cardiorespiratory conditioning program that uses an arm crank ergometer or, preferably, a training roller

Individual skills targeted

• Wheelchair mobility skills both with and without the basketball
• Shooting skills both stationary and moving
• Passing skills both stationary and moving
• Studying the sophisticated strategies involved in the adult game

System Considerations for Racing Wheelchairs

A number of system considerations apply to racing wheelchairs. The following section identifies propulsion techniques and how to overcome negative forces as important considerations in developing an athlete's wheelchair racing system.

Propulsion Techniques in Track and Road Racing

Coupled with the evolution of the racing wheelchair has been the development of ever more efficient propulsion techniques. A six-phase technique (see figure 29.7) is most frequently used, although not all athletes use each phase with the same degree of effectiveness. An analysis by O'Connor and colleagues (1998) led the authors to conclude that there is a need for coaches to become more knowledgeable concerning appropriate wheelchair propulsion techniques.

Six-phase propulsion cycle.

Basic Stroke

The propulsion cycle starts with the hands drawn up as far above and behind the push rim as possible given the seating position and flexibility of the athlete. The hands are then accelerated as rapidly and forcefully as possible (acceleration phase) until they strike the push rim (see point A on figure 29.7). The moment of contact is the impact energy transfer phase (point B on figure 29.7), during which the kinetic energy stored in the fast-moving hand is transferred to the slower-moving push rim. With the hand in contact with the push rim, there is a force application, or push, phase (point C on figure 29.7), and this continues until the hands reach almost to the bottom of the push rim. During the force application phase, most of the propulsion comes from the muscles acting around the elbow and shoulder.

As the hands reach the bottom of the push rim, the powerful muscles of the forearm are used to pronate the hand, which allows the thumb to be used to give a last, powerful flick to the push rim. This last flicking action is reversed by a few athletes who use supination in the rotational energy transfer phase (point D on figure 29.7) to flick the push rim with the fingers rather than the thumb; and research indicates that this type of backhand technique may be more efficient in endurance races (Chow et al., 2001).

Immediately following the rotational energy transfer, the hands leave the push rim during the castoff phase (see point E on figure 29.7). Here it is important that the hand be moving faster than the push rim as it pulls away, since a slower hand will act as a brake on the wheelchair. Often the athlete will use the pronation or supination of the rotational energy transfer phase to accelerate the hands and arms and thus allow them to be carried up and back under ballistic motion. This upward and backward motion is called the backswing phase (point F on figure 29.7) and is used to get the hands far enough away from the push rim to allow them to accelerate forward to strike the push rim at high speed at the start of the next stroke. Goosey-Tolfrey and colleagues (2000) reported that no single identifiable stroke frequency could be recommended as best for wheelchair racing, but the athlete's own freely chosen frequency was the most economical in laboratory conditions.

This basic propulsion stroke is modified by the terrain over which the athlete is wheeling, by the tactics of the race, and by the athlete's level of disability. On uphill parts of a course, the athlete shortens the backswing and acceleration phases so as to minimize the time during which force is not applied to the push rim and during which the chair could roll backward. Tactically, the athlete is either wheeling at constant speed or is making an attack and needs to accelerate. The basic stroke described previously is used at steady speed; during bursts of acceleration, the major change in stroke takes place during the backswing. At steady speeds, the backswing is a relatively relaxed ballistic movement in which the velocity at castoff is used to raise the hand to its highest and most rearward position. This relaxed backswing is efficient and allows a brief moment of rest during each stroke. During acceleration, however, the major change in stroke dynamics is to increase the number of strokes from approximately 80 per minute to more than 120 per minute. This is achieved by a rapid reduction in the time taken for a more restricted backswing.

Race Start

The stroke is modified during the start of a race. Because the wheelchair is stationary, the hands should grip the push rim (rather than striking it), and for the first few strokes the arc of pushing will be more restricted with as rapid a recovery as possible. The various approaches that have been adopted are dependent on the athlete's preference. Some athletes attempt to make longer, more forceful pushes to get the wheels going, whereas others make shorter, sharper pushes to get the hands moving fast as early as possible.

Retarding Forces and Overcoming Them

While the athlete provides the energy to drive the wheelchair forward, the twin retarding forces of rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag act to slow it down. When propulsive forces are greater than resistance, the wheelchair accelerates, and when the retarding forces are greater, the chair is slowed. Obviously, reductions in rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag translate directly into higher wheeling speeds and improved athletic performance.

Rolling Resistance

On a hard, smooth surface, the majority of the rolling resistance of the wheel occurs at the point where the tire is in contact with the ground. As the tire rotates, each part is compressed as it passes under the hub and is in contact with the surface; then it rebounds as it begins to rise again and contact with the surface is broken. Not all the energy used to compress the tire is recovered on the rebound, and the energy loss (called hysteresis) is the major determinant of rolling resistance.

Rolling resistance of racing wheelchairs is also affected by the camber angle of the main wheel, which increases with camber (Faupin et al., 2004; Mason, van der Woude, de Groot, & Goosey-Tolfrey, 2011) and wheel alignment, referred to as toe-in or toe-out. Wheels that are not toed correctly dramatically increase the rolling resistance of a wheelchair. Athletes should do everything in their power to check and adjust alignment before every important race.

Aerodynamic Drag

The problem of aerodynamic drag of racing wheelchairs and athletes is unique in sport because of the relatively low speeds at which events take place. Races (10,000 meters) on the track take place at average speeds between 6.84 and 8.40 meters per second (female and males, respectively). Although the race times of wheelchairs have dramatically improved over the last decade, the times are still considerably slower than the speeds found in cycling. This creates special low-speed aerodynamic conditions.

Aerodynamic drag is caused by two separate but interrelated forces called surface drag and form drag. Surface drag is caused by the adhesion of air molecules to the surface of an object passing through it, and it is very powerful at low speeds. Form drag, on the other hand, is caused by the difference in air pressure between the front and the back of an object, which in turn is created by the swirls and eddy currents formed as the wheelchair and athlete pass through the air.

For wheelchair racers, the problem is that smooth surfaces increase surface drag while decreasing form drag. Some aspects of aerodynamic drag reduction are beyond doubt; these are the importance of reducing both surface and form drag by minimizing the drag-producing areas of the wheelchair and the athlete's clothing.

Drafting

Because aerodynamic drag represents approximately 40 percent of the force acting to slow down a wheelchair racer, methods of minimizing this can pay considerable dividends. The single most effective way in which drag can be reduced is the process of drafting. Drafting occurs when one wheelchair follows closely behind another wheelchair that acts as a wind deflector. At the end of long races, the energy saved by drafting can be a critical determinant of race outcome. Frequently teams work together, taking turns at both leading and drafting so that their overall performance will be increased.

System Considerations for Court Wheelchairs

This section does not include information on propulsion techniques in court sports. There is less research on propulsion techniques for court sports, presumably because of the wide variability in the propulsion techniques as compared to those in racing; however, Vanlandewijck and colleagues (2001) conducted a review of propulsion biomechanics that included not only wheelchair racing but also basketball and rugby. For those interested in increasing wheelchair sport performance, it is recommended reading.

As mentioned previously, the two fundamental features of a sport wheelchair are the dimensions of the seat and its positioning in relation to the wheels, although there are differences in the reasoning behind both of these features in relation to racing wheelchairs. In wheelchair racing, the key performance indicator is speed or endurance (or both) in a predominantly linear direction. However, in court sports, maneuverability is also a key area of performance. Therefore, whereas wheelchair racers require a perfectly fitting seat so that no energy is lost during propulsion, court sport athletes desire a seat customized to their anthropometrics to facilitate their agility. If a seat is too wide, the athlete can slide around in the chair, which equates to a loss of energy during turning; the body has to then catch up before being in a position whereby force can be applied to the wheels. When the seat is the correct width, the wheelchair should be able to respond more effectively to the athlete. This enables those athletes with sufficient trunk function to be able to maneuver their chair without necessarily having to touch their wheels. This feature of performance can also be facilitated by strapping around the knees or lap, which further secures the athlete to the chair, making movements such as tilting in wheelchair basketball possible.

The backrest is another dimension of the seat that warrants consideration when one is configuring a sport wheelchair. The backrest is essentially designed to improve the athlete's stability, which can be impaired if the backrest is too low for the functional capacity of the athlete. Alternatively, if the backrest is too high, movements can be restricted when the athlete is trying to move backward to reach a ball in basketball or rugby or hitting the ball in tennis. Strapping around the trunk can be applied to facilitate stability, although similar precautions must be taken to ensure that strapping is used only if the functional capacity of the athlete requires. If too much strapping is applied too tightly, the athlete's ability to move can be unnecessarily sacrificed at the expense of stability.

To further facilitate the fitting of the athlete to the sport wheelchair and subsequently maximize maneuverability performance, molded seats have recently emerged in wheelchair tennis and wheelchair basketball (figure 29.8). Since a molded seat will mimic the exact dimensions of each individual athlete, previous limitations associated with a conventional seat, such as energy loss during propulsion and impaired maneuverability, should be eradicated.

Example of (a) a conventional sport wheelchair seat and (b) a molded seat to facilitate maneuverability performance.
Photos courtesy of Dr. John Lenton.

Once the seat is successfully designed for the specific athlete, the next thing to consider is where the seat fits in relation to the main wheels in both a horizontal (anterior - posterior) and vertical position (see figure 29.9).

(a) Anterior - posterior and (b) vertical main-wheel adjustments.

Anterior - Posterior Seat Position

Horizontal positioning of the main wheels affects the mobility of the chair. The farther forward the main wheel from a hypothesized neutral position (see figure 29.9a, position A), the more maneuverable the chair (see figure 29.9a, position B). Unfortunately, the farther forward the main wheel relative to the center of gravity, the more likely it is that the chair will tilt up. Although the introduction of the anti-tip castor wheel prevents the athlete from falling backward, it does place a large percentage of body mass over the rear castors. Consequently, athletes need to reposition their body weight forward in order to drive the wheels forward, which will be limited by their trunk function. However, this is a position that many low-point wheelchair rugby players are forced to adopt since they do not have the triceps function or stability to sit above the wheel and drive it down. Alternatively they choose to sit farther back so that they can make the most of their biceps function and "pull" the wheel up and forward.

Vertical Seat Position

Vertical positioning of the main wheel affects the height at which the athlete sits and the center of gravity of the system. This fundamentally affects the handling properties of the chair. Again, using a hypothetical neutral position (figure 29.9b, position A), the lower the athlete sits relative to this neutral position (figure 29.9b, position D), the more maneuverable the wheelchair. Therefore, all other things being equal, the athlete should sit as low as possible. However, performance considerations place a premium on height in all sports. Shooting is easier in basketball when athletes sit high because they are closer to the basket. Likewise, receiving a rugby pass is easier if one sits higher and can reach above the opponent. Finally, a tennis serve is made easier when the athlete is elevated above the height of the net, as there is now a greater margin for error. Given the advantages associated with sitting high, athletes can often forsake the optimal position for pushing the wheelchair, putting their mobility performance at risk. As the height of the seat increases, the athlete effectively moves farther away from the wheels. In order to access enough of the wheels to effectively apply force, athletes (depending on trunk function) will have to lean forward. In order to reduce the distance that athletes have to lean, many have countered this by selecting a larger wheel size to make the wheels more accessible in a higher seat position. However, this can introduce alternative and potentially negative effects on performance, with a larger wheel thought to impair acceleration and maneuverability performance. Mason and colleagues (2012a, 2012b) have provided a more in-depth evaluation of the effects of wheel size on aspects of mobility performance in wheelchair basketball players.

In summary, when enhancing wheelchair sport performance on the court, athletes should identify the functional aspects of the game and their roles or positions coupled with their strengths and weaknesses. This will depend in part on the disability level of the athlete. After identifying these roles, athletes should select the wheelchair setup that will improve functionality within the roles. It is stressed that the positioning of the main wheel will fundamentally affect the performance characteristics of the chair. After the athlete has identified the appropriate wheelchair setup, consideration needs to be given to combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a performance system through the use of appropriate strapping techniques.

Skill Development

Sport-specific skills are critical to the elite athlete's program. Common to skills in court sports are acceleration, speed (which depends on power, which depends on strength), and maneuverability with the target object, whether it be a basketball, volleyball (as used in wheelchair rugby), or tennis racket. Goosey-Tolfrey (2010b) reports other sport-specific skills as described by key sport coaches for the aforementioned sports. Skills tests have been developed for wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and tennis (Newbery, Richards, Trill, & Whait, 2010; Yilla & Sherrill, 1998), and field-based fitness testing is described in detail in the review article by Goosey-Tolfrey and Leicht (2013). Task analysis of skill performance is also suggested by Davis (2002, 2011).

Instructional materials that focus on the skills and strategies involved in many wheelchair sports are also available (Goosey-Tolfrey, 2010b). Again, the systems approach should be incorporated, with athletes practicing their skills in their competitive system that includes their sport-specific wheelchair and strapping.

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Test Instruments Used in Adapted Physical Education

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments.

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments. Some of these tests, however, do contain alternative elements such as rubric scoring systems (e.g., TGMD-2) or task-analysis sequences and checklists (e.g., Special Olympics coaching guides).

Available tests in physical education measure a range of traits and abilities. Most, however, fall within five traditional areas of physical and motor development and ability: reflexes and reactions, rudimentary movements, fundamental movements, specialized movements (including sport skills, aquatics, dance, and activities of daily living), and health-related physical fitness. (Note that these categories are somewhat arbitrary and do not encompass all possibilities. In some situations, for instance, teachers might routinely test and assess the posture or the perceptual - motor abilities of their students.) More recently, a sixth area, physical activity, has gained attention. The rest of this section is devoted to a discussion of tests or measures from these six areas. One instrument from each area is highlighted. The highlighted instruments are meant to be representative of a particular content area and are recommended or used by many adapted physical educators. Other tests are available within each area, and teachers always have the option of designing alternative measures to augment or replace published instruments. In adapted physical education, there are always circumstances when published instruments prove to be inappropriate for a particular student, and teachers must modify or design instruments in accordance with the student's abilities. (Additional tests are listed in the resources section of this chapter.) The application example illustrates how tests can be used.

Measuring Reflexes and Reactions

The measurement and assessment of primitive reflexes and postural reactions is an important consideration in those with developmental delays, particularly in early intervention and childhood programs. (See chapter 19 for information on reflexes and reactions.) As educational services are extended to infants and toddlers, as well as to persons with more severe disabilities (especially those that are neurologically based, such as cerebral palsy), physical educators need to understand the influence of reflexes and reactions on motor development milestones and motor skill learning.

Because primitive reflexes normally follow a predictable sequence for appearing, maturing, and eventually disappearing, they are particularly helpful in providing information on the maturation of the central nervous system. If a primitive reflex persists beyond schedule, presents an unequal bilateral response (e.g., is present on one side but absent or not as strong on the other), is too strong or too weak, or is completely absent, then neurological problems might be suspected. When primitive reflexes are not inhibited, they will undoubtedly interfere with voluntary movement because muscle tone involuntarily changes when reflexes are elicited.

The adapted physical educator should collaborate closely with a physical therapist to identify the presence of primitive reflexes and postural reactions and further determine an appropriate motor intervention to minimize the effects of the reflex through (a) central nervous system integration, (b) maximizing functional movements through reflexive action, or (c) both. Most adapted physical education programs seek the expertise of the physical therapist who has specialized training in this area. Many early motor development tests incorporate testing of specific reflexes, but all generally involve manipulation of the body to determine evoked responses and spontaneous behaviors (Zafeiriou, 2004).

Application Example

Determining if a Student Should Be Assigned to an Adapted Program

Setting

A new 10-year-old student with mild intellectual disabilities received special education services, including adapted physical education, at his previous school. As a matter of policy, the district will reevaluate the student before determining proper programs and placements. A physical education teacher is invited to be a member of the IEP team.

Issue

How should the physical educator determine if the student should be assigned to the adapted program?

Application

The physical educator might do the following:

• Administer the BPFT to determine if the student's fitness is sufficiently developed. (The expectation would be that the student would achieve at least specific standards for children with intellectual disabilities.)
• Administer the TGMD-2 to determine if fundamental movements are completely developed. (Maximum or near-maximum scores would be expected for a 10-year-old.)
• Compare standardized test results (i.e., BPFT and TGMD) with the district guidelines or criteria for adapted physical education.
• Place the student in one or more trial placements and collect authentic assessment data. (Determine, for instance, if the rubrics being used by other members of the class are reasonably appropriate, with or without modification, for the new student.)
• Consider all assessment data when formulating a recommendation for the IEP team.

Measuring Rudimentary Movements

Rudimentary movements are the first voluntary movements (see chapter 19). Reaching, grasping, sitting, crawling, and creeping are examples of rudimentary movements. Most instruments that assess rudimentary movements use a developmental approach to testing - that is, a series of motor milestones associated with specific ages is arranged chronologically and tested individually. By determining which behaviors the child can perform, the teacher can estimate the child's developmental age (because each milestone has its own age norm) and suggest future learning activities (i.e., the behaviors in the sequence that the child cannot currently do). The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) is an example of this approach, with some additional enhancements (other instruments are discussed in chapters 21 and 22).

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales

• Purpose: The PDMS-2 (Folio & Fewell, 2000) assesses the motor development of children from birth to 83 months in both fine and gross motor areas. Items are subcategorized into the following six areas: reflexes, stationary (balance), locomotion, object manipulation, grasping, and visual - motor integration.
• Description: A total of 249 test items (mostly developmental milestones) are arranged chronologically within age levels (e.g., 0-1 month, 6-7 months, 18-23 months), and each is identified as belonging to one of the six categories being assessed (e.g., reflexes, locomotion). It is recommended that testers begin administering items one level below the child's expected motor age. Items are scored from 0 to 2 according to specified criteria. Testing continues until the ceiling-age level is reached (a level for which a score of 2 is obtained for no more than 1 of the 10 items in that level). Composite scores for gross motor (reflexes, balance, locomotion, and object manipulation), fine motor (grasping and visual - motor integration), and total motor (combination of gross and fine motor subtests) areas of functioning can be determined.
• Reliability and validity: Empirical research has established adequate levels of reliability and validity. Evidence information is provided for subgroups as well as for the general population.
• Comment: The PDMS-2 appears to have certain advantages over other rudimentary movement tests. First, the large number of test items represents a larger sample of behaviors than exists in many other tests. Second, the six categories help teachers pinpoint exactly which areas of gross motor development are problematic. Finally, the scoring system and availability of normative data provide the teacher with more information on student performance than many other tests do. Supplementary materials, including a software scoring and reporting system and a motor activity program, also are available in conjunction with PDMS-2.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The PDMS-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Fundamental Movements

The critical window of opportunity, the time during which experience has the most influence on developing fundamental motor skills, seems to be the early childhood and early elementary years. Fundamental movement skills can be classified as locomotor (traveling, e.g., jumping), nonlocomotor (stationary, e.g., one-foot balance), or manipulative (object control, e.g., throwing). Some fundamental movement test instruments measure how far the performance has progressed along a motor continuum, but most use a point system to evaluate either the process of the fundamental movement or its product. Process-oriented approaches generally attempt to break down (or task analyze) a movement into its component parts and then evaluate each component individually. This approach assesses the quality of the movement, not its result. Product-oriented approaches are concerned primarily with outcome. Product-oriented assessment is more concerned with the quantity of the movement (e.g., how far, how fast, how many) than with its execution. The TGMD-2 emphasizes a process-oriented approach to the assessment of fundamental movements.

Test of Gross Motor Development-2

• Purpose: The TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000) was designed to measure gross motor content frequently taught in preschool and early elementary grades, including special education; to be used by various professionals with a minimum amount of training; to use both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards; and to place a priority on the gross motor skill process rather than the product of performance.
• Description: The test measures locomotor (six test items) and object-control skill functioning (six test items) and provides an overall indication of gross motor functioning. Locomotor subtest items include the run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. Object-control subtest items consist of the two-hand strike, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand roll, and overhand throw. For each skill, the tester is provided with performance criteria used to assess the child's performance. Children receive 1 point for meeting each performance criterion given for each of two trials allowed. These criterion-based scores can be added and compared to norm-referenced standards in order to make summative evaluations regarding locomotor, object-control, and overall gross motor performance. Percentiles, standard scores, and chronological age equivalents can be determined for assessment purposes.
• Reliability and validity: Reliability coefficients are quite high (generally .84 to .96). Acceptable levels of content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related validity are provided.
• Comment: The sound process of test construction should provide the user with a good deal of confidence that scores obtained by children accurately reflect their fundamental movement abilities. Availability of both criterion-referenced and norm-referenced standards enhances the capability of the test to support eligibility, placement, IEP planning, and instructional decisions. Test scores allow for easy monitoring of student progress and reporting to parents.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The TGMD-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Specialized Activity Movements

A wide variety of possible physical education and sport activities could be tested under this category. Sport skills tests can take many forms, but often they are criterion referenced and teacher constructed (in fact, many teachers prefer to use authentic techniques to assess game and sport skills). Often, when teachers measure learning progress in relatively unique skills taught in physical education (e.g., wheelchair locomotion or functional performance using the treadmill at a local health club), a rubric is developed and used. Teachers who work with students with disabilities who compete in special sport programs, including those offered by multisport organizations (e.g., United States Association of Blind Athletes [USABA]), are encouraged to develop their own tests specific to the event in which the athlete competes. One example of a sport skills test that can be used for athletes with disabilities comes from the Special Olympics coaching guides.

Sport Skills Program Guides

• Purpose: Special Olympics, Inc., provides coaching guides that can complement or supplement existing physical education and recreation programs for people with disabilities (aged 8 and older) in sport skills instruction.
• Description: Guides are provided for 32 sports and recreation activities. Although the guides are not test instruments per se, authentic assessment is a critical aspect of the instructional programs recommended in the guides. Assessments consist of both task analyses and checklists. Testers check off task focal points that the student is able to perform. For instance, in athletics there are 14 test items corresponding to track and field events. Within each checklist, testers check the focal points an athlete can demonstrate (e.g., "Performs a single-leg takeoff for a running long jump.").
• Reliability and validity: No information has been reported, but content validity probably could be claimed because the checklists reflect sport skills task analyses developed by content (specific sport activity) experts in the field.
• Comment: A primary advantage of the coaching guides is convenience - a teacher or coach can adopt the existing task-analysis curriculums for many sport activities and further modify accordingly for specific students and situations if needed. The program has been used with participants with intellectual disabilities for some time and has been shown to have good utility for that group. A disadvantage is that neither reliability nor validity of the various test instruments has been formally established.
• Availability: Special Olympics, Inc., 1133 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036-3604. Website: http://resources.specialolympics.org/Taxonomy/Sports_Essentials/__Catalog_of_Sports_Essentials.aspx.

Measuring Health-Related Physical Fitness

Because health-related physical fitness is an increasing concern in the health and well-being of young people, it is crucial to use fitness tests that provide meaningful data and allow sound instructional decision making. Over the years many standardized tests of physical fitness have become available to teachers. The BPFT is one test that is recommended to measure and assess the health-related physical fitness of young people with disabilities. The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) extends the health-related, criterion-referenced approach to young people with disabilities. Access to the proper techniques for conducting the 27 tests in the BPFT has been included with this text. See Accessing the Web Resource for instructions on gaining access to the web resource.

Brockport Physical Fitness Test

• Purpose: The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) is a health-related, criterion-referenced physical fitness test appropriate for young people (aged 10-17) with and without disabilities.
• Description: The test battery includes 27 test items (refer to table 4.2) from which teachers can choose based on disability. Typically, students are tested on four to six test items from three components of fitness: body composition, aerobic functioning, and musculoskeletal functioning (muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility). Although specific test items are recommended for children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, visual impairments, spinal cord injuries, and congenital anomalies and amputations, teachers are encouraged to personalize testing. Personalization involves identifying health-related concerns pertaining to the student, establishing a desired fitness profile for the student, selecting components and subcomponents of fitness to be assessed, selecting test items to measure those components, and selecting health-related, criterion-referenced standards to evaluate fitness. Thus, teachers have the option to modify any of the elements of the testing program as outlined in the test manual. Both general population and disability-specific standards are available for assessment and evaluation. A general standard is one appropriate for the general population and has not been adjusted in any way for the effects of a disability. A specific standard is one that has been adjusted for the effects of a disability. Specific standards are available only for selected test items for particular groups of people.
• Reliability and validity: The test items in the BPFT have been shown to be valid and reliable through various studies. Evidence for validity and reliability is provided in a lengthy technical report published in a special issue of Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 2005 (Winnick, 2005).
• Comment: The BPFT was patterned after Fitnessgram, and many of the standards, especially for the general population, were adopted from that test. Thus, teachers in inclusive settings should find it relatively easy to use both tests as necessary. In addition to the test manual, a training guide is also available (Winnick & Short, 1999).
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Brockport-Physical-Fitness-Test-Manual-2nd-Edition-With-Web-Resource.

Measuring Physical Activity

Much research has established the positive relation between regular physical activity and health, and many physical education programs are promoting physically active lifestyles as a primary goal of the program. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important for physical educators to objectively measure physical activity levels in ways that are sensitive enough to document change. At present, four types of activity measures are available to teachers: heart rate monitors, activity monitors (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, motion sensors), direct observation, and self-report instruments (Welk & Wood, 2000). Despite their accuracy, heart rate monitors have limited applicability in school situations because of cost and limitations in measuring students in large classes at one time. Pedometers are relatively inexpensive and accurate and have good utility for measuring walking activity, but they do not have broad applicability in measuring general physical activity. Coding student activity through direct observation is not expensive, but it can be time-consuming because only a few children can be monitored at one time by a trained observer. (These three approaches - heart rate monitors, activity monitors, and direct observation - might be more effective in settings with fewer students.)

Self-report instruments are appropriate for measuring physical activity in most school settings. Self-report instruments require students to recall and record their participation in physical activity over a set amount of time (usually from one to seven days). Although many self-report instruments are available (see Welk & Wood, 2000, for examples), all seek to quantify the frequency, intensity, and duration of students' physical activity. If students with disabilities have difficulty with self-reports, teachers or parents might need to provide an estimate of the information instead. A computer software program, Activitygram, provides teachers with an easy method for measuring student physical activity.

Activitygram

• Purpose: Activitygram (Cooper Institute, 2017), a program associated with Fitnessgram, records, analyzes, and saves student physical activity data and produces reports based on those data.
• Description: Activitygram is part of the Fitnessgram test program. The program prompts participants to recall their physical activities over the previous two or three days in 30-minute time blocks. Students select activities from within six categories: lifestyle activity, active aerobics, active sports, muscle fitness activities, flexibility exercises, and rest and inactivity. Students are also asked to rate the intensity of the activity (light, moderate, vigorous). Activity Log, a related component of Activitygram, allows students to track their physical activity (in step counts or minutes of activity) and to set personal goals and challenges. Activitygram and Activity Log printed reports provide an analysis of activity habits and personalized messages that give suggestions to increase or maintain physical activity. Recommendations are based on national guidelines endorsed by the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America).
• Reliability and validity: Because of the subjective nature of self-report measures, measurement error may reduce validity. Nevertheless, the Previous Day Physical Activity Recall instrument, on which the Activitygram program is based, has been shown to provide valid and reliable estimates of physical activity and also accurately identifies periods of moderate to vigorous activity (Weston, Petosa, & Pate, 1997). Measurement error can be minimized when parents, teachers, and others can verify activity measures.
• Comment: Although designed primarily with students without disabilities in mind, Activitygram can be useful for students receiving adapted physical education. Specific activities will vary (e.g., running vs. pushing a wheelchair), but the six categories of physical activity are appropriate for most students with or without disabilities. Younger children and those with intellectual disabilities, however, might have trouble recalling and entering activity data. Peer tutors, teacher aides, or parents could be prepared to make direct observations and could enter the data on behalf of a student who has difficulty using the system.
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Fitnessgram-Administration-Manual-5th-Edition-With-Web_Resource.

Specific Approaches for Physical Education and Sport

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

Humanistic Approach

In physical education, students with behavior disabilities ranging from mild to severe can be taught through the humanistic approach. In this context, humanism is applied to skill acquisition and the management of social behaviors. Generally speaking, some techniques suggested by Sherrill (2004) for improving self-concept are singularly applicable with this population; for example, teachers should strive to do the following (p. 234):

• Conceptualize individual and small-group counseling as an integral part of physical education.
• Teach students to care about each other and show that they care.
• Emphasize cooperation and social interaction rather than individual performance.
• Stress the importance of genuineness and honesty in praise.
• Increase perceived competence in relation to motor skill and fitness.
• Convey that they like and respect students as human beings, not just for their motor skills and fitness.

More specifically, the approach outlined by Hellison (2011) has immediate relevance for practitioners confronted with students who are usually high functioning but who lack self-control and consequently present management problems. Hellison has developed a set of alternative goals or levels for physical education that focus on human needs and values rather than on fitness and sport skill development exclusively. The main purpose of Hellison's approach is to develop positive social responsibility. The goals are developmental and reflect a loosely constructed level-by-level progression of attitudes and behaviors. They include self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-direction, and caring and helping.

• Level 0: Irresponsibility. This level defines students who fail to take responsibility for either their actions or inactions; they blame others for their behavior and typically make excuses.
• Level I: Respecting the rights and feelings of others. This level deals with the need for control of one's own behavior. Self-control should be the first goal, according to Hellison, because learning cannot take place effectively if one cannot control impulses to harm others physically and verbally.
• Level II: Participation and effort. Level II focuses on the need for physical activity and offers students one medium for personal stability through experiences in which they can engage on a daily basis. Participation involves getting uninterested students to at least go through the motions, experiencing various degrees of effort expenditure to determine if effort leads to improvement, and redefining success as a personal accomplishment.
• Level III: Self-direction. Level III emphasizes the need for students to take more responsibility for their choices and to link these choices with their own identities. Students at this level can work independently in class and can take responsibility for their intentions and actions. At this level, students begin to assume responsibility for the direction of their lives and to explore options in developing a strong and integrated personal identity. This level includes developing a knowledge base that will enhance achievement of their goals, developing a plan to accomplish their goals, and evaluating their plan to determine their success.
• Level IV: Caring and helping. Level IV is the most difficult for students; it is also not a requirement for successful participation in the responsibility model. At this level, students reach out beyond themselves to others, committing themselves to genuinely caring about other people. Students are motivated to give support, cooperate, show concern, and help. Generally speaking, the goal of level IV is the improvement of the entire group's welfare.
• Level V: Outside the gym. Level V promotes the opportunity to transfer many of the lessons learned in the gym to other areas of life. It also implies being a role model.

Hellison recognized that these five goals provide only a framework and that strategies must be employed to help students interact with self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participate and show effort, be self-directed, and demonstrate caring and helping behavior on a regular basis. He suggests five interaction strategies to help reach the goals. These include awareness talks (e.g., post levels on gym wall and refer to them frequently), the physical education lesson (e.g., students can be taught to solve conflict during a game), group meetings (e.g., students discuss issues of low motivation or difficulty in being self-directed), reflection time (e.g., students record in a journal or discuss how they did during class in relation to the goals they had established), and counseling time (e.g., students discuss their patterns of abusive behavior and possibly their underlying motives for such behavior). This last strategy gives students the opportunity to talk with the teacher about problems preventing them from achieving their goals within specified levels of the responsibility model. These strategies are "processes for helping students to become aware of, experience, make decisions about, and reflect on the model's goals" (Hellison & Templin, 1991, p. 108). See table 9.2 for a brief examination of the relationship between the levels and strategies in Hellison's model.

Many physical education programs use games to accomplish goals and objectives established for individuals and classes. Because students with behavioral disorders often lack fundamental skills, they frequently are incapable of demonstrating even minimal levels of competence in these games. As a result, they have an increased tendency to act out - perhaps with verbal or physical aggression - or to withdraw, which further excludes them from an opportunity to develop skills.

In an effort to promote the most positive learning environment, Hellison (2011) developed a nontraditional approach to working with at-risk students, using basketball as the primary vehicle for empowering students to learn personal and social values. Employing Hellison's responsibility model (discussed previously) as the philosophical underpinning, the coaching club is a before-school program in Chicago's inner city. It offers students the opportunity to explore movement through a progression of five levels: (I) self-control, meaning control of one's body and temper; (II) teamwork, meaning full participation by all team members; (III) self-coaching; (IV) coaching another team member; and (V) applying skills learned in the program outside the gym to school, home, and neighborhood. Playing ability is not a prerequisite. This program promotes social responsibility. Likewise, extrinsic rewards are unnecessary because students are motivated to reach level IV (coach) on the evaluation system (Hellison & Georgiadis, 1992, p. 7). Level IV consists of the following:

• Has good attendance.
• Is coachable and on task at practice.
• Does not abuse others or interrupt practice.
• Is able to set personal goals and work independently on these goals.
• Possesses good helping skills (such as giving cues, observing, and giving positive feedback as well as general praise).
• Encourages teamwork and passing the ball.
• Listens to players; is sensitive to their feelings and needs.
• Puts the welfare of players above own needs (such as the need to win or look good).
• Understands that exhibiting these characteristics is the key to being a good coach, regardless of personal basketball ability.

Behavioral Approach

Students with severe behavior disorders require intense programming efforts. This group includes students who are self-indulgent, aggressive, noncompliant, and self-stimulatory or self-destructive (Dunn & Leitschuh, 2014). Using the basic steps of behavioral programming discussed in chapter 6, Dunn and his coauthor developed the data-based gymnasium (DBG). This program incorporates behavioral principles in a systematic effort to produce procedural consistency for teachers who work with students with behavioral disorders and to bring student behavior under the control of naturally occurring reinforcers. To the latter end, instructors use natural reinforcers available in the environment, such as praising a desirable behavior to strengthen it or ignoring an undesirable behavior to bring about its extinction. Tangible reinforcers such as token economies are introduced only after it has been demonstrated that the consistent use of social reinforcement or extinction will not achieve the desired behavioral outcome.

In an effort to equip teachers with consistent behavioral procedures, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) use a variety of strategies, including rules of thumb, to apply to inappropriate behavior. For each area of inappropriate behavior (e.g., self-indulgent behavior), there exists a rule of thumb or generally accepted way of responding when certain undesirable behaviors occur. The intent of these rules is to make the development and implementation of a formal behavioral program unnecessary.

• Self-indulgent behavior. Behaviors in this category include crying, screaming, throwing tantrums, and performing repetitive, irritating activities or making noises. The rule of thumb for handling students who engage in self-indulgent behaviors is to ignore them until the behavior is discontinued and then socially reinforce the first occurrence of an appropriate behavior. For example, one would ignore children's tantrums when they cannot control a play situation with classmates but reinforce with social praise their initial attempts to play cooperatively.
• Noncompliant behavior. Noncompliant behaviors include instances when students decline to comply when instructed to do something as well as forgetting or failing to do something because they choose not to do what is asked. Noncompliance also includes doing what is requested but in a less than acceptable way. The rule of thumb is that teachers should ignore noncompliant verbalizations, lead students physically through the task, or prevent students from participating in an activity until they follow through on the initial request. Compliance with any request is immediately reinforced socially. For example, one would physically restrict aggressive play and socially praise a child's positive engagement with a classmate or group.
• Aggressive behavior. Verbal or physical abuse directed toward an object or a person is considered aggressive behavior. Examples of aggressive acts include hitting, fighting, pinching, biting, pushing, or deliberately destroying someone's property. The rule of thumb for aggressive behavior is that it is punished immediately with a verbal reprimand and the offending student is removed from the activity. Social reinforcement is given when students demonstrate appropriate interaction with other people or objects. For example, a student who strikes another student is immediately reprimanded verbally (conflict resolution) and is eliminated from the activity (given a time-out; see chapter 6).
• Self-stimulatory behavior. This category includes behaviors that interfere with learning because students become engrossed in the perseverative nature of the activities. Examples include head banging, hand flapping, body rocking, and eye gouging. As a rule of thumb, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) recommend a formal behavioral program to deal with this type of behavior. An in-depth discussion of formal principles and programs for behavior modification is presented in chapter 6.

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The story of Loretta Claiborne

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7.

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7. Forbidden to participate in school sports because she was in special education, Loretta ran to get away from the bullies. At the age of 18, she became a Special Olympics athlete. Twenty-five years later, in 1996, Loretta received the prestigious Arthur Ashe Courage Award at the ESPN Espy Awards. In 1999, Disney aired a made-for-TV movie about her life, The Loretta Claiborne Story, and she appeared on the Oprah Winfrey Show.

Along the way, Loretta completed 26 marathons, including three Boston Marathons, placing among the top 100 of all women each time. In 1988 she finished in the top 25 women in the Pittsburgh Marathon and was named Special Olympics Female Athlete of the Year. In 1991, Loretta was named to the Special Olympics board of directors and was selected by Runner's World magazine as the Special Olympics Athlete of the Quarter Century. The following year she was inducted into the York, Pennsylvania, Sports Hall of Fame and the William Penn High School Alumni Hall of Fame - the same high school that had barred her from the track team because she had intellectual disabilities.

Loretta introduced then-U.S. president Bill Clinton at the 1995 Special Olympics World Summer Games opening ceremonies in New Haven, Connecticut, and received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Quinnipiac College in Hamden, Connecticut, becoming the first person with intellectual disabilities to receive an honorary doctorate. The Loretta Claiborne Building in York, Pennsylvania, was dedicated in 2001. In 2003, she was awarded a second doctorate of humane letters by Villanova University in Pennsylvania. Currently, her uplifting life story is chronicled in the text, In Her Stride, a feature title in the WorldScapes literacy series for grades 3 through 6.

One of Loretta's most memorable races was a marathon in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Running strong, Loretta noticed another runner beginning to falter. Loretta slowed her pace and stayed with the man throughout the race, encouraging him on; they crossed the finish line together. The other runner? Former world heavyweight boxing champion Larry Holmes! Now a black belt in karate, Loretta still runs about 5 miles (8 kilometers) every day and also competes in Special Olympics bowling, figure skating, basketball, golf, soccer, skiing, softball, and swimming.

Implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

Assessment

One method that has been proven helpful in assessing students with ASD is the system known as ecological task analysis (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). Within the model, the instructor examines the interaction of three factors: the student, the environment, and the task. To derive a good understanding of the student, the assessor should seek information from several sources, including parents, teachers, therapists, and aides. One should fully understand reinforcers and modes of communication before attempting to assess the child. The assessor should also spend time developing a rapport with the child before assessment. When beginning the assessment, it is important to start with activities the child understands and is able to perform and then move on to more difficult tasks. It is important also to understand qualities that inhibit or enhance performance. This approach allows for early success and better compliance throughout the assessment.

The second factor that needs to be considered is the task. To determine if the task is appropriate, consider the following questions: Is it age appropriate? Is it functional? Will the information gained assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP) goals and objectives? Will the information be used for program development and instruction? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the task being assessed is appropriate. To assess the task, the assessor might use a task analysis approach in which requisite skills are identified and either further broken down or assessed as a whole. For example, in assessing soccer skills, the assessor would determine the requisite skills for soccer (e.g., dribbling, passing, trapping, shooting). Each of these skills could be broken down into components assessed separately, or the skill could be assessed as a whole. Once the assessment is complete, the information gleaned can be used to develop goals and objectives based on unique needs, serve as a basis for instruction, and aid in activity selection.

Finally the instructor needs to consider the environment. Keeping in mind that children with ASD might be hypersensitive to environmental stimuli, the instructor should provide an environment with limited distractions and focus on one task at a time. In the soccer example, the instructor can provide different-size balls, different-size goals, and different surfaces for performing the task. After considering the individual student, the task, and the environmental parameters involved, the instructor observes the student's behavior and preferences and documents his choices. These choices serve as a baseline and a springboard upon which to teach.

Activity Selection

When selecting activities for children with ASD, the most important consideration is the needs and interests of the learners and their families. In addition, the functional value of the activity should be taken into account. Activities that have a high probability of success for children with ASD are generally more individual, such as swimming, running, and bowling. However, no one should assume that children with ASD cannot participate in and enjoy team sports. Team sports might need modifications to enhance success, but all children should have the opportunity to explore a range of physical education activities.

The learner's age must also be taken into account. Both developmental appropriateness and age appropriateness should always be considered when selecting activities. Although elementary-aged children spend a great deal of time learning and improving their fundamental motor skills, it would be inappropriate to focus on such skills at the middle school or high school level. When selecting activities, instructors should also consider family and community interests. Does the child come from a family that enjoys hiking or skiing? Or is the family more involved in soccer or softball? Considering these factors helps shape the activity selection so that the child with ASD can more fully integrate within the family and community.

One form of movement, known as sensorimotor activities, can be especially beneficial to students with ASD. These activities are designed to stimulate the senses with a focus on kinesthetic awareness, tactile stimulation, auditory processing, and visual - motor coordination. Kinesthetic awareness deals with the relationship of the body to space. Examples of kinesthetic activities include jumping on a trampoline, crawling through tunnels, jumping over a rope, and rolling down an incline mat. Tactile stimulation can be enhanced by having the child interact with objects, such as balls with various sizes, shapes, and textures. Auditory processing can be enhanced through the use of music and songs that instruct the child in a sequence of movements. Finally, visual - motor coordination can be strengthened through playing an array of games that require tracking, such as kickball, softball, soccer, or lacrosse.

Instructional and Management Techniques

Teaching students with ASD is not unlike teaching other children. Teachers need to establish rapport with students, develop trust, relay information in a clear and concise manner, and provide reinforcement and feedback to help shape appropriate motor and social behavior. Specific strategies that prove helpful in instructing and managing students with ASD include the use of picture and communication boards, the consistent use of structure and routines, and the use of natural cues in the environment to facilitate the acquisition and execution of skills. Other methods include the correction procedure rule and parallel talk. The correction procedure rule is a system used when inappropriate skills or social behaviors occur. Here, the instructor takes the child back to the last task that was done correctly in an effort to redirect the inappropriate behavior. Parallel talk is a system in which the instructor talks through the actions that are occurring - for example, "Juan is dribbling the basketball" - which aids in the understanding and purpose of actions. In addition, teaching to the strengths of learners by considering their preferred learning modality will also prove helpful in teaching students with ASD. Finally, the value of using support staff and peer tutors should not be underestimated in teaching students with ASD. Each of these strategies is more fully explained next.

Picture and Communication Boards

One of the most common and most successful methods used to teach children with ASD is the use of picture and communication boards. Types of pictures include photographs, lifelike drawings, and symbolic drawings. Some children may not yet understand pictures and may need objects to represent them, such as dollhouse furniture or small figures of objects. When pictures are used, it is best to have only one item in the picture because children with ASD have a tendency toward overselectivity, meaning that they are not able to screen out irrelevant information. Teachers should help students focus on the most relevant information. For example, if a child is working on basketball skills, it may be preferable not to use a picture of a basketball court with students playing on it because there is too much information in the picture, making it difficult for the child to screen out irrelevant information. Pictures can also be arranged to create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Boardmaker, as described earlier, is one of many commercial software programs that can help create picture boards using universally accepted symbols to depict events and actions.

Routines and Structure

Establishing routines and structure aids in managing and instructing students with ASD. Children with ASD often demonstrate inappropriate behavioral responses when new or incongruent information is presented in a random or haphazard manner. Routines with set beginning and end points allow for more predictability and help to reduce sensory overload. Routines are also useful in introducing new information or behaviors. Keeping some information familiar and gradually introducing new information helps students respond appropriately. Routines also help to reduce verbal directions and allow children to work independently.

The following scenario illustrates a typical routine that incorporates pictures and can be useful in physical education. Before Justin goes to physical education class, a classroom teacher gives him a picture of the physical education teacher and says, "Justin, it is time for PE." The picture of the physical education teacher allows Justin to understand what is going to happen next. When the class enters the gym, Justin gives the picture card to the physical education teacher. The physical education teacher then uses a communication board with pictures to relay to Justin the lesson from start to finish. For example, a picture of a child stretching could indicate the warm-up, and a picture of a child doing curl-ups could indicate the fitness portion of the lesson. Further, the specific focus could be identified, as with a picture of a soccer ball. Finally, goalposts can be used to indicate the game activity. Figure 10.2 presents a sample schedule for a physical education lesson. The components of the schedule can remain the same, but the actual activities can be manipulated to prepare the child for the daily lesson. When using words instead of pictures, the words can be erased after the task is completed. This system allows students to understand that the activity has ended and the next activity will soon begin.

Physical education sample pictorial schedule. The pictures allow the student to understand what is going to happen in the lesson from start to finish.

As noted previously, children with ASD have difficulty with sensory overload. When they are entering a new environment, such as a gym, the atmosphere may create extreme sensory overload. Structure helps alleviate this stress by creating environments that are easily understood and manageable. In physical education, teachers can structure their space so that the environment is predictable. First, the teacher needs to identify for the child where activities are done (in the gym, on the field, on a mat), where things are located (balls in bin, ropes on hangers, rackets on hooks), and how to move from one place to another (rotating stations, rotating positions, moving from inside to outside). Second, the teacher needs to establish concrete boundaries. For example, if a child is to remain on one-half of the field, cones indicating the halfway point should be in place. Labels can also help organize space. For example, equipment boxes should be clearly labeled so that the child can easily retrieve and put away equipment.

At the conclusion of the lesson, the physical education teacher should have a consistent cue to transition the child back to the classroom. This could be a picture of the classroom teacher or a desk. Forewarning is another effective way to transition a child back to the classroom. For example, the teacher might say, "Justin, in three minutes PE will be over." This helps the child better understand time and prepare for the change in routine. A second warning might be given at 2 minutes and a third at 1 minute. Through proper preparation, anxiety levels are reduced because the child begins to understand that a change in the task will occur after the 1-minute signal from the instructor. Again, the child must understand what will be happening next. When he arrives back in the classroom, physical education can be crossed off his daily schedule and he can begin the next activity on the schedule.

The implementation of routines and structure might at first seem time-consuming for the teacher. However, once these systems are in place, dramatic improvements in behavior and participation usually occur, making the extra time and effort worthwhile.

Natural Environmental Cues and Task Analysis

In teaching new skills to children with ASD, instructors are urged to use natural cues within the environment and to minimize verbal cues. If the goal is for the child to kick a soccer ball into a goal, the natural cues would be a soccer ball and a goal. To achieve the desired objective, the instructor might need to break the task down into smaller steps or task analyze the skills. For example, shooting a soccer ball into a goal might involve the following steps: (1) Line the child up at the shooting line; (2) place the ball on the shooting line; and (3) prompt the child to take a shot. One may break the skill down further by placing a poly spot in front of the child to initiate a stepping action with the opposite kicking foot and prompting the child with either a verbal cue or physical assist to use the kicking foot to make contact with the ball. The degree to which skills should be task analyzed depends on the task and the learner.

Demonstrations also prove helpful in the acquisition of new skills. If the child performs the task correctly, the lesson should continue. For example, the teacher might teach the child how to stop a ball being passed to the shooting line. If the child is unsuccessful in shooting the ball toward the goal, the teacher could use physical assistance to help her gain a better understanding of what the task requires, allowing her to repeat the task until no physical assistance is needed. Once the child has performed the task correctly, the teacher would move on to the rest of the lesson. Figure 10.3 depicts a child working on soccer skills with assistance.

Shooting a soccer ball into a goal can be broken down into steps. Here the child is taking step 3, with the assistant prompting the child to take a shot.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Correction Procedure Rule

Another effective technique in instructing children with ASD is the correction procedure rule, which one applies by taking the child back to the last component of the skill done correctly. Using batting as an example, say a child maintains a proper batting stance and properly swings the bat at the ball but then runs to first base with the bat. In this case, following the correction procedure rule, the instructor would ask the child to repeat the swing and then physically assist her in placing the bat on the ground before running to first. The instructor returns the child to the last correct response before the incorrect response. The application example is another scenario in which the correction procedure rule can be used.

Application Example

Importance of Visual Cues in Learning a New Task

Setting

A physical education class is working on a tee-ball unit.

Student

Kiera, a seven-year-old girl with autism in elementary physical education class

Task

Learning how to hit a ball off the tee and running to first base

Issue

Kiera's physical education teacher, Mr. Greer, has been teaching her how to play tee-ball. They have practiced swinging the bat at the ball (in a hand-over-hand manner), making contact with the ball, putting the bat down, and running to first base. It appeared that Kiera had the hang of the skill, so Mr. Greer allowed her to bat independently. Kiera stood in the ready position; Mr. Greer placed the ball on the tee and took a step back. Just then a gust of wind came, and the ball fell off the tee. Kiera immediately placed the bat on the ground and began running to first base even though she did not make contact with the ball. This showed that Kiera still did not understand the purpose of the game, which was to contact the ball with the bat before running.

Application

Mr. Greer used visual cues to create a positive learning environment by doing the following:

• Mr. Greer demonstrated to Kiera what to do if the ball fell off the tee. Mr. Greer put the ball on the tee loosely so that it would fall off. When the ball fell off, he picked up the ball, replaced it on the tee, and struck it with the bat.
• Mr. Greer then signaled to Kiera to try. Again he placed the ball loosely on the tee and gave the bat to Kiera.
• The ball fell off the tee and Kiera picked up the ball and replaced it on the tee. She then struck the ball and ran to first base.

This example illustrates the need for students with autism to see and understand a task. In no way was Kiera being uncooperative or off task. She simply did not understand the task. When she understood the task, she was able to participate in the game independently.

Kiera practices her swing in tee-ball.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Parallel Talk

To promote language and skill acquisition, instructors are encouraged to embed language throughout the lesson. One way to accomplish this is using parallel talk, in which the teacher verbalizes the actions of the learner. For example, if Marci is rolling a red ball to the teacher, the teacher would say, "Marci is rolling the red ball." Parallel talk can also help children associate certain skills with their verbal meaning, such as spatial concepts (e.g., in, out, under, over) and motor skills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, striking). Another way to foster language acquisition is to create print-rich physical education environments. Pictures, posters, and action words should be displayed prominently around the gym. Labeling the action as it is being performed helps students acquire both receptive and expressive language skills and attach meaning to actions.

Learning Modalities

Learning modalities, or learning styles, refer to the way in which students learn best. The three common categories of learning include auditory, motor, and visual. Auditory learners tend to learn by following commands or prompts and may be easily distracted by background noise. Children who are motor or kinesthetic learners tend to learn by doing. They are active learners and would rather do than watch; they enjoy hands-on projects. Children who are visual learners tend to learn by watching and looking at pictures, and they can be easily distracted by surrounding activities and noise. Research indicates that students with ASD tend to be visual learners (Sicile-Kira, 2014), although all learning modalities should be employed from time to time. As indicated previously, the use of pictures and communication boards is by far the most effective teaching strategy used to communicate with and teach students with ASD.

Support Personnel

Teachers should take advantage of support personnel to assist them in implementing programs. Teaching assistants, paraprofessionals, and peer tutors are all valuable resources that can help in providing individualized instruction to students with ASD in physical education. Teachers can request support personnel through the child's IEP as a necessary component to support the learning of children with ASD.

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Early Childhood Program Standards and Learning Objectives

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges.

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges. Early childhood movement programs should provide children with the opportunity to explore and act on objects in their physical environment (Odom & Wolery, 2003). A well-designed movement curriculum for preschool through third grade should focus on fundamental movement abilities in the preschool years, specialized movement abilities in the early elementary years, and opportunities for all children to be physically active.

The preschool years give instructors the opportunity to guide children through games and activities in order to build a skill foundation and maintain appropriate activity levels. This fundamental movement phase should focus on stability, locomotor, and object-control skills (see chapter 19 for a review of the fundamental movement phase). It follows, then, that the early elementary years (kindergarten through third grade) allow the teacher to integrate the knowledge and skills that children have acquired and begin to refine fundamental skills required for more advanced games and activities. The specialized movement phase gives children the opportunity to use several fundamental skills to complete a single activity that is more specialized (see chapter 19 for a review of the specialized movement phase).

The importance of seeing the connection between the fundamental movement phase and specialized movement phase in the early childhood years is critical for physical education curriculum development. As a guide, national standards for physical education (SHAPE America, 2014) have been written for elementary children in the United States. These five physical education standards are in place for five- to nine-year-old children and are written to reflect what children should be able to do after participation in a quality physical education program. PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008) is a valid and reliable tool developed to assess the first national physical education standard, which reads "The physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 12). A quality physical education program for elementary-aged children should follow national standards and build on the fundamental movement skill programs introduced in preschool.

However, early learning standards vary state by state for preschool-aged children. To assist early childhood educators, the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has organized a standards database on what states have identified as educational priorities for children of prekindergarten age (NIEER, 2014). Using learning standards to guide programming for children with and without disabilities through the early childhood years can be beneficial in all domains of learning, including physical health and development. Early childhood physical educators should be knowledgeable about learning standards and assessing them and how they contribute to program development. Mastering fundamental movements and skills and integrating them into games and activities are processes.

Regarding physical activity for young children, it has been recommended that preschool-aged children accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity per day, and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping (NASPE, 2002). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009) also recommends that playing time (including large motor activities) can benefit young children in physical competence, social skills, self-control, and problem-solving abilities as well as giving them an opportunity to practice emerging skills.

Activity environments designed to provide instruction for young children with developmental delays and those with disabilities should be individualized according to assessment information. Arbitrarily selecting games and activities because they seem fun and the children appear to enjoy them is not necessarily in line with good practice. Specifically, learning environments should parallel the strengths and challenges identified during the assessment process and written in the IEP as instructional objectives. Instruction is based on a good understanding of each child's present level of performance. An activity setting should be carefully planned to build on what children already know and promote the acquisition of new skills.

Developmental theorists support instruction that encourages children to explore and manipulate their environment in order to construct meaning (Lefrancois, 2006). Individualizing instruction for each child in the class is the challenge faced by teachers providing early childhood adapted physical education in an integrated setting. Using a differentiated instructional approach helps teachers address the diverse learning needs of several children in the same class (Sands & Barker, 2004). The child's developmental abilities (physical, social, and cognitive) and the effect that a certain disability might have on this development must be considered.

Developmental Differences Between Preschoolers and Primary-Aged Children

The cognitive and social developmental status of a four-year-old differs from that of a six-year-old. As children develop cognitively and socially, they incorporate their movement strategies in new ways. Teachers providing adapted physical education must understand age-related developmental differences in order to construct appropriate learning environments for children who exhibit delays in one or more areas of learning (Haywood & Getchell, 2014).

Developmentally appropriate movement environments designed for preschool-aged children (three to five years of age) differ from those planned for kindergarten and elementary school children (six to eight years of age). A watered-down kindergarten curriculum presented to children in preschool is not appropriate. Games, activities, and equipment meaningful to a four-year-old might be of little interest to a seven-year-old and vice versa. For example, preschoolers love to experiment with speed, direction change, and space. Figure 22.1 shows a young boy making his way through a tunnel placed within a larger activity area. With a little creativity and imagination, teachers of early childhood physical education can create stimulating and motivating learning environments. A refrigerator box that has holes cut for climbing and hiding might entice a preschooler to explore and move for a long time. Preschoolers are intrigued by new spaces and the opportunity to explore these seemingly simple environments. On the other hand, a seven-year-old might find these activities simplistic and boring. She would be much more interested and challenged by moving under and through a parachute lifted by classmates. A child in first or second grade (six or seven years old) might be challenged by activities that encourage a higher level of problem solving. Children at this age have greater ability to reason and logically integrate thoughts than younger children do. For a three- or four-year-old, a parachute activity that includes anything more than moving the parachute up and down is often frightening and unpredictable.

A young boy makes his way through a tunnel, a familiar play space for preschoolers.
© Lauriece Zittel

The NAEYC (2009) provides guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood and discusses the differences between preschool and primary-aged children in their physical, social, cognitive, and language development. Teachers providing adapted physical education should keep in mind that the cognitive and social development of young children cannot be ignored when developing goals and objectives in the psychomotor domain. The interplay between each of these functional areas of learning and an individual child's development within each area must be considered when planning movement environments and instruction.

Developmental Considerations for Young Children With Disabilities

The effect of a disability on the communication, social, cognitive, or motor development of a child must be recognized before planning instruction. Knowing how a child's disability affects motor learning and performance is essential for the development of an appropriate physical education program. Young children with orthopedic impairments, for example, might begin independently exploring their physical environments by using a walker, wheelchair, or crutches but might also require accommodations in order to benefit from age-appropriate activities. Instructors should be aware of physical barriers that exist in the activity setting and design the environment in a way that encourages interactions with peers and equipment. Assistive devices that allow children with orthopedic impairments to initiate tasks that are both physically and intellectually challenging should be available to promote independence.

Young children with delays in social interaction - for example, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - may require modifications in the introduction and delivery of games and activities. Small- or large-group activities may be difficult for children with ASD, and practicing motor skills might need to occur in social environments that offer options for solitary and parallel play. For young children with ASD, interaction with others might not be the best instructional approach or least restrictive environment for learning new skills. On the other hand, children with intellectual disabilities often benefit from age-appropriate peer interactions that are consistent and repetitive. As shown in figure 22.2, a predictable environment with familiar equipment and routines will enhance opportunities for learning. Physical educators need to be aware of the characteristics of young children with disabilities and plan activities and environments accordingly.

Familiar environments promote learning among children with disabilities.
Photo courtesy of NIU. Photographer: Molly Coleman.

Facilitating Communication in a Movement Lesson

Interacting with others requires some level of communication. Some young children with disabilities use speech and language to communicate, whereas others who are nonverbal might use alternative methods and strategies. Although speech or language impairment is considered the most prevalent disability category among preschoolers, children with many diagnoses might have communication needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The movement setting, typically a motivating setting for young children, can be an ideal environment to enhance communication skills. Collaboration with classroom teachers and speech therapists assists the early childhood physical educator in determining what communication goals and objectives can be integrated within the physical education setting.

Young children with disabilities or developmental delays who are verbal might use speech and language to communicate with peers and teachers. The movement setting is a natural place to incorporate concepts such as under, over, more, through, and around. To reinforce the meaning of movement concepts and model the use of speech, a physical educator should talk with children as they participate in each movement lesson. For example, as children are pretending to be in the jungle climbing over rocks (bolsters under mats) and jumping over cutout ants and snakes (taped to the floor), a teacher might say, "I like the way everyone is jumping over the creatures in the jungle. Everyone find a creature and say ‘over' as we jump. Ready?" Prompting children to use the words to identify the concept (e.g., over) as they practice the skill (e.g., horizontal jump) reinforces the meaning of commonly taught concepts in early childhood and encourages children to use speech. Similarly, identifying shapes, colors, or equipment can become a natural part of an early childhood movement setting.

Children with speech and language delays or those who are nonverbal as a result of a particular disability or multiple disabilities might use augmentative and alternative systems to communicate (Millar, Light, & Schlosser, 2006). Sign language and picture systems are nonverbal options used by teachers to communicate with young children. Sign language is a popular method of communicating with young children of all abilities; however, children with communication delays and those who are hard of hearing might benefit in particular. Physical educators not proficient in sign language should consult with classroom teachers, interpreters, or speech therapists to learn the signs used by young children in the classroom.

Picture systems can also be used in a movement setting to increase communication between the child and teacher. Young children with autism often have sophisticated picture systems in place to assist with identifying activities, equipment, activity directions, and transitions. Picture systems can increase the probability that children with communication delays have the opportunity to engage in movement activities to the maximum extent possible. Helping a child understand what to do and when to do it often decreases the time needed to manage unwanted behaviors. Pictures posted in the activity area or taped to pieces of equipment are a great communication strategy for all children. A sequence of pictures, or visual schedule, posted to a board or paper is a functional method for communicating an activity, skill sequence, or transition to a child who is verbal or nonverbal. Visual schedules help children manage their environment while often decreasing the amount of adult intervention needed. Figure 22.3 shows an example of a young boy removing a picture of a completed activity from his schedule. The pictures remaining on the schedule give him a clear indication of activities to follow. Depending on the learning style of the child, all pictures can be on the board at the beginning of the class, or pictures can be added as the activity is presented.

Visual schedules help children manage their environments.
© Lauriece Zittel

Voice output devices are another method used to communicate with children who are nonverbal. A voice output system makes use of pictures and symbols along with prerecorded words and phrases (Blischak, 2003). Programming movement concepts, names of equipment or activities, and general statements provides a child with functional communication during physical education. For young children using a voice output system, a movement setting might reinforce practice with a new voice output device.

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Combining the Athlete and the Wheelchair

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

Fitting the Wheelchair to the Athlete

Proper fitting of the wheelchair to the athlete is critical for high levels of athletic performance. Most manufacturers provide retail experts who are experienced in measuring athletes for performance wheelchairs.

In fitting the frame, the two most critical considerations are the dimensions of the seat (width, length, and backrest height) and the position of the seat in relation to the main wheels. Both these considerations serve to ensure that the wheelchair fits the athlete perfectly and that she is in an optimal position to apply force and maneuver the wheelchair. Refer to the application example for a list of considerations to keep in mind while helping athletes find the chair that is best for them.

Application Example

Helping a Wheelchair Athlete Find the Right Sport and Chair

Setting

A community-based junior wheelchair sport program

Student

A 16-year-old junior wheelchair basketball player with a spinal cord injury needs recommendations to refine his individualized transition program to incorporate adult wheelchair sports. The player is tall, has played the center and forward positions, and wishes to purchase his own wheelchair.

Issue

What considerations should be taken into account in making recommendations to this athlete?

Application

Considerations for this athlete center on equipment, physical fitness, and individual skills.

Equipment considerations

• Athlete's height
• Desire to play a certain position
• Need to establish athlete's physical impairment, sport classification level, and trunk stability when seated
• Adjustability for height and point of balance (being able to maximize the seat height to about 21 inches [53 centimeters] for the center and forward positions)
• System considerations such as strapping and mobility in the wheelchair
• Reputable manufacturer

Individual physical fitness

• Strength training program that targets the upper body muscles in paired groups (e.g., biceps and triceps)
• Cardiorespiratory conditioning program that uses an arm crank ergometer or, preferably, a training roller

Individual skills targeted

• Wheelchair mobility skills both with and without the basketball
• Shooting skills both stationary and moving
• Passing skills both stationary and moving
• Studying the sophisticated strategies involved in the adult game

System Considerations for Racing Wheelchairs

A number of system considerations apply to racing wheelchairs. The following section identifies propulsion techniques and how to overcome negative forces as important considerations in developing an athlete's wheelchair racing system.

Propulsion Techniques in Track and Road Racing

Coupled with the evolution of the racing wheelchair has been the development of ever more efficient propulsion techniques. A six-phase technique (see figure 29.7) is most frequently used, although not all athletes use each phase with the same degree of effectiveness. An analysis by O'Connor and colleagues (1998) led the authors to conclude that there is a need for coaches to become more knowledgeable concerning appropriate wheelchair propulsion techniques.

Six-phase propulsion cycle.

Basic Stroke

The propulsion cycle starts with the hands drawn up as far above and behind the push rim as possible given the seating position and flexibility of the athlete. The hands are then accelerated as rapidly and forcefully as possible (acceleration phase) until they strike the push rim (see point A on figure 29.7). The moment of contact is the impact energy transfer phase (point B on figure 29.7), during which the kinetic energy stored in the fast-moving hand is transferred to the slower-moving push rim. With the hand in contact with the push rim, there is a force application, or push, phase (point C on figure 29.7), and this continues until the hands reach almost to the bottom of the push rim. During the force application phase, most of the propulsion comes from the muscles acting around the elbow and shoulder.

As the hands reach the bottom of the push rim, the powerful muscles of the forearm are used to pronate the hand, which allows the thumb to be used to give a last, powerful flick to the push rim. This last flicking action is reversed by a few athletes who use supination in the rotational energy transfer phase (point D on figure 29.7) to flick the push rim with the fingers rather than the thumb; and research indicates that this type of backhand technique may be more efficient in endurance races (Chow et al., 2001).

Immediately following the rotational energy transfer, the hands leave the push rim during the castoff phase (see point E on figure 29.7). Here it is important that the hand be moving faster than the push rim as it pulls away, since a slower hand will act as a brake on the wheelchair. Often the athlete will use the pronation or supination of the rotational energy transfer phase to accelerate the hands and arms and thus allow them to be carried up and back under ballistic motion. This upward and backward motion is called the backswing phase (point F on figure 29.7) and is used to get the hands far enough away from the push rim to allow them to accelerate forward to strike the push rim at high speed at the start of the next stroke. Goosey-Tolfrey and colleagues (2000) reported that no single identifiable stroke frequency could be recommended as best for wheelchair racing, but the athlete's own freely chosen frequency was the most economical in laboratory conditions.

This basic propulsion stroke is modified by the terrain over which the athlete is wheeling, by the tactics of the race, and by the athlete's level of disability. On uphill parts of a course, the athlete shortens the backswing and acceleration phases so as to minimize the time during which force is not applied to the push rim and during which the chair could roll backward. Tactically, the athlete is either wheeling at constant speed or is making an attack and needs to accelerate. The basic stroke described previously is used at steady speed; during bursts of acceleration, the major change in stroke takes place during the backswing. At steady speeds, the backswing is a relatively relaxed ballistic movement in which the velocity at castoff is used to raise the hand to its highest and most rearward position. This relaxed backswing is efficient and allows a brief moment of rest during each stroke. During acceleration, however, the major change in stroke dynamics is to increase the number of strokes from approximately 80 per minute to more than 120 per minute. This is achieved by a rapid reduction in the time taken for a more restricted backswing.

Race Start

The stroke is modified during the start of a race. Because the wheelchair is stationary, the hands should grip the push rim (rather than striking it), and for the first few strokes the arc of pushing will be more restricted with as rapid a recovery as possible. The various approaches that have been adopted are dependent on the athlete's preference. Some athletes attempt to make longer, more forceful pushes to get the wheels going, whereas others make shorter, sharper pushes to get the hands moving fast as early as possible.

Retarding Forces and Overcoming Them

While the athlete provides the energy to drive the wheelchair forward, the twin retarding forces of rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag act to slow it down. When propulsive forces are greater than resistance, the wheelchair accelerates, and when the retarding forces are greater, the chair is slowed. Obviously, reductions in rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag translate directly into higher wheeling speeds and improved athletic performance.

Rolling Resistance

On a hard, smooth surface, the majority of the rolling resistance of the wheel occurs at the point where the tire is in contact with the ground. As the tire rotates, each part is compressed as it passes under the hub and is in contact with the surface; then it rebounds as it begins to rise again and contact with the surface is broken. Not all the energy used to compress the tire is recovered on the rebound, and the energy loss (called hysteresis) is the major determinant of rolling resistance.

Rolling resistance of racing wheelchairs is also affected by the camber angle of the main wheel, which increases with camber (Faupin et al., 2004; Mason, van der Woude, de Groot, & Goosey-Tolfrey, 2011) and wheel alignment, referred to as toe-in or toe-out. Wheels that are not toed correctly dramatically increase the rolling resistance of a wheelchair. Athletes should do everything in their power to check and adjust alignment before every important race.

Aerodynamic Drag

The problem of aerodynamic drag of racing wheelchairs and athletes is unique in sport because of the relatively low speeds at which events take place. Races (10,000 meters) on the track take place at average speeds between 6.84 and 8.40 meters per second (female and males, respectively). Although the race times of wheelchairs have dramatically improved over the last decade, the times are still considerably slower than the speeds found in cycling. This creates special low-speed aerodynamic conditions.

Aerodynamic drag is caused by two separate but interrelated forces called surface drag and form drag. Surface drag is caused by the adhesion of air molecules to the surface of an object passing through it, and it is very powerful at low speeds. Form drag, on the other hand, is caused by the difference in air pressure between the front and the back of an object, which in turn is created by the swirls and eddy currents formed as the wheelchair and athlete pass through the air.

For wheelchair racers, the problem is that smooth surfaces increase surface drag while decreasing form drag. Some aspects of aerodynamic drag reduction are beyond doubt; these are the importance of reducing both surface and form drag by minimizing the drag-producing areas of the wheelchair and the athlete's clothing.

Drafting

Because aerodynamic drag represents approximately 40 percent of the force acting to slow down a wheelchair racer, methods of minimizing this can pay considerable dividends. The single most effective way in which drag can be reduced is the process of drafting. Drafting occurs when one wheelchair follows closely behind another wheelchair that acts as a wind deflector. At the end of long races, the energy saved by drafting can be a critical determinant of race outcome. Frequently teams work together, taking turns at both leading and drafting so that their overall performance will be increased.

System Considerations for Court Wheelchairs

This section does not include information on propulsion techniques in court sports. There is less research on propulsion techniques for court sports, presumably because of the wide variability in the propulsion techniques as compared to those in racing; however, Vanlandewijck and colleagues (2001) conducted a review of propulsion biomechanics that included not only wheelchair racing but also basketball and rugby. For those interested in increasing wheelchair sport performance, it is recommended reading.

As mentioned previously, the two fundamental features of a sport wheelchair are the dimensions of the seat and its positioning in relation to the wheels, although there are differences in the reasoning behind both of these features in relation to racing wheelchairs. In wheelchair racing, the key performance indicator is speed or endurance (or both) in a predominantly linear direction. However, in court sports, maneuverability is also a key area of performance. Therefore, whereas wheelchair racers require a perfectly fitting seat so that no energy is lost during propulsion, court sport athletes desire a seat customized to their anthropometrics to facilitate their agility. If a seat is too wide, the athlete can slide around in the chair, which equates to a loss of energy during turning; the body has to then catch up before being in a position whereby force can be applied to the wheels. When the seat is the correct width, the wheelchair should be able to respond more effectively to the athlete. This enables those athletes with sufficient trunk function to be able to maneuver their chair without necessarily having to touch their wheels. This feature of performance can also be facilitated by strapping around the knees or lap, which further secures the athlete to the chair, making movements such as tilting in wheelchair basketball possible.

The backrest is another dimension of the seat that warrants consideration when one is configuring a sport wheelchair. The backrest is essentially designed to improve the athlete's stability, which can be impaired if the backrest is too low for the functional capacity of the athlete. Alternatively, if the backrest is too high, movements can be restricted when the athlete is trying to move backward to reach a ball in basketball or rugby or hitting the ball in tennis. Strapping around the trunk can be applied to facilitate stability, although similar precautions must be taken to ensure that strapping is used only if the functional capacity of the athlete requires. If too much strapping is applied too tightly, the athlete's ability to move can be unnecessarily sacrificed at the expense of stability.

To further facilitate the fitting of the athlete to the sport wheelchair and subsequently maximize maneuverability performance, molded seats have recently emerged in wheelchair tennis and wheelchair basketball (figure 29.8). Since a molded seat will mimic the exact dimensions of each individual athlete, previous limitations associated with a conventional seat, such as energy loss during propulsion and impaired maneuverability, should be eradicated.

Example of (a) a conventional sport wheelchair seat and (b) a molded seat to facilitate maneuverability performance.
Photos courtesy of Dr. John Lenton.

Once the seat is successfully designed for the specific athlete, the next thing to consider is where the seat fits in relation to the main wheels in both a horizontal (anterior - posterior) and vertical position (see figure 29.9).

(a) Anterior - posterior and (b) vertical main-wheel adjustments.

Anterior - Posterior Seat Position

Horizontal positioning of the main wheels affects the mobility of the chair. The farther forward the main wheel from a hypothesized neutral position (see figure 29.9a, position A), the more maneuverable the chair (see figure 29.9a, position B). Unfortunately, the farther forward the main wheel relative to the center of gravity, the more likely it is that the chair will tilt up. Although the introduction of the anti-tip castor wheel prevents the athlete from falling backward, it does place a large percentage of body mass over the rear castors. Consequently, athletes need to reposition their body weight forward in order to drive the wheels forward, which will be limited by their trunk function. However, this is a position that many low-point wheelchair rugby players are forced to adopt since they do not have the triceps function or stability to sit above the wheel and drive it down. Alternatively they choose to sit farther back so that they can make the most of their biceps function and "pull" the wheel up and forward.

Vertical Seat Position

Vertical positioning of the main wheel affects the height at which the athlete sits and the center of gravity of the system. This fundamentally affects the handling properties of the chair. Again, using a hypothetical neutral position (figure 29.9b, position A), the lower the athlete sits relative to this neutral position (figure 29.9b, position D), the more maneuverable the wheelchair. Therefore, all other things being equal, the athlete should sit as low as possible. However, performance considerations place a premium on height in all sports. Shooting is easier in basketball when athletes sit high because they are closer to the basket. Likewise, receiving a rugby pass is easier if one sits higher and can reach above the opponent. Finally, a tennis serve is made easier when the athlete is elevated above the height of the net, as there is now a greater margin for error. Given the advantages associated with sitting high, athletes can often forsake the optimal position for pushing the wheelchair, putting their mobility performance at risk. As the height of the seat increases, the athlete effectively moves farther away from the wheels. In order to access enough of the wheels to effectively apply force, athletes (depending on trunk function) will have to lean forward. In order to reduce the distance that athletes have to lean, many have countered this by selecting a larger wheel size to make the wheels more accessible in a higher seat position. However, this can introduce alternative and potentially negative effects on performance, with a larger wheel thought to impair acceleration and maneuverability performance. Mason and colleagues (2012a, 2012b) have provided a more in-depth evaluation of the effects of wheel size on aspects of mobility performance in wheelchair basketball players.

In summary, when enhancing wheelchair sport performance on the court, athletes should identify the functional aspects of the game and their roles or positions coupled with their strengths and weaknesses. This will depend in part on the disability level of the athlete. After identifying these roles, athletes should select the wheelchair setup that will improve functionality within the roles. It is stressed that the positioning of the main wheel will fundamentally affect the performance characteristics of the chair. After the athlete has identified the appropriate wheelchair setup, consideration needs to be given to combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a performance system through the use of appropriate strapping techniques.

Skill Development

Sport-specific skills are critical to the elite athlete's program. Common to skills in court sports are acceleration, speed (which depends on power, which depends on strength), and maneuverability with the target object, whether it be a basketball, volleyball (as used in wheelchair rugby), or tennis racket. Goosey-Tolfrey (2010b) reports other sport-specific skills as described by key sport coaches for the aforementioned sports. Skills tests have been developed for wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and tennis (Newbery, Richards, Trill, & Whait, 2010; Yilla & Sherrill, 1998), and field-based fitness testing is described in detail in the review article by Goosey-Tolfrey and Leicht (2013). Task analysis of skill performance is also suggested by Davis (2002, 2011).

Instructional materials that focus on the skills and strategies involved in many wheelchair sports are also available (Goosey-Tolfrey, 2010b). Again, the systems approach should be incorporated, with athletes practicing their skills in their competitive system that includes their sport-specific wheelchair and strapping.

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Test Instruments Used in Adapted Physical Education

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments.

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments. Some of these tests, however, do contain alternative elements such as rubric scoring systems (e.g., TGMD-2) or task-analysis sequences and checklists (e.g., Special Olympics coaching guides).

Available tests in physical education measure a range of traits and abilities. Most, however, fall within five traditional areas of physical and motor development and ability: reflexes and reactions, rudimentary movements, fundamental movements, specialized movements (including sport skills, aquatics, dance, and activities of daily living), and health-related physical fitness. (Note that these categories are somewhat arbitrary and do not encompass all possibilities. In some situations, for instance, teachers might routinely test and assess the posture or the perceptual - motor abilities of their students.) More recently, a sixth area, physical activity, has gained attention. The rest of this section is devoted to a discussion of tests or measures from these six areas. One instrument from each area is highlighted. The highlighted instruments are meant to be representative of a particular content area and are recommended or used by many adapted physical educators. Other tests are available within each area, and teachers always have the option of designing alternative measures to augment or replace published instruments. In adapted physical education, there are always circumstances when published instruments prove to be inappropriate for a particular student, and teachers must modify or design instruments in accordance with the student's abilities. (Additional tests are listed in the resources section of this chapter.) The application example illustrates how tests can be used.

Measuring Reflexes and Reactions

The measurement and assessment of primitive reflexes and postural reactions is an important consideration in those with developmental delays, particularly in early intervention and childhood programs. (See chapter 19 for information on reflexes and reactions.) As educational services are extended to infants and toddlers, as well as to persons with more severe disabilities (especially those that are neurologically based, such as cerebral palsy), physical educators need to understand the influence of reflexes and reactions on motor development milestones and motor skill learning.

Because primitive reflexes normally follow a predictable sequence for appearing, maturing, and eventually disappearing, they are particularly helpful in providing information on the maturation of the central nervous system. If a primitive reflex persists beyond schedule, presents an unequal bilateral response (e.g., is present on one side but absent or not as strong on the other), is too strong or too weak, or is completely absent, then neurological problems might be suspected. When primitive reflexes are not inhibited, they will undoubtedly interfere with voluntary movement because muscle tone involuntarily changes when reflexes are elicited.

The adapted physical educator should collaborate closely with a physical therapist to identify the presence of primitive reflexes and postural reactions and further determine an appropriate motor intervention to minimize the effects of the reflex through (a) central nervous system integration, (b) maximizing functional movements through reflexive action, or (c) both. Most adapted physical education programs seek the expertise of the physical therapist who has specialized training in this area. Many early motor development tests incorporate testing of specific reflexes, but all generally involve manipulation of the body to determine evoked responses and spontaneous behaviors (Zafeiriou, 2004).

Application Example

Determining if a Student Should Be Assigned to an Adapted Program

Setting

A new 10-year-old student with mild intellectual disabilities received special education services, including adapted physical education, at his previous school. As a matter of policy, the district will reevaluate the student before determining proper programs and placements. A physical education teacher is invited to be a member of the IEP team.

Issue

How should the physical educator determine if the student should be assigned to the adapted program?

Application

The physical educator might do the following:

• Administer the BPFT to determine if the student's fitness is sufficiently developed. (The expectation would be that the student would achieve at least specific standards for children with intellectual disabilities.)
• Administer the TGMD-2 to determine if fundamental movements are completely developed. (Maximum or near-maximum scores would be expected for a 10-year-old.)
• Compare standardized test results (i.e., BPFT and TGMD) with the district guidelines or criteria for adapted physical education.
• Place the student in one or more trial placements and collect authentic assessment data. (Determine, for instance, if the rubrics being used by other members of the class are reasonably appropriate, with or without modification, for the new student.)
• Consider all assessment data when formulating a recommendation for the IEP team.

Measuring Rudimentary Movements

Rudimentary movements are the first voluntary movements (see chapter 19). Reaching, grasping, sitting, crawling, and creeping are examples of rudimentary movements. Most instruments that assess rudimentary movements use a developmental approach to testing - that is, a series of motor milestones associated with specific ages is arranged chronologically and tested individually. By determining which behaviors the child can perform, the teacher can estimate the child's developmental age (because each milestone has its own age norm) and suggest future learning activities (i.e., the behaviors in the sequence that the child cannot currently do). The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) is an example of this approach, with some additional enhancements (other instruments are discussed in chapters 21 and 22).

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales

• Purpose: The PDMS-2 (Folio & Fewell, 2000) assesses the motor development of children from birth to 83 months in both fine and gross motor areas. Items are subcategorized into the following six areas: reflexes, stationary (balance), locomotion, object manipulation, grasping, and visual - motor integration.
• Description: A total of 249 test items (mostly developmental milestones) are arranged chronologically within age levels (e.g., 0-1 month, 6-7 months, 18-23 months), and each is identified as belonging to one of the six categories being assessed (e.g., reflexes, locomotion). It is recommended that testers begin administering items one level below the child's expected motor age. Items are scored from 0 to 2 according to specified criteria. Testing continues until the ceiling-age level is reached (a level for which a score of 2 is obtained for no more than 1 of the 10 items in that level). Composite scores for gross motor (reflexes, balance, locomotion, and object manipulation), fine motor (grasping and visual - motor integration), and total motor (combination of gross and fine motor subtests) areas of functioning can be determined.
• Reliability and validity: Empirical research has established adequate levels of reliability and validity. Evidence information is provided for subgroups as well as for the general population.
• Comment: The PDMS-2 appears to have certain advantages over other rudimentary movement tests. First, the large number of test items represents a larger sample of behaviors than exists in many other tests. Second, the six categories help teachers pinpoint exactly which areas of gross motor development are problematic. Finally, the scoring system and availability of normative data provide the teacher with more information on student performance than many other tests do. Supplementary materials, including a software scoring and reporting system and a motor activity program, also are available in conjunction with PDMS-2.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The PDMS-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Fundamental Movements

The critical window of opportunity, the time during which experience has the most influence on developing fundamental motor skills, seems to be the early childhood and early elementary years. Fundamental movement skills can be classified as locomotor (traveling, e.g., jumping), nonlocomotor (stationary, e.g., one-foot balance), or manipulative (object control, e.g., throwing). Some fundamental movement test instruments measure how far the performance has progressed along a motor continuum, but most use a point system to evaluate either the process of the fundamental movement or its product. Process-oriented approaches generally attempt to break down (or task analyze) a movement into its component parts and then evaluate each component individually. This approach assesses the quality of the movement, not its result. Product-oriented approaches are concerned primarily with outcome. Product-oriented assessment is more concerned with the quantity of the movement (e.g., how far, how fast, how many) than with its execution. The TGMD-2 emphasizes a process-oriented approach to the assessment of fundamental movements.

Test of Gross Motor Development-2

• Purpose: The TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000) was designed to measure gross motor content frequently taught in preschool and early elementary grades, including special education; to be used by various professionals with a minimum amount of training; to use both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards; and to place a priority on the gross motor skill process rather than the product of performance.
• Description: The test measures locomotor (six test items) and object-control skill functioning (six test items) and provides an overall indication of gross motor functioning. Locomotor subtest items include the run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. Object-control subtest items consist of the two-hand strike, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand roll, and overhand throw. For each skill, the tester is provided with performance criteria used to assess the child's performance. Children receive 1 point for meeting each performance criterion given for each of two trials allowed. These criterion-based scores can be added and compared to norm-referenced standards in order to make summative evaluations regarding locomotor, object-control, and overall gross motor performance. Percentiles, standard scores, and chronological age equivalents can be determined for assessment purposes.
• Reliability and validity: Reliability coefficients are quite high (generally .84 to .96). Acceptable levels of content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related validity are provided.
• Comment: The sound process of test construction should provide the user with a good deal of confidence that scores obtained by children accurately reflect their fundamental movement abilities. Availability of both criterion-referenced and norm-referenced standards enhances the capability of the test to support eligibility, placement, IEP planning, and instructional decisions. Test scores allow for easy monitoring of student progress and reporting to parents.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The TGMD-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Specialized Activity Movements

A wide variety of possible physical education and sport activities could be tested under this category. Sport skills tests can take many forms, but often they are criterion referenced and teacher constructed (in fact, many teachers prefer to use authentic techniques to assess game and sport skills). Often, when teachers measure learning progress in relatively unique skills taught in physical education (e.g., wheelchair locomotion or functional performance using the treadmill at a local health club), a rubric is developed and used. Teachers who work with students with disabilities who compete in special sport programs, including those offered by multisport organizations (e.g., United States Association of Blind Athletes [USABA]), are encouraged to develop their own tests specific to the event in which the athlete competes. One example of a sport skills test that can be used for athletes with disabilities comes from the Special Olympics coaching guides.

Sport Skills Program Guides

• Purpose: Special Olympics, Inc., provides coaching guides that can complement or supplement existing physical education and recreation programs for people with disabilities (aged 8 and older) in sport skills instruction.
• Description: Guides are provided for 32 sports and recreation activities. Although the guides are not test instruments per se, authentic assessment is a critical aspect of the instructional programs recommended in the guides. Assessments consist of both task analyses and checklists. Testers check off task focal points that the student is able to perform. For instance, in athletics there are 14 test items corresponding to track and field events. Within each checklist, testers check the focal points an athlete can demonstrate (e.g., "Performs a single-leg takeoff for a running long jump.").
• Reliability and validity: No information has been reported, but content validity probably could be claimed because the checklists reflect sport skills task analyses developed by content (specific sport activity) experts in the field.
• Comment: A primary advantage of the coaching guides is convenience - a teacher or coach can adopt the existing task-analysis curriculums for many sport activities and further modify accordingly for specific students and situations if needed. The program has been used with participants with intellectual disabilities for some time and has been shown to have good utility for that group. A disadvantage is that neither reliability nor validity of the various test instruments has been formally established.
• Availability: Special Olympics, Inc., 1133 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036-3604. Website: http://resources.specialolympics.org/Taxonomy/Sports_Essentials/__Catalog_of_Sports_Essentials.aspx.

Measuring Health-Related Physical Fitness

Because health-related physical fitness is an increasing concern in the health and well-being of young people, it is crucial to use fitness tests that provide meaningful data and allow sound instructional decision making. Over the years many standardized tests of physical fitness have become available to teachers. The BPFT is one test that is recommended to measure and assess the health-related physical fitness of young people with disabilities. The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) extends the health-related, criterion-referenced approach to young people with disabilities. Access to the proper techniques for conducting the 27 tests in the BPFT has been included with this text. See Accessing the Web Resource for instructions on gaining access to the web resource.

Brockport Physical Fitness Test

• Purpose: The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) is a health-related, criterion-referenced physical fitness test appropriate for young people (aged 10-17) with and without disabilities.
• Description: The test battery includes 27 test items (refer to table 4.2) from which teachers can choose based on disability. Typically, students are tested on four to six test items from three components of fitness: body composition, aerobic functioning, and musculoskeletal functioning (muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility). Although specific test items are recommended for children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, visual impairments, spinal cord injuries, and congenital anomalies and amputations, teachers are encouraged to personalize testing. Personalization involves identifying health-related concerns pertaining to the student, establishing a desired fitness profile for the student, selecting components and subcomponents of fitness to be assessed, selecting test items to measure those components, and selecting health-related, criterion-referenced standards to evaluate fitness. Thus, teachers have the option to modify any of the elements of the testing program as outlined in the test manual. Both general population and disability-specific standards are available for assessment and evaluation. A general standard is one appropriate for the general population and has not been adjusted in any way for the effects of a disability. A specific standard is one that has been adjusted for the effects of a disability. Specific standards are available only for selected test items for particular groups of people.
• Reliability and validity: The test items in the BPFT have been shown to be valid and reliable through various studies. Evidence for validity and reliability is provided in a lengthy technical report published in a special issue of Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 2005 (Winnick, 2005).
• Comment: The BPFT was patterned after Fitnessgram, and many of the standards, especially for the general population, were adopted from that test. Thus, teachers in inclusive settings should find it relatively easy to use both tests as necessary. In addition to the test manual, a training guide is also available (Winnick & Short, 1999).
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Brockport-Physical-Fitness-Test-Manual-2nd-Edition-With-Web-Resource.

Measuring Physical Activity

Much research has established the positive relation between regular physical activity and health, and many physical education programs are promoting physically active lifestyles as a primary goal of the program. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important for physical educators to objectively measure physical activity levels in ways that are sensitive enough to document change. At present, four types of activity measures are available to teachers: heart rate monitors, activity monitors (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, motion sensors), direct observation, and self-report instruments (Welk & Wood, 2000). Despite their accuracy, heart rate monitors have limited applicability in school situations because of cost and limitations in measuring students in large classes at one time. Pedometers are relatively inexpensive and accurate and have good utility for measuring walking activity, but they do not have broad applicability in measuring general physical activity. Coding student activity through direct observation is not expensive, but it can be time-consuming because only a few children can be monitored at one time by a trained observer. (These three approaches - heart rate monitors, activity monitors, and direct observation - might be more effective in settings with fewer students.)

Self-report instruments are appropriate for measuring physical activity in most school settings. Self-report instruments require students to recall and record their participation in physical activity over a set amount of time (usually from one to seven days). Although many self-report instruments are available (see Welk & Wood, 2000, for examples), all seek to quantify the frequency, intensity, and duration of students' physical activity. If students with disabilities have difficulty with self-reports, teachers or parents might need to provide an estimate of the information instead. A computer software program, Activitygram, provides teachers with an easy method for measuring student physical activity.

Activitygram

• Purpose: Activitygram (Cooper Institute, 2017), a program associated with Fitnessgram, records, analyzes, and saves student physical activity data and produces reports based on those data.
• Description: Activitygram is part of the Fitnessgram test program. The program prompts participants to recall their physical activities over the previous two or three days in 30-minute time blocks. Students select activities from within six categories: lifestyle activity, active aerobics, active sports, muscle fitness activities, flexibility exercises, and rest and inactivity. Students are also asked to rate the intensity of the activity (light, moderate, vigorous). Activity Log, a related component of Activitygram, allows students to track their physical activity (in step counts or minutes of activity) and to set personal goals and challenges. Activitygram and Activity Log printed reports provide an analysis of activity habits and personalized messages that give suggestions to increase or maintain physical activity. Recommendations are based on national guidelines endorsed by the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America).
• Reliability and validity: Because of the subjective nature of self-report measures, measurement error may reduce validity. Nevertheless, the Previous Day Physical Activity Recall instrument, on which the Activitygram program is based, has been shown to provide valid and reliable estimates of physical activity and also accurately identifies periods of moderate to vigorous activity (Weston, Petosa, & Pate, 1997). Measurement error can be minimized when parents, teachers, and others can verify activity measures.
• Comment: Although designed primarily with students without disabilities in mind, Activitygram can be useful for students receiving adapted physical education. Specific activities will vary (e.g., running vs. pushing a wheelchair), but the six categories of physical activity are appropriate for most students with or without disabilities. Younger children and those with intellectual disabilities, however, might have trouble recalling and entering activity data. Peer tutors, teacher aides, or parents could be prepared to make direct observations and could enter the data on behalf of a student who has difficulty using the system.
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Fitnessgram-Administration-Manual-5th-Edition-With-Web_Resource.

Specific Approaches for Physical Education and Sport

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

Humanistic Approach

In physical education, students with behavior disabilities ranging from mild to severe can be taught through the humanistic approach. In this context, humanism is applied to skill acquisition and the management of social behaviors. Generally speaking, some techniques suggested by Sherrill (2004) for improving self-concept are singularly applicable with this population; for example, teachers should strive to do the following (p. 234):

• Conceptualize individual and small-group counseling as an integral part of physical education.
• Teach students to care about each other and show that they care.
• Emphasize cooperation and social interaction rather than individual performance.
• Stress the importance of genuineness and honesty in praise.
• Increase perceived competence in relation to motor skill and fitness.
• Convey that they like and respect students as human beings, not just for their motor skills and fitness.

More specifically, the approach outlined by Hellison (2011) has immediate relevance for practitioners confronted with students who are usually high functioning but who lack self-control and consequently present management problems. Hellison has developed a set of alternative goals or levels for physical education that focus on human needs and values rather than on fitness and sport skill development exclusively. The main purpose of Hellison's approach is to develop positive social responsibility. The goals are developmental and reflect a loosely constructed level-by-level progression of attitudes and behaviors. They include self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-direction, and caring and helping.

• Level 0: Irresponsibility. This level defines students who fail to take responsibility for either their actions or inactions; they blame others for their behavior and typically make excuses.
• Level I: Respecting the rights and feelings of others. This level deals with the need for control of one's own behavior. Self-control should be the first goal, according to Hellison, because learning cannot take place effectively if one cannot control impulses to harm others physically and verbally.
• Level II: Participation and effort. Level II focuses on the need for physical activity and offers students one medium for personal stability through experiences in which they can engage on a daily basis. Participation involves getting uninterested students to at least go through the motions, experiencing various degrees of effort expenditure to determine if effort leads to improvement, and redefining success as a personal accomplishment.
• Level III: Self-direction. Level III emphasizes the need for students to take more responsibility for their choices and to link these choices with their own identities. Students at this level can work independently in class and can take responsibility for their intentions and actions. At this level, students begin to assume responsibility for the direction of their lives and to explore options in developing a strong and integrated personal identity. This level includes developing a knowledge base that will enhance achievement of their goals, developing a plan to accomplish their goals, and evaluating their plan to determine their success.
• Level IV: Caring and helping. Level IV is the most difficult for students; it is also not a requirement for successful participation in the responsibility model. At this level, students reach out beyond themselves to others, committing themselves to genuinely caring about other people. Students are motivated to give support, cooperate, show concern, and help. Generally speaking, the goal of level IV is the improvement of the entire group's welfare.
• Level V: Outside the gym. Level V promotes the opportunity to transfer many of the lessons learned in the gym to other areas of life. It also implies being a role model.

Hellison recognized that these five goals provide only a framework and that strategies must be employed to help students interact with self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participate and show effort, be self-directed, and demonstrate caring and helping behavior on a regular basis. He suggests five interaction strategies to help reach the goals. These include awareness talks (e.g., post levels on gym wall and refer to them frequently), the physical education lesson (e.g., students can be taught to solve conflict during a game), group meetings (e.g., students discuss issues of low motivation or difficulty in being self-directed), reflection time (e.g., students record in a journal or discuss how they did during class in relation to the goals they had established), and counseling time (e.g., students discuss their patterns of abusive behavior and possibly their underlying motives for such behavior). This last strategy gives students the opportunity to talk with the teacher about problems preventing them from achieving their goals within specified levels of the responsibility model. These strategies are "processes for helping students to become aware of, experience, make decisions about, and reflect on the model's goals" (Hellison & Templin, 1991, p. 108). See table 9.2 for a brief examination of the relationship between the levels and strategies in Hellison's model.

Many physical education programs use games to accomplish goals and objectives established for individuals and classes. Because students with behavioral disorders often lack fundamental skills, they frequently are incapable of demonstrating even minimal levels of competence in these games. As a result, they have an increased tendency to act out - perhaps with verbal or physical aggression - or to withdraw, which further excludes them from an opportunity to develop skills.

In an effort to promote the most positive learning environment, Hellison (2011) developed a nontraditional approach to working with at-risk students, using basketball as the primary vehicle for empowering students to learn personal and social values. Employing Hellison's responsibility model (discussed previously) as the philosophical underpinning, the coaching club is a before-school program in Chicago's inner city. It offers students the opportunity to explore movement through a progression of five levels: (I) self-control, meaning control of one's body and temper; (II) teamwork, meaning full participation by all team members; (III) self-coaching; (IV) coaching another team member; and (V) applying skills learned in the program outside the gym to school, home, and neighborhood. Playing ability is not a prerequisite. This program promotes social responsibility. Likewise, extrinsic rewards are unnecessary because students are motivated to reach level IV (coach) on the evaluation system (Hellison & Georgiadis, 1992, p. 7). Level IV consists of the following:

• Has good attendance.
• Is coachable and on task at practice.
• Does not abuse others or interrupt practice.
• Is able to set personal goals and work independently on these goals.
• Possesses good helping skills (such as giving cues, observing, and giving positive feedback as well as general praise).
• Encourages teamwork and passing the ball.
• Listens to players; is sensitive to their feelings and needs.
• Puts the welfare of players above own needs (such as the need to win or look good).
• Understands that exhibiting these characteristics is the key to being a good coach, regardless of personal basketball ability.

Behavioral Approach

Students with severe behavior disorders require intense programming efforts. This group includes students who are self-indulgent, aggressive, noncompliant, and self-stimulatory or self-destructive (Dunn & Leitschuh, 2014). Using the basic steps of behavioral programming discussed in chapter 6, Dunn and his coauthor developed the data-based gymnasium (DBG). This program incorporates behavioral principles in a systematic effort to produce procedural consistency for teachers who work with students with behavioral disorders and to bring student behavior under the control of naturally occurring reinforcers. To the latter end, instructors use natural reinforcers available in the environment, such as praising a desirable behavior to strengthen it or ignoring an undesirable behavior to bring about its extinction. Tangible reinforcers such as token economies are introduced only after it has been demonstrated that the consistent use of social reinforcement or extinction will not achieve the desired behavioral outcome.

In an effort to equip teachers with consistent behavioral procedures, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) use a variety of strategies, including rules of thumb, to apply to inappropriate behavior. For each area of inappropriate behavior (e.g., self-indulgent behavior), there exists a rule of thumb or generally accepted way of responding when certain undesirable behaviors occur. The intent of these rules is to make the development and implementation of a formal behavioral program unnecessary.

• Self-indulgent behavior. Behaviors in this category include crying, screaming, throwing tantrums, and performing repetitive, irritating activities or making noises. The rule of thumb for handling students who engage in self-indulgent behaviors is to ignore them until the behavior is discontinued and then socially reinforce the first occurrence of an appropriate behavior. For example, one would ignore children's tantrums when they cannot control a play situation with classmates but reinforce with social praise their initial attempts to play cooperatively.
• Noncompliant behavior. Noncompliant behaviors include instances when students decline to comply when instructed to do something as well as forgetting or failing to do something because they choose not to do what is asked. Noncompliance also includes doing what is requested but in a less than acceptable way. The rule of thumb is that teachers should ignore noncompliant verbalizations, lead students physically through the task, or prevent students from participating in an activity until they follow through on the initial request. Compliance with any request is immediately reinforced socially. For example, one would physically restrict aggressive play and socially praise a child's positive engagement with a classmate or group.
• Aggressive behavior. Verbal or physical abuse directed toward an object or a person is considered aggressive behavior. Examples of aggressive acts include hitting, fighting, pinching, biting, pushing, or deliberately destroying someone's property. The rule of thumb for aggressive behavior is that it is punished immediately with a verbal reprimand and the offending student is removed from the activity. Social reinforcement is given when students demonstrate appropriate interaction with other people or objects. For example, a student who strikes another student is immediately reprimanded verbally (conflict resolution) and is eliminated from the activity (given a time-out; see chapter 6).
• Self-stimulatory behavior. This category includes behaviors that interfere with learning because students become engrossed in the perseverative nature of the activities. Examples include head banging, hand flapping, body rocking, and eye gouging. As a rule of thumb, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) recommend a formal behavioral program to deal with this type of behavior. An in-depth discussion of formal principles and programs for behavior modification is presented in chapter 6.

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The story of Loretta Claiborne

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7.

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7. Forbidden to participate in school sports because she was in special education, Loretta ran to get away from the bullies. At the age of 18, she became a Special Olympics athlete. Twenty-five years later, in 1996, Loretta received the prestigious Arthur Ashe Courage Award at the ESPN Espy Awards. In 1999, Disney aired a made-for-TV movie about her life, The Loretta Claiborne Story, and she appeared on the Oprah Winfrey Show.

Along the way, Loretta completed 26 marathons, including three Boston Marathons, placing among the top 100 of all women each time. In 1988 she finished in the top 25 women in the Pittsburgh Marathon and was named Special Olympics Female Athlete of the Year. In 1991, Loretta was named to the Special Olympics board of directors and was selected by Runner's World magazine as the Special Olympics Athlete of the Quarter Century. The following year she was inducted into the York, Pennsylvania, Sports Hall of Fame and the William Penn High School Alumni Hall of Fame - the same high school that had barred her from the track team because she had intellectual disabilities.

Loretta introduced then-U.S. president Bill Clinton at the 1995 Special Olympics World Summer Games opening ceremonies in New Haven, Connecticut, and received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Quinnipiac College in Hamden, Connecticut, becoming the first person with intellectual disabilities to receive an honorary doctorate. The Loretta Claiborne Building in York, Pennsylvania, was dedicated in 2001. In 2003, she was awarded a second doctorate of humane letters by Villanova University in Pennsylvania. Currently, her uplifting life story is chronicled in the text, In Her Stride, a feature title in the WorldScapes literacy series for grades 3 through 6.

One of Loretta's most memorable races was a marathon in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Running strong, Loretta noticed another runner beginning to falter. Loretta slowed her pace and stayed with the man throughout the race, encouraging him on; they crossed the finish line together. The other runner? Former world heavyweight boxing champion Larry Holmes! Now a black belt in karate, Loretta still runs about 5 miles (8 kilometers) every day and also competes in Special Olympics bowling, figure skating, basketball, golf, soccer, skiing, softball, and swimming.

Implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

Assessment

One method that has been proven helpful in assessing students with ASD is the system known as ecological task analysis (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). Within the model, the instructor examines the interaction of three factors: the student, the environment, and the task. To derive a good understanding of the student, the assessor should seek information from several sources, including parents, teachers, therapists, and aides. One should fully understand reinforcers and modes of communication before attempting to assess the child. The assessor should also spend time developing a rapport with the child before assessment. When beginning the assessment, it is important to start with activities the child understands and is able to perform and then move on to more difficult tasks. It is important also to understand qualities that inhibit or enhance performance. This approach allows for early success and better compliance throughout the assessment.

The second factor that needs to be considered is the task. To determine if the task is appropriate, consider the following questions: Is it age appropriate? Is it functional? Will the information gained assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP) goals and objectives? Will the information be used for program development and instruction? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the task being assessed is appropriate. To assess the task, the assessor might use a task analysis approach in which requisite skills are identified and either further broken down or assessed as a whole. For example, in assessing soccer skills, the assessor would determine the requisite skills for soccer (e.g., dribbling, passing, trapping, shooting). Each of these skills could be broken down into components assessed separately, or the skill could be assessed as a whole. Once the assessment is complete, the information gleaned can be used to develop goals and objectives based on unique needs, serve as a basis for instruction, and aid in activity selection.

Finally the instructor needs to consider the environment. Keeping in mind that children with ASD might be hypersensitive to environmental stimuli, the instructor should provide an environment with limited distractions and focus on one task at a time. In the soccer example, the instructor can provide different-size balls, different-size goals, and different surfaces for performing the task. After considering the individual student, the task, and the environmental parameters involved, the instructor observes the student's behavior and preferences and documents his choices. These choices serve as a baseline and a springboard upon which to teach.

Activity Selection

When selecting activities for children with ASD, the most important consideration is the needs and interests of the learners and their families. In addition, the functional value of the activity should be taken into account. Activities that have a high probability of success for children with ASD are generally more individual, such as swimming, running, and bowling. However, no one should assume that children with ASD cannot participate in and enjoy team sports. Team sports might need modifications to enhance success, but all children should have the opportunity to explore a range of physical education activities.

The learner's age must also be taken into account. Both developmental appropriateness and age appropriateness should always be considered when selecting activities. Although elementary-aged children spend a great deal of time learning and improving their fundamental motor skills, it would be inappropriate to focus on such skills at the middle school or high school level. When selecting activities, instructors should also consider family and community interests. Does the child come from a family that enjoys hiking or skiing? Or is the family more involved in soccer or softball? Considering these factors helps shape the activity selection so that the child with ASD can more fully integrate within the family and community.

One form of movement, known as sensorimotor activities, can be especially beneficial to students with ASD. These activities are designed to stimulate the senses with a focus on kinesthetic awareness, tactile stimulation, auditory processing, and visual - motor coordination. Kinesthetic awareness deals with the relationship of the body to space. Examples of kinesthetic activities include jumping on a trampoline, crawling through tunnels, jumping over a rope, and rolling down an incline mat. Tactile stimulation can be enhanced by having the child interact with objects, such as balls with various sizes, shapes, and textures. Auditory processing can be enhanced through the use of music and songs that instruct the child in a sequence of movements. Finally, visual - motor coordination can be strengthened through playing an array of games that require tracking, such as kickball, softball, soccer, or lacrosse.

Instructional and Management Techniques

Teaching students with ASD is not unlike teaching other children. Teachers need to establish rapport with students, develop trust, relay information in a clear and concise manner, and provide reinforcement and feedback to help shape appropriate motor and social behavior. Specific strategies that prove helpful in instructing and managing students with ASD include the use of picture and communication boards, the consistent use of structure and routines, and the use of natural cues in the environment to facilitate the acquisition and execution of skills. Other methods include the correction procedure rule and parallel talk. The correction procedure rule is a system used when inappropriate skills or social behaviors occur. Here, the instructor takes the child back to the last task that was done correctly in an effort to redirect the inappropriate behavior. Parallel talk is a system in which the instructor talks through the actions that are occurring - for example, "Juan is dribbling the basketball" - which aids in the understanding and purpose of actions. In addition, teaching to the strengths of learners by considering their preferred learning modality will also prove helpful in teaching students with ASD. Finally, the value of using support staff and peer tutors should not be underestimated in teaching students with ASD. Each of these strategies is more fully explained next.

Picture and Communication Boards

One of the most common and most successful methods used to teach children with ASD is the use of picture and communication boards. Types of pictures include photographs, lifelike drawings, and symbolic drawings. Some children may not yet understand pictures and may need objects to represent them, such as dollhouse furniture or small figures of objects. When pictures are used, it is best to have only one item in the picture because children with ASD have a tendency toward overselectivity, meaning that they are not able to screen out irrelevant information. Teachers should help students focus on the most relevant information. For example, if a child is working on basketball skills, it may be preferable not to use a picture of a basketball court with students playing on it because there is too much information in the picture, making it difficult for the child to screen out irrelevant information. Pictures can also be arranged to create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Boardmaker, as described earlier, is one of many commercial software programs that can help create picture boards using universally accepted symbols to depict events and actions.

Routines and Structure

Establishing routines and structure aids in managing and instructing students with ASD. Children with ASD often demonstrate inappropriate behavioral responses when new or incongruent information is presented in a random or haphazard manner. Routines with set beginning and end points allow for more predictability and help to reduce sensory overload. Routines are also useful in introducing new information or behaviors. Keeping some information familiar and gradually introducing new information helps students respond appropriately. Routines also help to reduce verbal directions and allow children to work independently.

The following scenario illustrates a typical routine that incorporates pictures and can be useful in physical education. Before Justin goes to physical education class, a classroom teacher gives him a picture of the physical education teacher and says, "Justin, it is time for PE." The picture of the physical education teacher allows Justin to understand what is going to happen next. When the class enters the gym, Justin gives the picture card to the physical education teacher. The physical education teacher then uses a communication board with pictures to relay to Justin the lesson from start to finish. For example, a picture of a child stretching could indicate the warm-up, and a picture of a child doing curl-ups could indicate the fitness portion of the lesson. Further, the specific focus could be identified, as with a picture of a soccer ball. Finally, goalposts can be used to indicate the game activity. Figure 10.2 presents a sample schedule for a physical education lesson. The components of the schedule can remain the same, but the actual activities can be manipulated to prepare the child for the daily lesson. When using words instead of pictures, the words can be erased after the task is completed. This system allows students to understand that the activity has ended and the next activity will soon begin.

Physical education sample pictorial schedule. The pictures allow the student to understand what is going to happen in the lesson from start to finish.

As noted previously, children with ASD have difficulty with sensory overload. When they are entering a new environment, such as a gym, the atmosphere may create extreme sensory overload. Structure helps alleviate this stress by creating environments that are easily understood and manageable. In physical education, teachers can structure their space so that the environment is predictable. First, the teacher needs to identify for the child where activities are done (in the gym, on the field, on a mat), where things are located (balls in bin, ropes on hangers, rackets on hooks), and how to move from one place to another (rotating stations, rotating positions, moving from inside to outside). Second, the teacher needs to establish concrete boundaries. For example, if a child is to remain on one-half of the field, cones indicating the halfway point should be in place. Labels can also help organize space. For example, equipment boxes should be clearly labeled so that the child can easily retrieve and put away equipment.

At the conclusion of the lesson, the physical education teacher should have a consistent cue to transition the child back to the classroom. This could be a picture of the classroom teacher or a desk. Forewarning is another effective way to transition a child back to the classroom. For example, the teacher might say, "Justin, in three minutes PE will be over." This helps the child better understand time and prepare for the change in routine. A second warning might be given at 2 minutes and a third at 1 minute. Through proper preparation, anxiety levels are reduced because the child begins to understand that a change in the task will occur after the 1-minute signal from the instructor. Again, the child must understand what will be happening next. When he arrives back in the classroom, physical education can be crossed off his daily schedule and he can begin the next activity on the schedule.

The implementation of routines and structure might at first seem time-consuming for the teacher. However, once these systems are in place, dramatic improvements in behavior and participation usually occur, making the extra time and effort worthwhile.

Natural Environmental Cues and Task Analysis

In teaching new skills to children with ASD, instructors are urged to use natural cues within the environment and to minimize verbal cues. If the goal is for the child to kick a soccer ball into a goal, the natural cues would be a soccer ball and a goal. To achieve the desired objective, the instructor might need to break the task down into smaller steps or task analyze the skills. For example, shooting a soccer ball into a goal might involve the following steps: (1) Line the child up at the shooting line; (2) place the ball on the shooting line; and (3) prompt the child to take a shot. One may break the skill down further by placing a poly spot in front of the child to initiate a stepping action with the opposite kicking foot and prompting the child with either a verbal cue or physical assist to use the kicking foot to make contact with the ball. The degree to which skills should be task analyzed depends on the task and the learner.

Demonstrations also prove helpful in the acquisition of new skills. If the child performs the task correctly, the lesson should continue. For example, the teacher might teach the child how to stop a ball being passed to the shooting line. If the child is unsuccessful in shooting the ball toward the goal, the teacher could use physical assistance to help her gain a better understanding of what the task requires, allowing her to repeat the task until no physical assistance is needed. Once the child has performed the task correctly, the teacher would move on to the rest of the lesson. Figure 10.3 depicts a child working on soccer skills with assistance.

Shooting a soccer ball into a goal can be broken down into steps. Here the child is taking step 3, with the assistant prompting the child to take a shot.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Correction Procedure Rule

Another effective technique in instructing children with ASD is the correction procedure rule, which one applies by taking the child back to the last component of the skill done correctly. Using batting as an example, say a child maintains a proper batting stance and properly swings the bat at the ball but then runs to first base with the bat. In this case, following the correction procedure rule, the instructor would ask the child to repeat the swing and then physically assist her in placing the bat on the ground before running to first. The instructor returns the child to the last correct response before the incorrect response. The application example is another scenario in which the correction procedure rule can be used.

Application Example

Importance of Visual Cues in Learning a New Task

Setting

A physical education class is working on a tee-ball unit.

Student

Kiera, a seven-year-old girl with autism in elementary physical education class

Task

Learning how to hit a ball off the tee and running to first base

Issue

Kiera's physical education teacher, Mr. Greer, has been teaching her how to play tee-ball. They have practiced swinging the bat at the ball (in a hand-over-hand manner), making contact with the ball, putting the bat down, and running to first base. It appeared that Kiera had the hang of the skill, so Mr. Greer allowed her to bat independently. Kiera stood in the ready position; Mr. Greer placed the ball on the tee and took a step back. Just then a gust of wind came, and the ball fell off the tee. Kiera immediately placed the bat on the ground and began running to first base even though she did not make contact with the ball. This showed that Kiera still did not understand the purpose of the game, which was to contact the ball with the bat before running.

Application

Mr. Greer used visual cues to create a positive learning environment by doing the following:

• Mr. Greer demonstrated to Kiera what to do if the ball fell off the tee. Mr. Greer put the ball on the tee loosely so that it would fall off. When the ball fell off, he picked up the ball, replaced it on the tee, and struck it with the bat.
• Mr. Greer then signaled to Kiera to try. Again he placed the ball loosely on the tee and gave the bat to Kiera.
• The ball fell off the tee and Kiera picked up the ball and replaced it on the tee. She then struck the ball and ran to first base.

This example illustrates the need for students with autism to see and understand a task. In no way was Kiera being uncooperative or off task. She simply did not understand the task. When she understood the task, she was able to participate in the game independently.

Kiera practices her swing in tee-ball.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Parallel Talk

To promote language and skill acquisition, instructors are encouraged to embed language throughout the lesson. One way to accomplish this is using parallel talk, in which the teacher verbalizes the actions of the learner. For example, if Marci is rolling a red ball to the teacher, the teacher would say, "Marci is rolling the red ball." Parallel talk can also help children associate certain skills with their verbal meaning, such as spatial concepts (e.g., in, out, under, over) and motor skills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, striking). Another way to foster language acquisition is to create print-rich physical education environments. Pictures, posters, and action words should be displayed prominently around the gym. Labeling the action as it is being performed helps students acquire both receptive and expressive language skills and attach meaning to actions.

Learning Modalities

Learning modalities, or learning styles, refer to the way in which students learn best. The three common categories of learning include auditory, motor, and visual. Auditory learners tend to learn by following commands or prompts and may be easily distracted by background noise. Children who are motor or kinesthetic learners tend to learn by doing. They are active learners and would rather do than watch; they enjoy hands-on projects. Children who are visual learners tend to learn by watching and looking at pictures, and they can be easily distracted by surrounding activities and noise. Research indicates that students with ASD tend to be visual learners (Sicile-Kira, 2014), although all learning modalities should be employed from time to time. As indicated previously, the use of pictures and communication boards is by far the most effective teaching strategy used to communicate with and teach students with ASD.

Support Personnel

Teachers should take advantage of support personnel to assist them in implementing programs. Teaching assistants, paraprofessionals, and peer tutors are all valuable resources that can help in providing individualized instruction to students with ASD in physical education. Teachers can request support personnel through the child's IEP as a necessary component to support the learning of children with ASD.

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Early Childhood Program Standards and Learning Objectives

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges.

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges. Early childhood movement programs should provide children with the opportunity to explore and act on objects in their physical environment (Odom & Wolery, 2003). A well-designed movement curriculum for preschool through third grade should focus on fundamental movement abilities in the preschool years, specialized movement abilities in the early elementary years, and opportunities for all children to be physically active.

The preschool years give instructors the opportunity to guide children through games and activities in order to build a skill foundation and maintain appropriate activity levels. This fundamental movement phase should focus on stability, locomotor, and object-control skills (see chapter 19 for a review of the fundamental movement phase). It follows, then, that the early elementary years (kindergarten through third grade) allow the teacher to integrate the knowledge and skills that children have acquired and begin to refine fundamental skills required for more advanced games and activities. The specialized movement phase gives children the opportunity to use several fundamental skills to complete a single activity that is more specialized (see chapter 19 for a review of the specialized movement phase).

The importance of seeing the connection between the fundamental movement phase and specialized movement phase in the early childhood years is critical for physical education curriculum development. As a guide, national standards for physical education (SHAPE America, 2014) have been written for elementary children in the United States. These five physical education standards are in place for five- to nine-year-old children and are written to reflect what children should be able to do after participation in a quality physical education program. PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008) is a valid and reliable tool developed to assess the first national physical education standard, which reads "The physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 12). A quality physical education program for elementary-aged children should follow national standards and build on the fundamental movement skill programs introduced in preschool.

However, early learning standards vary state by state for preschool-aged children. To assist early childhood educators, the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has organized a standards database on what states have identified as educational priorities for children of prekindergarten age (NIEER, 2014). Using learning standards to guide programming for children with and without disabilities through the early childhood years can be beneficial in all domains of learning, including physical health and development. Early childhood physical educators should be knowledgeable about learning standards and assessing them and how they contribute to program development. Mastering fundamental movements and skills and integrating them into games and activities are processes.

Regarding physical activity for young children, it has been recommended that preschool-aged children accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity per day, and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping (NASPE, 2002). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009) also recommends that playing time (including large motor activities) can benefit young children in physical competence, social skills, self-control, and problem-solving abilities as well as giving them an opportunity to practice emerging skills.

Activity environments designed to provide instruction for young children with developmental delays and those with disabilities should be individualized according to assessment information. Arbitrarily selecting games and activities because they seem fun and the children appear to enjoy them is not necessarily in line with good practice. Specifically, learning environments should parallel the strengths and challenges identified during the assessment process and written in the IEP as instructional objectives. Instruction is based on a good understanding of each child's present level of performance. An activity setting should be carefully planned to build on what children already know and promote the acquisition of new skills.

Developmental theorists support instruction that encourages children to explore and manipulate their environment in order to construct meaning (Lefrancois, 2006). Individualizing instruction for each child in the class is the challenge faced by teachers providing early childhood adapted physical education in an integrated setting. Using a differentiated instructional approach helps teachers address the diverse learning needs of several children in the same class (Sands & Barker, 2004). The child's developmental abilities (physical, social, and cognitive) and the effect that a certain disability might have on this development must be considered.

Developmental Differences Between Preschoolers and Primary-Aged Children

The cognitive and social developmental status of a four-year-old differs from that of a six-year-old. As children develop cognitively and socially, they incorporate their movement strategies in new ways. Teachers providing adapted physical education must understand age-related developmental differences in order to construct appropriate learning environments for children who exhibit delays in one or more areas of learning (Haywood & Getchell, 2014).

Developmentally appropriate movement environments designed for preschool-aged children (three to five years of age) differ from those planned for kindergarten and elementary school children (six to eight years of age). A watered-down kindergarten curriculum presented to children in preschool is not appropriate. Games, activities, and equipment meaningful to a four-year-old might be of little interest to a seven-year-old and vice versa. For example, preschoolers love to experiment with speed, direction change, and space. Figure 22.1 shows a young boy making his way through a tunnel placed within a larger activity area. With a little creativity and imagination, teachers of early childhood physical education can create stimulating and motivating learning environments. A refrigerator box that has holes cut for climbing and hiding might entice a preschooler to explore and move for a long time. Preschoolers are intrigued by new spaces and the opportunity to explore these seemingly simple environments. On the other hand, a seven-year-old might find these activities simplistic and boring. She would be much more interested and challenged by moving under and through a parachute lifted by classmates. A child in first or second grade (six or seven years old) might be challenged by activities that encourage a higher level of problem solving. Children at this age have greater ability to reason and logically integrate thoughts than younger children do. For a three- or four-year-old, a parachute activity that includes anything more than moving the parachute up and down is often frightening and unpredictable.

A young boy makes his way through a tunnel, a familiar play space for preschoolers.
© Lauriece Zittel

The NAEYC (2009) provides guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood and discusses the differences between preschool and primary-aged children in their physical, social, cognitive, and language development. Teachers providing adapted physical education should keep in mind that the cognitive and social development of young children cannot be ignored when developing goals and objectives in the psychomotor domain. The interplay between each of these functional areas of learning and an individual child's development within each area must be considered when planning movement environments and instruction.

Developmental Considerations for Young Children With Disabilities

The effect of a disability on the communication, social, cognitive, or motor development of a child must be recognized before planning instruction. Knowing how a child's disability affects motor learning and performance is essential for the development of an appropriate physical education program. Young children with orthopedic impairments, for example, might begin independently exploring their physical environments by using a walker, wheelchair, or crutches but might also require accommodations in order to benefit from age-appropriate activities. Instructors should be aware of physical barriers that exist in the activity setting and design the environment in a way that encourages interactions with peers and equipment. Assistive devices that allow children with orthopedic impairments to initiate tasks that are both physically and intellectually challenging should be available to promote independence.

Young children with delays in social interaction - for example, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - may require modifications in the introduction and delivery of games and activities. Small- or large-group activities may be difficult for children with ASD, and practicing motor skills might need to occur in social environments that offer options for solitary and parallel play. For young children with ASD, interaction with others might not be the best instructional approach or least restrictive environment for learning new skills. On the other hand, children with intellectual disabilities often benefit from age-appropriate peer interactions that are consistent and repetitive. As shown in figure 22.2, a predictable environment with familiar equipment and routines will enhance opportunities for learning. Physical educators need to be aware of the characteristics of young children with disabilities and plan activities and environments accordingly.

Familiar environments promote learning among children with disabilities.
Photo courtesy of NIU. Photographer: Molly Coleman.

Facilitating Communication in a Movement Lesson

Interacting with others requires some level of communication. Some young children with disabilities use speech and language to communicate, whereas others who are nonverbal might use alternative methods and strategies. Although speech or language impairment is considered the most prevalent disability category among preschoolers, children with many diagnoses might have communication needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The movement setting, typically a motivating setting for young children, can be an ideal environment to enhance communication skills. Collaboration with classroom teachers and speech therapists assists the early childhood physical educator in determining what communication goals and objectives can be integrated within the physical education setting.

Young children with disabilities or developmental delays who are verbal might use speech and language to communicate with peers and teachers. The movement setting is a natural place to incorporate concepts such as under, over, more, through, and around. To reinforce the meaning of movement concepts and model the use of speech, a physical educator should talk with children as they participate in each movement lesson. For example, as children are pretending to be in the jungle climbing over rocks (bolsters under mats) and jumping over cutout ants and snakes (taped to the floor), a teacher might say, "I like the way everyone is jumping over the creatures in the jungle. Everyone find a creature and say ‘over' as we jump. Ready?" Prompting children to use the words to identify the concept (e.g., over) as they practice the skill (e.g., horizontal jump) reinforces the meaning of commonly taught concepts in early childhood and encourages children to use speech. Similarly, identifying shapes, colors, or equipment can become a natural part of an early childhood movement setting.

Children with speech and language delays or those who are nonverbal as a result of a particular disability or multiple disabilities might use augmentative and alternative systems to communicate (Millar, Light, & Schlosser, 2006). Sign language and picture systems are nonverbal options used by teachers to communicate with young children. Sign language is a popular method of communicating with young children of all abilities; however, children with communication delays and those who are hard of hearing might benefit in particular. Physical educators not proficient in sign language should consult with classroom teachers, interpreters, or speech therapists to learn the signs used by young children in the classroom.

Picture systems can also be used in a movement setting to increase communication between the child and teacher. Young children with autism often have sophisticated picture systems in place to assist with identifying activities, equipment, activity directions, and transitions. Picture systems can increase the probability that children with communication delays have the opportunity to engage in movement activities to the maximum extent possible. Helping a child understand what to do and when to do it often decreases the time needed to manage unwanted behaviors. Pictures posted in the activity area or taped to pieces of equipment are a great communication strategy for all children. A sequence of pictures, or visual schedule, posted to a board or paper is a functional method for communicating an activity, skill sequence, or transition to a child who is verbal or nonverbal. Visual schedules help children manage their environment while often decreasing the amount of adult intervention needed. Figure 22.3 shows an example of a young boy removing a picture of a completed activity from his schedule. The pictures remaining on the schedule give him a clear indication of activities to follow. Depending on the learning style of the child, all pictures can be on the board at the beginning of the class, or pictures can be added as the activity is presented.

Visual schedules help children manage their environments.
© Lauriece Zittel

Voice output devices are another method used to communicate with children who are nonverbal. A voice output system makes use of pictures and symbols along with prerecorded words and phrases (Blischak, 2003). Programming movement concepts, names of equipment or activities, and general statements provides a child with functional communication during physical education. For young children using a voice output system, a movement setting might reinforce practice with a new voice output device.

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Combining the Athlete and the Wheelchair

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

The process of combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a sport system varies depending on the specific sport. However, some general principles can be applied with regard to fitting the wheelchair itself. Additionally, there are some specific performance considerations for racing wheelchairs and court chairs.

Fitting the Wheelchair to the Athlete

Proper fitting of the wheelchair to the athlete is critical for high levels of athletic performance. Most manufacturers provide retail experts who are experienced in measuring athletes for performance wheelchairs.

In fitting the frame, the two most critical considerations are the dimensions of the seat (width, length, and backrest height) and the position of the seat in relation to the main wheels. Both these considerations serve to ensure that the wheelchair fits the athlete perfectly and that she is in an optimal position to apply force and maneuver the wheelchair. Refer to the application example for a list of considerations to keep in mind while helping athletes find the chair that is best for them.

Application Example

Helping a Wheelchair Athlete Find the Right Sport and Chair

Setting

A community-based junior wheelchair sport program

Student

A 16-year-old junior wheelchair basketball player with a spinal cord injury needs recommendations to refine his individualized transition program to incorporate adult wheelchair sports. The player is tall, has played the center and forward positions, and wishes to purchase his own wheelchair.

Issue

What considerations should be taken into account in making recommendations to this athlete?

Application

Considerations for this athlete center on equipment, physical fitness, and individual skills.

Equipment considerations

• Athlete's height
• Desire to play a certain position
• Need to establish athlete's physical impairment, sport classification level, and trunk stability when seated
• Adjustability for height and point of balance (being able to maximize the seat height to about 21 inches [53 centimeters] for the center and forward positions)
• System considerations such as strapping and mobility in the wheelchair
• Reputable manufacturer

Individual physical fitness

• Strength training program that targets the upper body muscles in paired groups (e.g., biceps and triceps)
• Cardiorespiratory conditioning program that uses an arm crank ergometer or, preferably, a training roller

Individual skills targeted

• Wheelchair mobility skills both with and without the basketball
• Shooting skills both stationary and moving
• Passing skills both stationary and moving
• Studying the sophisticated strategies involved in the adult game

System Considerations for Racing Wheelchairs

A number of system considerations apply to racing wheelchairs. The following section identifies propulsion techniques and how to overcome negative forces as important considerations in developing an athlete's wheelchair racing system.

Propulsion Techniques in Track and Road Racing

Coupled with the evolution of the racing wheelchair has been the development of ever more efficient propulsion techniques. A six-phase technique (see figure 29.7) is most frequently used, although not all athletes use each phase with the same degree of effectiveness. An analysis by O'Connor and colleagues (1998) led the authors to conclude that there is a need for coaches to become more knowledgeable concerning appropriate wheelchair propulsion techniques.

Six-phase propulsion cycle.

Basic Stroke

The propulsion cycle starts with the hands drawn up as far above and behind the push rim as possible given the seating position and flexibility of the athlete. The hands are then accelerated as rapidly and forcefully as possible (acceleration phase) until they strike the push rim (see point A on figure 29.7). The moment of contact is the impact energy transfer phase (point B on figure 29.7), during which the kinetic energy stored in the fast-moving hand is transferred to the slower-moving push rim. With the hand in contact with the push rim, there is a force application, or push, phase (point C on figure 29.7), and this continues until the hands reach almost to the bottom of the push rim. During the force application phase, most of the propulsion comes from the muscles acting around the elbow and shoulder.

As the hands reach the bottom of the push rim, the powerful muscles of the forearm are used to pronate the hand, which allows the thumb to be used to give a last, powerful flick to the push rim. This last flicking action is reversed by a few athletes who use supination in the rotational energy transfer phase (point D on figure 29.7) to flick the push rim with the fingers rather than the thumb; and research indicates that this type of backhand technique may be more efficient in endurance races (Chow et al., 2001).

Immediately following the rotational energy transfer, the hands leave the push rim during the castoff phase (see point E on figure 29.7). Here it is important that the hand be moving faster than the push rim as it pulls away, since a slower hand will act as a brake on the wheelchair. Often the athlete will use the pronation or supination of the rotational energy transfer phase to accelerate the hands and arms and thus allow them to be carried up and back under ballistic motion. This upward and backward motion is called the backswing phase (point F on figure 29.7) and is used to get the hands far enough away from the push rim to allow them to accelerate forward to strike the push rim at high speed at the start of the next stroke. Goosey-Tolfrey and colleagues (2000) reported that no single identifiable stroke frequency could be recommended as best for wheelchair racing, but the athlete's own freely chosen frequency was the most economical in laboratory conditions.

This basic propulsion stroke is modified by the terrain over which the athlete is wheeling, by the tactics of the race, and by the athlete's level of disability. On uphill parts of a course, the athlete shortens the backswing and acceleration phases so as to minimize the time during which force is not applied to the push rim and during which the chair could roll backward. Tactically, the athlete is either wheeling at constant speed or is making an attack and needs to accelerate. The basic stroke described previously is used at steady speed; during bursts of acceleration, the major change in stroke takes place during the backswing. At steady speeds, the backswing is a relatively relaxed ballistic movement in which the velocity at castoff is used to raise the hand to its highest and most rearward position. This relaxed backswing is efficient and allows a brief moment of rest during each stroke. During acceleration, however, the major change in stroke dynamics is to increase the number of strokes from approximately 80 per minute to more than 120 per minute. This is achieved by a rapid reduction in the time taken for a more restricted backswing.

Race Start

The stroke is modified during the start of a race. Because the wheelchair is stationary, the hands should grip the push rim (rather than striking it), and for the first few strokes the arc of pushing will be more restricted with as rapid a recovery as possible. The various approaches that have been adopted are dependent on the athlete's preference. Some athletes attempt to make longer, more forceful pushes to get the wheels going, whereas others make shorter, sharper pushes to get the hands moving fast as early as possible.

Retarding Forces and Overcoming Them

While the athlete provides the energy to drive the wheelchair forward, the twin retarding forces of rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag act to slow it down. When propulsive forces are greater than resistance, the wheelchair accelerates, and when the retarding forces are greater, the chair is slowed. Obviously, reductions in rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag translate directly into higher wheeling speeds and improved athletic performance.

Rolling Resistance

On a hard, smooth surface, the majority of the rolling resistance of the wheel occurs at the point where the tire is in contact with the ground. As the tire rotates, each part is compressed as it passes under the hub and is in contact with the surface; then it rebounds as it begins to rise again and contact with the surface is broken. Not all the energy used to compress the tire is recovered on the rebound, and the energy loss (called hysteresis) is the major determinant of rolling resistance.

Rolling resistance of racing wheelchairs is also affected by the camber angle of the main wheel, which increases with camber (Faupin et al., 2004; Mason, van der Woude, de Groot, & Goosey-Tolfrey, 2011) and wheel alignment, referred to as toe-in or toe-out. Wheels that are not toed correctly dramatically increase the rolling resistance of a wheelchair. Athletes should do everything in their power to check and adjust alignment before every important race.

Aerodynamic Drag

The problem of aerodynamic drag of racing wheelchairs and athletes is unique in sport because of the relatively low speeds at which events take place. Races (10,000 meters) on the track take place at average speeds between 6.84 and 8.40 meters per second (female and males, respectively). Although the race times of wheelchairs have dramatically improved over the last decade, the times are still considerably slower than the speeds found in cycling. This creates special low-speed aerodynamic conditions.

Aerodynamic drag is caused by two separate but interrelated forces called surface drag and form drag. Surface drag is caused by the adhesion of air molecules to the surface of an object passing through it, and it is very powerful at low speeds. Form drag, on the other hand, is caused by the difference in air pressure between the front and the back of an object, which in turn is created by the swirls and eddy currents formed as the wheelchair and athlete pass through the air.

For wheelchair racers, the problem is that smooth surfaces increase surface drag while decreasing form drag. Some aspects of aerodynamic drag reduction are beyond doubt; these are the importance of reducing both surface and form drag by minimizing the drag-producing areas of the wheelchair and the athlete's clothing.

Drafting

Because aerodynamic drag represents approximately 40 percent of the force acting to slow down a wheelchair racer, methods of minimizing this can pay considerable dividends. The single most effective way in which drag can be reduced is the process of drafting. Drafting occurs when one wheelchair follows closely behind another wheelchair that acts as a wind deflector. At the end of long races, the energy saved by drafting can be a critical determinant of race outcome. Frequently teams work together, taking turns at both leading and drafting so that their overall performance will be increased.

System Considerations for Court Wheelchairs

This section does not include information on propulsion techniques in court sports. There is less research on propulsion techniques for court sports, presumably because of the wide variability in the propulsion techniques as compared to those in racing; however, Vanlandewijck and colleagues (2001) conducted a review of propulsion biomechanics that included not only wheelchair racing but also basketball and rugby. For those interested in increasing wheelchair sport performance, it is recommended reading.

As mentioned previously, the two fundamental features of a sport wheelchair are the dimensions of the seat and its positioning in relation to the wheels, although there are differences in the reasoning behind both of these features in relation to racing wheelchairs. In wheelchair racing, the key performance indicator is speed or endurance (or both) in a predominantly linear direction. However, in court sports, maneuverability is also a key area of performance. Therefore, whereas wheelchair racers require a perfectly fitting seat so that no energy is lost during propulsion, court sport athletes desire a seat customized to their anthropometrics to facilitate their agility. If a seat is too wide, the athlete can slide around in the chair, which equates to a loss of energy during turning; the body has to then catch up before being in a position whereby force can be applied to the wheels. When the seat is the correct width, the wheelchair should be able to respond more effectively to the athlete. This enables those athletes with sufficient trunk function to be able to maneuver their chair without necessarily having to touch their wheels. This feature of performance can also be facilitated by strapping around the knees or lap, which further secures the athlete to the chair, making movements such as tilting in wheelchair basketball possible.

The backrest is another dimension of the seat that warrants consideration when one is configuring a sport wheelchair. The backrest is essentially designed to improve the athlete's stability, which can be impaired if the backrest is too low for the functional capacity of the athlete. Alternatively, if the backrest is too high, movements can be restricted when the athlete is trying to move backward to reach a ball in basketball or rugby or hitting the ball in tennis. Strapping around the trunk can be applied to facilitate stability, although similar precautions must be taken to ensure that strapping is used only if the functional capacity of the athlete requires. If too much strapping is applied too tightly, the athlete's ability to move can be unnecessarily sacrificed at the expense of stability.

To further facilitate the fitting of the athlete to the sport wheelchair and subsequently maximize maneuverability performance, molded seats have recently emerged in wheelchair tennis and wheelchair basketball (figure 29.8). Since a molded seat will mimic the exact dimensions of each individual athlete, previous limitations associated with a conventional seat, such as energy loss during propulsion and impaired maneuverability, should be eradicated.

Example of (a) a conventional sport wheelchair seat and (b) a molded seat to facilitate maneuverability performance.
Photos courtesy of Dr. John Lenton.

Once the seat is successfully designed for the specific athlete, the next thing to consider is where the seat fits in relation to the main wheels in both a horizontal (anterior - posterior) and vertical position (see figure 29.9).

(a) Anterior - posterior and (b) vertical main-wheel adjustments.

Anterior - Posterior Seat Position

Horizontal positioning of the main wheels affects the mobility of the chair. The farther forward the main wheel from a hypothesized neutral position (see figure 29.9a, position A), the more maneuverable the chair (see figure 29.9a, position B). Unfortunately, the farther forward the main wheel relative to the center of gravity, the more likely it is that the chair will tilt up. Although the introduction of the anti-tip castor wheel prevents the athlete from falling backward, it does place a large percentage of body mass over the rear castors. Consequently, athletes need to reposition their body weight forward in order to drive the wheels forward, which will be limited by their trunk function. However, this is a position that many low-point wheelchair rugby players are forced to adopt since they do not have the triceps function or stability to sit above the wheel and drive it down. Alternatively they choose to sit farther back so that they can make the most of their biceps function and "pull" the wheel up and forward.

Vertical Seat Position

Vertical positioning of the main wheel affects the height at which the athlete sits and the center of gravity of the system. This fundamentally affects the handling properties of the chair. Again, using a hypothetical neutral position (figure 29.9b, position A), the lower the athlete sits relative to this neutral position (figure 29.9b, position D), the more maneuverable the wheelchair. Therefore, all other things being equal, the athlete should sit as low as possible. However, performance considerations place a premium on height in all sports. Shooting is easier in basketball when athletes sit high because they are closer to the basket. Likewise, receiving a rugby pass is easier if one sits higher and can reach above the opponent. Finally, a tennis serve is made easier when the athlete is elevated above the height of the net, as there is now a greater margin for error. Given the advantages associated with sitting high, athletes can often forsake the optimal position for pushing the wheelchair, putting their mobility performance at risk. As the height of the seat increases, the athlete effectively moves farther away from the wheels. In order to access enough of the wheels to effectively apply force, athletes (depending on trunk function) will have to lean forward. In order to reduce the distance that athletes have to lean, many have countered this by selecting a larger wheel size to make the wheels more accessible in a higher seat position. However, this can introduce alternative and potentially negative effects on performance, with a larger wheel thought to impair acceleration and maneuverability performance. Mason and colleagues (2012a, 2012b) have provided a more in-depth evaluation of the effects of wheel size on aspects of mobility performance in wheelchair basketball players.

In summary, when enhancing wheelchair sport performance on the court, athletes should identify the functional aspects of the game and their roles or positions coupled with their strengths and weaknesses. This will depend in part on the disability level of the athlete. After identifying these roles, athletes should select the wheelchair setup that will improve functionality within the roles. It is stressed that the positioning of the main wheel will fundamentally affect the performance characteristics of the chair. After the athlete has identified the appropriate wheelchair setup, consideration needs to be given to combining the athlete and the wheelchair into a performance system through the use of appropriate strapping techniques.

Skill Development

Sport-specific skills are critical to the elite athlete's program. Common to skills in court sports are acceleration, speed (which depends on power, which depends on strength), and maneuverability with the target object, whether it be a basketball, volleyball (as used in wheelchair rugby), or tennis racket. Goosey-Tolfrey (2010b) reports other sport-specific skills as described by key sport coaches for the aforementioned sports. Skills tests have been developed for wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and tennis (Newbery, Richards, Trill, & Whait, 2010; Yilla & Sherrill, 1998), and field-based fitness testing is described in detail in the review article by Goosey-Tolfrey and Leicht (2013). Task analysis of skill performance is also suggested by Davis (2002, 2011).

Instructional materials that focus on the skills and strategies involved in many wheelchair sports are also available (Goosey-Tolfrey, 2010b). Again, the systems approach should be incorporated, with athletes practicing their skills in their competitive system that includes their sport-specific wheelchair and strapping.

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Test Instruments Used in Adapted Physical Education

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments.

Many published tests are available to physical educators. Most of these tests are standardized and tend to have established levels of validity and reliability, provide norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, and require controlled testing environments. Some of these tests, however, do contain alternative elements such as rubric scoring systems (e.g., TGMD-2) or task-analysis sequences and checklists (e.g., Special Olympics coaching guides).

Available tests in physical education measure a range of traits and abilities. Most, however, fall within five traditional areas of physical and motor development and ability: reflexes and reactions, rudimentary movements, fundamental movements, specialized movements (including sport skills, aquatics, dance, and activities of daily living), and health-related physical fitness. (Note that these categories are somewhat arbitrary and do not encompass all possibilities. In some situations, for instance, teachers might routinely test and assess the posture or the perceptual - motor abilities of their students.) More recently, a sixth area, physical activity, has gained attention. The rest of this section is devoted to a discussion of tests or measures from these six areas. One instrument from each area is highlighted. The highlighted instruments are meant to be representative of a particular content area and are recommended or used by many adapted physical educators. Other tests are available within each area, and teachers always have the option of designing alternative measures to augment or replace published instruments. In adapted physical education, there are always circumstances when published instruments prove to be inappropriate for a particular student, and teachers must modify or design instruments in accordance with the student's abilities. (Additional tests are listed in the resources section of this chapter.) The application example illustrates how tests can be used.

Measuring Reflexes and Reactions

The measurement and assessment of primitive reflexes and postural reactions is an important consideration in those with developmental delays, particularly in early intervention and childhood programs. (See chapter 19 for information on reflexes and reactions.) As educational services are extended to infants and toddlers, as well as to persons with more severe disabilities (especially those that are neurologically based, such as cerebral palsy), physical educators need to understand the influence of reflexes and reactions on motor development milestones and motor skill learning.

Because primitive reflexes normally follow a predictable sequence for appearing, maturing, and eventually disappearing, they are particularly helpful in providing information on the maturation of the central nervous system. If a primitive reflex persists beyond schedule, presents an unequal bilateral response (e.g., is present on one side but absent or not as strong on the other), is too strong or too weak, or is completely absent, then neurological problems might be suspected. When primitive reflexes are not inhibited, they will undoubtedly interfere with voluntary movement because muscle tone involuntarily changes when reflexes are elicited.

The adapted physical educator should collaborate closely with a physical therapist to identify the presence of primitive reflexes and postural reactions and further determine an appropriate motor intervention to minimize the effects of the reflex through (a) central nervous system integration, (b) maximizing functional movements through reflexive action, or (c) both. Most adapted physical education programs seek the expertise of the physical therapist who has specialized training in this area. Many early motor development tests incorporate testing of specific reflexes, but all generally involve manipulation of the body to determine evoked responses and spontaneous behaviors (Zafeiriou, 2004).

Application Example

Determining if a Student Should Be Assigned to an Adapted Program

Setting

A new 10-year-old student with mild intellectual disabilities received special education services, including adapted physical education, at his previous school. As a matter of policy, the district will reevaluate the student before determining proper programs and placements. A physical education teacher is invited to be a member of the IEP team.

Issue

How should the physical educator determine if the student should be assigned to the adapted program?

Application

The physical educator might do the following:

• Administer the BPFT to determine if the student's fitness is sufficiently developed. (The expectation would be that the student would achieve at least specific standards for children with intellectual disabilities.)
• Administer the TGMD-2 to determine if fundamental movements are completely developed. (Maximum or near-maximum scores would be expected for a 10-year-old.)
• Compare standardized test results (i.e., BPFT and TGMD) with the district guidelines or criteria for adapted physical education.
• Place the student in one or more trial placements and collect authentic assessment data. (Determine, for instance, if the rubrics being used by other members of the class are reasonably appropriate, with or without modification, for the new student.)
• Consider all assessment data when formulating a recommendation for the IEP team.

Measuring Rudimentary Movements

Rudimentary movements are the first voluntary movements (see chapter 19). Reaching, grasping, sitting, crawling, and creeping are examples of rudimentary movements. Most instruments that assess rudimentary movements use a developmental approach to testing - that is, a series of motor milestones associated with specific ages is arranged chronologically and tested individually. By determining which behaviors the child can perform, the teacher can estimate the child's developmental age (because each milestone has its own age norm) and suggest future learning activities (i.e., the behaviors in the sequence that the child cannot currently do). The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) is an example of this approach, with some additional enhancements (other instruments are discussed in chapters 21 and 22).

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales

• Purpose: The PDMS-2 (Folio & Fewell, 2000) assesses the motor development of children from birth to 83 months in both fine and gross motor areas. Items are subcategorized into the following six areas: reflexes, stationary (balance), locomotion, object manipulation, grasping, and visual - motor integration.
• Description: A total of 249 test items (mostly developmental milestones) are arranged chronologically within age levels (e.g., 0-1 month, 6-7 months, 18-23 months), and each is identified as belonging to one of the six categories being assessed (e.g., reflexes, locomotion). It is recommended that testers begin administering items one level below the child's expected motor age. Items are scored from 0 to 2 according to specified criteria. Testing continues until the ceiling-age level is reached (a level for which a score of 2 is obtained for no more than 1 of the 10 items in that level). Composite scores for gross motor (reflexes, balance, locomotion, and object manipulation), fine motor (grasping and visual - motor integration), and total motor (combination of gross and fine motor subtests) areas of functioning can be determined.
• Reliability and validity: Empirical research has established adequate levels of reliability and validity. Evidence information is provided for subgroups as well as for the general population.
• Comment: The PDMS-2 appears to have certain advantages over other rudimentary movement tests. First, the large number of test items represents a larger sample of behaviors than exists in many other tests. Second, the six categories help teachers pinpoint exactly which areas of gross motor development are problematic. Finally, the scoring system and availability of normative data provide the teacher with more information on student performance than many other tests do. Supplementary materials, including a software scoring and reporting system and a motor activity program, also are available in conjunction with PDMS-2.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The PDMS-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Fundamental Movements

The critical window of opportunity, the time during which experience has the most influence on developing fundamental motor skills, seems to be the early childhood and early elementary years. Fundamental movement skills can be classified as locomotor (traveling, e.g., jumping), nonlocomotor (stationary, e.g., one-foot balance), or manipulative (object control, e.g., throwing). Some fundamental movement test instruments measure how far the performance has progressed along a motor continuum, but most use a point system to evaluate either the process of the fundamental movement or its product. Process-oriented approaches generally attempt to break down (or task analyze) a movement into its component parts and then evaluate each component individually. This approach assesses the quality of the movement, not its result. Product-oriented approaches are concerned primarily with outcome. Product-oriented assessment is more concerned with the quantity of the movement (e.g., how far, how fast, how many) than with its execution. The TGMD-2 emphasizes a process-oriented approach to the assessment of fundamental movements.

Test of Gross Motor Development-2

• Purpose: The TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000) was designed to measure gross motor content frequently taught in preschool and early elementary grades, including special education; to be used by various professionals with a minimum amount of training; to use both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards; and to place a priority on the gross motor skill process rather than the product of performance.
• Description: The test measures locomotor (six test items) and object-control skill functioning (six test items) and provides an overall indication of gross motor functioning. Locomotor subtest items include the run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. Object-control subtest items consist of the two-hand strike, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand roll, and overhand throw. For each skill, the tester is provided with performance criteria used to assess the child's performance. Children receive 1 point for meeting each performance criterion given for each of two trials allowed. These criterion-based scores can be added and compared to norm-referenced standards in order to make summative evaluations regarding locomotor, object-control, and overall gross motor performance. Percentiles, standard scores, and chronological age equivalents can be determined for assessment purposes.
• Reliability and validity: Reliability coefficients are quite high (generally .84 to .96). Acceptable levels of content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related validity are provided.
• Comment: The sound process of test construction should provide the user with a good deal of confidence that scores obtained by children accurately reflect their fundamental movement abilities. Availability of both criterion-referenced and norm-referenced standards enhances the capability of the test to support eligibility, placement, IEP planning, and instructional decisions. Test scores allow for easy monitoring of student progress and reporting to parents.
• Availability: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757. Website: www.proedinc.com/customer/default.aspx. Note: The TGMD-2 is currently being revised at the time of this writing.

Measuring Specialized Activity Movements

A wide variety of possible physical education and sport activities could be tested under this category. Sport skills tests can take many forms, but often they are criterion referenced and teacher constructed (in fact, many teachers prefer to use authentic techniques to assess game and sport skills). Often, when teachers measure learning progress in relatively unique skills taught in physical education (e.g., wheelchair locomotion or functional performance using the treadmill at a local health club), a rubric is developed and used. Teachers who work with students with disabilities who compete in special sport programs, including those offered by multisport organizations (e.g., United States Association of Blind Athletes [USABA]), are encouraged to develop their own tests specific to the event in which the athlete competes. One example of a sport skills test that can be used for athletes with disabilities comes from the Special Olympics coaching guides.

Sport Skills Program Guides

• Purpose: Special Olympics, Inc., provides coaching guides that can complement or supplement existing physical education and recreation programs for people with disabilities (aged 8 and older) in sport skills instruction.
• Description: Guides are provided for 32 sports and recreation activities. Although the guides are not test instruments per se, authentic assessment is a critical aspect of the instructional programs recommended in the guides. Assessments consist of both task analyses and checklists. Testers check off task focal points that the student is able to perform. For instance, in athletics there are 14 test items corresponding to track and field events. Within each checklist, testers check the focal points an athlete can demonstrate (e.g., "Performs a single-leg takeoff for a running long jump.").
• Reliability and validity: No information has been reported, but content validity probably could be claimed because the checklists reflect sport skills task analyses developed by content (specific sport activity) experts in the field.
• Comment: A primary advantage of the coaching guides is convenience - a teacher or coach can adopt the existing task-analysis curriculums for many sport activities and further modify accordingly for specific students and situations if needed. The program has been used with participants with intellectual disabilities for some time and has been shown to have good utility for that group. A disadvantage is that neither reliability nor validity of the various test instruments has been formally established.
• Availability: Special Olympics, Inc., 1133 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036-3604. Website: http://resources.specialolympics.org/Taxonomy/Sports_Essentials/__Catalog_of_Sports_Essentials.aspx.

Measuring Health-Related Physical Fitness

Because health-related physical fitness is an increasing concern in the health and well-being of young people, it is crucial to use fitness tests that provide meaningful data and allow sound instructional decision making. Over the years many standardized tests of physical fitness have become available to teachers. The BPFT is one test that is recommended to measure and assess the health-related physical fitness of young people with disabilities. The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) extends the health-related, criterion-referenced approach to young people with disabilities. Access to the proper techniques for conducting the 27 tests in the BPFT has been included with this text. See Accessing the Web Resource for instructions on gaining access to the web resource.

Brockport Physical Fitness Test

• Purpose: The BPFT (Winnick & Short, 2014) is a health-related, criterion-referenced physical fitness test appropriate for young people (aged 10-17) with and without disabilities.
• Description: The test battery includes 27 test items (refer to table 4.2) from which teachers can choose based on disability. Typically, students are tested on four to six test items from three components of fitness: body composition, aerobic functioning, and musculoskeletal functioning (muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility). Although specific test items are recommended for children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, visual impairments, spinal cord injuries, and congenital anomalies and amputations, teachers are encouraged to personalize testing. Personalization involves identifying health-related concerns pertaining to the student, establishing a desired fitness profile for the student, selecting components and subcomponents of fitness to be assessed, selecting test items to measure those components, and selecting health-related, criterion-referenced standards to evaluate fitness. Thus, teachers have the option to modify any of the elements of the testing program as outlined in the test manual. Both general population and disability-specific standards are available for assessment and evaluation. A general standard is one appropriate for the general population and has not been adjusted in any way for the effects of a disability. A specific standard is one that has been adjusted for the effects of a disability. Specific standards are available only for selected test items for particular groups of people.
• Reliability and validity: The test items in the BPFT have been shown to be valid and reliable through various studies. Evidence for validity and reliability is provided in a lengthy technical report published in a special issue of Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 2005 (Winnick, 2005).
• Comment: The BPFT was patterned after Fitnessgram, and many of the standards, especially for the general population, were adopted from that test. Thus, teachers in inclusive settings should find it relatively easy to use both tests as necessary. In addition to the test manual, a training guide is also available (Winnick & Short, 1999).
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Brockport-Physical-Fitness-Test-Manual-2nd-Edition-With-Web-Resource.

Measuring Physical Activity

Much research has established the positive relation between regular physical activity and health, and many physical education programs are promoting physically active lifestyles as a primary goal of the program. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important for physical educators to objectively measure physical activity levels in ways that are sensitive enough to document change. At present, four types of activity measures are available to teachers: heart rate monitors, activity monitors (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, motion sensors), direct observation, and self-report instruments (Welk & Wood, 2000). Despite their accuracy, heart rate monitors have limited applicability in school situations because of cost and limitations in measuring students in large classes at one time. Pedometers are relatively inexpensive and accurate and have good utility for measuring walking activity, but they do not have broad applicability in measuring general physical activity. Coding student activity through direct observation is not expensive, but it can be time-consuming because only a few children can be monitored at one time by a trained observer. (These three approaches - heart rate monitors, activity monitors, and direct observation - might be more effective in settings with fewer students.)

Self-report instruments are appropriate for measuring physical activity in most school settings. Self-report instruments require students to recall and record their participation in physical activity over a set amount of time (usually from one to seven days). Although many self-report instruments are available (see Welk & Wood, 2000, for examples), all seek to quantify the frequency, intensity, and duration of students' physical activity. If students with disabilities have difficulty with self-reports, teachers or parents might need to provide an estimate of the information instead. A computer software program, Activitygram, provides teachers with an easy method for measuring student physical activity.

Activitygram

• Purpose: Activitygram (Cooper Institute, 2017), a program associated with Fitnessgram, records, analyzes, and saves student physical activity data and produces reports based on those data.
• Description: Activitygram is part of the Fitnessgram test program. The program prompts participants to recall their physical activities over the previous two or three days in 30-minute time blocks. Students select activities from within six categories: lifestyle activity, active aerobics, active sports, muscle fitness activities, flexibility exercises, and rest and inactivity. Students are also asked to rate the intensity of the activity (light, moderate, vigorous). Activity Log, a related component of Activitygram, allows students to track their physical activity (in step counts or minutes of activity) and to set personal goals and challenges. Activitygram and Activity Log printed reports provide an analysis of activity habits and personalized messages that give suggestions to increase or maintain physical activity. Recommendations are based on national guidelines endorsed by the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America).
• Reliability and validity: Because of the subjective nature of self-report measures, measurement error may reduce validity. Nevertheless, the Previous Day Physical Activity Recall instrument, on which the Activitygram program is based, has been shown to provide valid and reliable estimates of physical activity and also accurately identifies periods of moderate to vigorous activity (Weston, Petosa, & Pate, 1997). Measurement error can be minimized when parents, teachers, and others can verify activity measures.
• Comment: Although designed primarily with students without disabilities in mind, Activitygram can be useful for students receiving adapted physical education. Specific activities will vary (e.g., running vs. pushing a wheelchair), but the six categories of physical activity are appropriate for most students with or without disabilities. Younger children and those with intellectual disabilities, however, might have trouble recalling and entering activity data. Peer tutors, teacher aides, or parents could be prepared to make direct observations and could enter the data on behalf of a student who has difficulty using the system.
• Availability: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61820. Phone: 800-747-4457. Website: www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/Fitnessgram-Administration-Manual-5th-Edition-With-Web_Resource.

Specific Approaches for Physical Education and Sport

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

This section provides two examples of specific approaches used in physical education and sport for students with behavioral disorders. The humanistic orientation can be used with all students, including those who have milder forms of behavioral disorders; educators working with students who have mild and severe behavioral difficulties employ the behavioral approach.

Humanistic Approach

In physical education, students with behavior disabilities ranging from mild to severe can be taught through the humanistic approach. In this context, humanism is applied to skill acquisition and the management of social behaviors. Generally speaking, some techniques suggested by Sherrill (2004) for improving self-concept are singularly applicable with this population; for example, teachers should strive to do the following (p. 234):

• Conceptualize individual and small-group counseling as an integral part of physical education.
• Teach students to care about each other and show that they care.
• Emphasize cooperation and social interaction rather than individual performance.
• Stress the importance of genuineness and honesty in praise.
• Increase perceived competence in relation to motor skill and fitness.
• Convey that they like and respect students as human beings, not just for their motor skills and fitness.

More specifically, the approach outlined by Hellison (2011) has immediate relevance for practitioners confronted with students who are usually high functioning but who lack self-control and consequently present management problems. Hellison has developed a set of alternative goals or levels for physical education that focus on human needs and values rather than on fitness and sport skill development exclusively. The main purpose of Hellison's approach is to develop positive social responsibility. The goals are developmental and reflect a loosely constructed level-by-level progression of attitudes and behaviors. They include self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-direction, and caring and helping.

• Level 0: Irresponsibility. This level defines students who fail to take responsibility for either their actions or inactions; they blame others for their behavior and typically make excuses.
• Level I: Respecting the rights and feelings of others. This level deals with the need for control of one's own behavior. Self-control should be the first goal, according to Hellison, because learning cannot take place effectively if one cannot control impulses to harm others physically and verbally.
• Level II: Participation and effort. Level II focuses on the need for physical activity and offers students one medium for personal stability through experiences in which they can engage on a daily basis. Participation involves getting uninterested students to at least go through the motions, experiencing various degrees of effort expenditure to determine if effort leads to improvement, and redefining success as a personal accomplishment.
• Level III: Self-direction. Level III emphasizes the need for students to take more responsibility for their choices and to link these choices with their own identities. Students at this level can work independently in class and can take responsibility for their intentions and actions. At this level, students begin to assume responsibility for the direction of their lives and to explore options in developing a strong and integrated personal identity. This level includes developing a knowledge base that will enhance achievement of their goals, developing a plan to accomplish their goals, and evaluating their plan to determine their success.
• Level IV: Caring and helping. Level IV is the most difficult for students; it is also not a requirement for successful participation in the responsibility model. At this level, students reach out beyond themselves to others, committing themselves to genuinely caring about other people. Students are motivated to give support, cooperate, show concern, and help. Generally speaking, the goal of level IV is the improvement of the entire group's welfare.
• Level V: Outside the gym. Level V promotes the opportunity to transfer many of the lessons learned in the gym to other areas of life. It also implies being a role model.

Hellison recognized that these five goals provide only a framework and that strategies must be employed to help students interact with self-control and respect for the rights and feelings of others, participate and show effort, be self-directed, and demonstrate caring and helping behavior on a regular basis. He suggests five interaction strategies to help reach the goals. These include awareness talks (e.g., post levels on gym wall and refer to them frequently), the physical education lesson (e.g., students can be taught to solve conflict during a game), group meetings (e.g., students discuss issues of low motivation or difficulty in being self-directed), reflection time (e.g., students record in a journal or discuss how they did during class in relation to the goals they had established), and counseling time (e.g., students discuss their patterns of abusive behavior and possibly their underlying motives for such behavior). This last strategy gives students the opportunity to talk with the teacher about problems preventing them from achieving their goals within specified levels of the responsibility model. These strategies are "processes for helping students to become aware of, experience, make decisions about, and reflect on the model's goals" (Hellison & Templin, 1991, p. 108). See table 9.2 for a brief examination of the relationship between the levels and strategies in Hellison's model.

Many physical education programs use games to accomplish goals and objectives established for individuals and classes. Because students with behavioral disorders often lack fundamental skills, they frequently are incapable of demonstrating even minimal levels of competence in these games. As a result, they have an increased tendency to act out - perhaps with verbal or physical aggression - or to withdraw, which further excludes them from an opportunity to develop skills.

In an effort to promote the most positive learning environment, Hellison (2011) developed a nontraditional approach to working with at-risk students, using basketball as the primary vehicle for empowering students to learn personal and social values. Employing Hellison's responsibility model (discussed previously) as the philosophical underpinning, the coaching club is a before-school program in Chicago's inner city. It offers students the opportunity to explore movement through a progression of five levels: (I) self-control, meaning control of one's body and temper; (II) teamwork, meaning full participation by all team members; (III) self-coaching; (IV) coaching another team member; and (V) applying skills learned in the program outside the gym to school, home, and neighborhood. Playing ability is not a prerequisite. This program promotes social responsibility. Likewise, extrinsic rewards are unnecessary because students are motivated to reach level IV (coach) on the evaluation system (Hellison & Georgiadis, 1992, p. 7). Level IV consists of the following:

• Has good attendance.
• Is coachable and on task at practice.
• Does not abuse others or interrupt practice.
• Is able to set personal goals and work independently on these goals.
• Possesses good helping skills (such as giving cues, observing, and giving positive feedback as well as general praise).
• Encourages teamwork and passing the ball.
• Listens to players; is sensitive to their feelings and needs.
• Puts the welfare of players above own needs (such as the need to win or look good).
• Understands that exhibiting these characteristics is the key to being a good coach, regardless of personal basketball ability.

Behavioral Approach

Students with severe behavior disorders require intense programming efforts. This group includes students who are self-indulgent, aggressive, noncompliant, and self-stimulatory or self-destructive (Dunn & Leitschuh, 2014). Using the basic steps of behavioral programming discussed in chapter 6, Dunn and his coauthor developed the data-based gymnasium (DBG). This program incorporates behavioral principles in a systematic effort to produce procedural consistency for teachers who work with students with behavioral disorders and to bring student behavior under the control of naturally occurring reinforcers. To the latter end, instructors use natural reinforcers available in the environment, such as praising a desirable behavior to strengthen it or ignoring an undesirable behavior to bring about its extinction. Tangible reinforcers such as token economies are introduced only after it has been demonstrated that the consistent use of social reinforcement or extinction will not achieve the desired behavioral outcome.

In an effort to equip teachers with consistent behavioral procedures, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) use a variety of strategies, including rules of thumb, to apply to inappropriate behavior. For each area of inappropriate behavior (e.g., self-indulgent behavior), there exists a rule of thumb or generally accepted way of responding when certain undesirable behaviors occur. The intent of these rules is to make the development and implementation of a formal behavioral program unnecessary.

• Self-indulgent behavior. Behaviors in this category include crying, screaming, throwing tantrums, and performing repetitive, irritating activities or making noises. The rule of thumb for handling students who engage in self-indulgent behaviors is to ignore them until the behavior is discontinued and then socially reinforce the first occurrence of an appropriate behavior. For example, one would ignore children's tantrums when they cannot control a play situation with classmates but reinforce with social praise their initial attempts to play cooperatively.
• Noncompliant behavior. Noncompliant behaviors include instances when students decline to comply when instructed to do something as well as forgetting or failing to do something because they choose not to do what is asked. Noncompliance also includes doing what is requested but in a less than acceptable way. The rule of thumb is that teachers should ignore noncompliant verbalizations, lead students physically through the task, or prevent students from participating in an activity until they follow through on the initial request. Compliance with any request is immediately reinforced socially. For example, one would physically restrict aggressive play and socially praise a child's positive engagement with a classmate or group.
• Aggressive behavior. Verbal or physical abuse directed toward an object or a person is considered aggressive behavior. Examples of aggressive acts include hitting, fighting, pinching, biting, pushing, or deliberately destroying someone's property. The rule of thumb for aggressive behavior is that it is punished immediately with a verbal reprimand and the offending student is removed from the activity. Social reinforcement is given when students demonstrate appropriate interaction with other people or objects. For example, a student who strikes another student is immediately reprimanded verbally (conflict resolution) and is eliminated from the activity (given a time-out; see chapter 6).
• Self-stimulatory behavior. This category includes behaviors that interfere with learning because students become engrossed in the perseverative nature of the activities. Examples include head banging, hand flapping, body rocking, and eye gouging. As a rule of thumb, Dunn and Leitschuh (2014) recommend a formal behavioral program to deal with this type of behavior. An in-depth discussion of formal principles and programs for behavior modification is presented in chapter 6.

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The story of Loretta Claiborne

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7.

Loretta Claiborne was born with visual impairments, clubbed feet, and intellectual disabilities in the projects of York, Pennsylvania. After several surgeries to enable vision and correct her clubbed feet, she finally walked at the age of 4 and talked at the age of 7. Forbidden to participate in school sports because she was in special education, Loretta ran to get away from the bullies. At the age of 18, she became a Special Olympics athlete. Twenty-five years later, in 1996, Loretta received the prestigious Arthur Ashe Courage Award at the ESPN Espy Awards. In 1999, Disney aired a made-for-TV movie about her life, The Loretta Claiborne Story, and she appeared on the Oprah Winfrey Show.

Along the way, Loretta completed 26 marathons, including three Boston Marathons, placing among the top 100 of all women each time. In 1988 she finished in the top 25 women in the Pittsburgh Marathon and was named Special Olympics Female Athlete of the Year. In 1991, Loretta was named to the Special Olympics board of directors and was selected by Runner's World magazine as the Special Olympics Athlete of the Quarter Century. The following year she was inducted into the York, Pennsylvania, Sports Hall of Fame and the William Penn High School Alumni Hall of Fame - the same high school that had barred her from the track team because she had intellectual disabilities.

Loretta introduced then-U.S. president Bill Clinton at the 1995 Special Olympics World Summer Games opening ceremonies in New Haven, Connecticut, and received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Quinnipiac College in Hamden, Connecticut, becoming the first person with intellectual disabilities to receive an honorary doctorate. The Loretta Claiborne Building in York, Pennsylvania, was dedicated in 2001. In 2003, she was awarded a second doctorate of humane letters by Villanova University in Pennsylvania. Currently, her uplifting life story is chronicled in the text, In Her Stride, a feature title in the WorldScapes literacy series for grades 3 through 6.

One of Loretta's most memorable races was a marathon in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Running strong, Loretta noticed another runner beginning to falter. Loretta slowed her pace and stayed with the man throughout the race, encouraging him on; they crossed the finish line together. The other runner? Former world heavyweight boxing champion Larry Holmes! Now a black belt in karate, Loretta still runs about 5 miles (8 kilometers) every day and also competes in Special Olympics bowling, figure skating, basketball, golf, soccer, skiing, softball, and swimming.

Implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

The following section provides an overview of implications for teaching physical education to children with ASD - specifically, assessment, activity selection, and instructional and management techniques.

Assessment

One method that has been proven helpful in assessing students with ASD is the system known as ecological task analysis (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). Within the model, the instructor examines the interaction of three factors: the student, the environment, and the task. To derive a good understanding of the student, the assessor should seek information from several sources, including parents, teachers, therapists, and aides. One should fully understand reinforcers and modes of communication before attempting to assess the child. The assessor should also spend time developing a rapport with the child before assessment. When beginning the assessment, it is important to start with activities the child understands and is able to perform and then move on to more difficult tasks. It is important also to understand qualities that inhibit or enhance performance. This approach allows for early success and better compliance throughout the assessment.

The second factor that needs to be considered is the task. To determine if the task is appropriate, consider the following questions: Is it age appropriate? Is it functional? Will the information gained assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP) goals and objectives? Will the information be used for program development and instruction? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the task being assessed is appropriate. To assess the task, the assessor might use a task analysis approach in which requisite skills are identified and either further broken down or assessed as a whole. For example, in assessing soccer skills, the assessor would determine the requisite skills for soccer (e.g., dribbling, passing, trapping, shooting). Each of these skills could be broken down into components assessed separately, or the skill could be assessed as a whole. Once the assessment is complete, the information gleaned can be used to develop goals and objectives based on unique needs, serve as a basis for instruction, and aid in activity selection.

Finally the instructor needs to consider the environment. Keeping in mind that children with ASD might be hypersensitive to environmental stimuli, the instructor should provide an environment with limited distractions and focus on one task at a time. In the soccer example, the instructor can provide different-size balls, different-size goals, and different surfaces for performing the task. After considering the individual student, the task, and the environmental parameters involved, the instructor observes the student's behavior and preferences and documents his choices. These choices serve as a baseline and a springboard upon which to teach.

Activity Selection

When selecting activities for children with ASD, the most important consideration is the needs and interests of the learners and their families. In addition, the functional value of the activity should be taken into account. Activities that have a high probability of success for children with ASD are generally more individual, such as swimming, running, and bowling. However, no one should assume that children with ASD cannot participate in and enjoy team sports. Team sports might need modifications to enhance success, but all children should have the opportunity to explore a range of physical education activities.

The learner's age must also be taken into account. Both developmental appropriateness and age appropriateness should always be considered when selecting activities. Although elementary-aged children spend a great deal of time learning and improving their fundamental motor skills, it would be inappropriate to focus on such skills at the middle school or high school level. When selecting activities, instructors should also consider family and community interests. Does the child come from a family that enjoys hiking or skiing? Or is the family more involved in soccer or softball? Considering these factors helps shape the activity selection so that the child with ASD can more fully integrate within the family and community.

One form of movement, known as sensorimotor activities, can be especially beneficial to students with ASD. These activities are designed to stimulate the senses with a focus on kinesthetic awareness, tactile stimulation, auditory processing, and visual - motor coordination. Kinesthetic awareness deals with the relationship of the body to space. Examples of kinesthetic activities include jumping on a trampoline, crawling through tunnels, jumping over a rope, and rolling down an incline mat. Tactile stimulation can be enhanced by having the child interact with objects, such as balls with various sizes, shapes, and textures. Auditory processing can be enhanced through the use of music and songs that instruct the child in a sequence of movements. Finally, visual - motor coordination can be strengthened through playing an array of games that require tracking, such as kickball, softball, soccer, or lacrosse.

Instructional and Management Techniques

Teaching students with ASD is not unlike teaching other children. Teachers need to establish rapport with students, develop trust, relay information in a clear and concise manner, and provide reinforcement and feedback to help shape appropriate motor and social behavior. Specific strategies that prove helpful in instructing and managing students with ASD include the use of picture and communication boards, the consistent use of structure and routines, and the use of natural cues in the environment to facilitate the acquisition and execution of skills. Other methods include the correction procedure rule and parallel talk. The correction procedure rule is a system used when inappropriate skills or social behaviors occur. Here, the instructor takes the child back to the last task that was done correctly in an effort to redirect the inappropriate behavior. Parallel talk is a system in which the instructor talks through the actions that are occurring - for example, "Juan is dribbling the basketball" - which aids in the understanding and purpose of actions. In addition, teaching to the strengths of learners by considering their preferred learning modality will also prove helpful in teaching students with ASD. Finally, the value of using support staff and peer tutors should not be underestimated in teaching students with ASD. Each of these strategies is more fully explained next.

Picture and Communication Boards

One of the most common and most successful methods used to teach children with ASD is the use of picture and communication boards. Types of pictures include photographs, lifelike drawings, and symbolic drawings. Some children may not yet understand pictures and may need objects to represent them, such as dollhouse furniture or small figures of objects. When pictures are used, it is best to have only one item in the picture because children with ASD have a tendency toward overselectivity, meaning that they are not able to screen out irrelevant information. Teachers should help students focus on the most relevant information. For example, if a child is working on basketball skills, it may be preferable not to use a picture of a basketball court with students playing on it because there is too much information in the picture, making it difficult for the child to screen out irrelevant information. Pictures can also be arranged to create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Boardmaker, as described earlier, is one of many commercial software programs that can help create picture boards using universally accepted symbols to depict events and actions.

Routines and Structure

Establishing routines and structure aids in managing and instructing students with ASD. Children with ASD often demonstrate inappropriate behavioral responses when new or incongruent information is presented in a random or haphazard manner. Routines with set beginning and end points allow for more predictability and help to reduce sensory overload. Routines are also useful in introducing new information or behaviors. Keeping some information familiar and gradually introducing new information helps students respond appropriately. Routines also help to reduce verbal directions and allow children to work independently.

The following scenario illustrates a typical routine that incorporates pictures and can be useful in physical education. Before Justin goes to physical education class, a classroom teacher gives him a picture of the physical education teacher and says, "Justin, it is time for PE." The picture of the physical education teacher allows Justin to understand what is going to happen next. When the class enters the gym, Justin gives the picture card to the physical education teacher. The physical education teacher then uses a communication board with pictures to relay to Justin the lesson from start to finish. For example, a picture of a child stretching could indicate the warm-up, and a picture of a child doing curl-ups could indicate the fitness portion of the lesson. Further, the specific focus could be identified, as with a picture of a soccer ball. Finally, goalposts can be used to indicate the game activity. Figure 10.2 presents a sample schedule for a physical education lesson. The components of the schedule can remain the same, but the actual activities can be manipulated to prepare the child for the daily lesson. When using words instead of pictures, the words can be erased after the task is completed. This system allows students to understand that the activity has ended and the next activity will soon begin.

Physical education sample pictorial schedule. The pictures allow the student to understand what is going to happen in the lesson from start to finish.

As noted previously, children with ASD have difficulty with sensory overload. When they are entering a new environment, such as a gym, the atmosphere may create extreme sensory overload. Structure helps alleviate this stress by creating environments that are easily understood and manageable. In physical education, teachers can structure their space so that the environment is predictable. First, the teacher needs to identify for the child where activities are done (in the gym, on the field, on a mat), where things are located (balls in bin, ropes on hangers, rackets on hooks), and how to move from one place to another (rotating stations, rotating positions, moving from inside to outside). Second, the teacher needs to establish concrete boundaries. For example, if a child is to remain on one-half of the field, cones indicating the halfway point should be in place. Labels can also help organize space. For example, equipment boxes should be clearly labeled so that the child can easily retrieve and put away equipment.

At the conclusion of the lesson, the physical education teacher should have a consistent cue to transition the child back to the classroom. This could be a picture of the classroom teacher or a desk. Forewarning is another effective way to transition a child back to the classroom. For example, the teacher might say, "Justin, in three minutes PE will be over." This helps the child better understand time and prepare for the change in routine. A second warning might be given at 2 minutes and a third at 1 minute. Through proper preparation, anxiety levels are reduced because the child begins to understand that a change in the task will occur after the 1-minute signal from the instructor. Again, the child must understand what will be happening next. When he arrives back in the classroom, physical education can be crossed off his daily schedule and he can begin the next activity on the schedule.

The implementation of routines and structure might at first seem time-consuming for the teacher. However, once these systems are in place, dramatic improvements in behavior and participation usually occur, making the extra time and effort worthwhile.

Natural Environmental Cues and Task Analysis

In teaching new skills to children with ASD, instructors are urged to use natural cues within the environment and to minimize verbal cues. If the goal is for the child to kick a soccer ball into a goal, the natural cues would be a soccer ball and a goal. To achieve the desired objective, the instructor might need to break the task down into smaller steps or task analyze the skills. For example, shooting a soccer ball into a goal might involve the following steps: (1) Line the child up at the shooting line; (2) place the ball on the shooting line; and (3) prompt the child to take a shot. One may break the skill down further by placing a poly spot in front of the child to initiate a stepping action with the opposite kicking foot and prompting the child with either a verbal cue or physical assist to use the kicking foot to make contact with the ball. The degree to which skills should be task analyzed depends on the task and the learner.

Demonstrations also prove helpful in the acquisition of new skills. If the child performs the task correctly, the lesson should continue. For example, the teacher might teach the child how to stop a ball being passed to the shooting line. If the child is unsuccessful in shooting the ball toward the goal, the teacher could use physical assistance to help her gain a better understanding of what the task requires, allowing her to repeat the task until no physical assistance is needed. Once the child has performed the task correctly, the teacher would move on to the rest of the lesson. Figure 10.3 depicts a child working on soccer skills with assistance.

Shooting a soccer ball into a goal can be broken down into steps. Here the child is taking step 3, with the assistant prompting the child to take a shot.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Correction Procedure Rule

Another effective technique in instructing children with ASD is the correction procedure rule, which one applies by taking the child back to the last component of the skill done correctly. Using batting as an example, say a child maintains a proper batting stance and properly swings the bat at the ball but then runs to first base with the bat. In this case, following the correction procedure rule, the instructor would ask the child to repeat the swing and then physically assist her in placing the bat on the ground before running to first. The instructor returns the child to the last correct response before the incorrect response. The application example is another scenario in which the correction procedure rule can be used.

Application Example

Importance of Visual Cues in Learning a New Task

Setting

A physical education class is working on a tee-ball unit.

Student

Kiera, a seven-year-old girl with autism in elementary physical education class

Task

Learning how to hit a ball off the tee and running to first base

Issue

Kiera's physical education teacher, Mr. Greer, has been teaching her how to play tee-ball. They have practiced swinging the bat at the ball (in a hand-over-hand manner), making contact with the ball, putting the bat down, and running to first base. It appeared that Kiera had the hang of the skill, so Mr. Greer allowed her to bat independently. Kiera stood in the ready position; Mr. Greer placed the ball on the tee and took a step back. Just then a gust of wind came, and the ball fell off the tee. Kiera immediately placed the bat on the ground and began running to first base even though she did not make contact with the ball. This showed that Kiera still did not understand the purpose of the game, which was to contact the ball with the bat before running.

Application

Mr. Greer used visual cues to create a positive learning environment by doing the following:

• Mr. Greer demonstrated to Kiera what to do if the ball fell off the tee. Mr. Greer put the ball on the tee loosely so that it would fall off. When the ball fell off, he picked up the ball, replaced it on the tee, and struck it with the bat.
• Mr. Greer then signaled to Kiera to try. Again he placed the ball loosely on the tee and gave the bat to Kiera.
• The ball fell off the tee and Kiera picked up the ball and replaced it on the tee. She then struck the ball and ran to first base.

This example illustrates the need for students with autism to see and understand a task. In no way was Kiera being uncooperative or off task. She simply did not understand the task. When she understood the task, she was able to participate in the game independently.

Kiera practices her swing in tee-ball.
© Cathy Houston-Wilson

Parallel Talk

To promote language and skill acquisition, instructors are encouraged to embed language throughout the lesson. One way to accomplish this is using parallel talk, in which the teacher verbalizes the actions of the learner. For example, if Marci is rolling a red ball to the teacher, the teacher would say, "Marci is rolling the red ball." Parallel talk can also help children associate certain skills with their verbal meaning, such as spatial concepts (e.g., in, out, under, over) and motor skills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, striking). Another way to foster language acquisition is to create print-rich physical education environments. Pictures, posters, and action words should be displayed prominently around the gym. Labeling the action as it is being performed helps students acquire both receptive and expressive language skills and attach meaning to actions.

Learning Modalities

Learning modalities, or learning styles, refer to the way in which students learn best. The three common categories of learning include auditory, motor, and visual. Auditory learners tend to learn by following commands or prompts and may be easily distracted by background noise. Children who are motor or kinesthetic learners tend to learn by doing. They are active learners and would rather do than watch; they enjoy hands-on projects. Children who are visual learners tend to learn by watching and looking at pictures, and they can be easily distracted by surrounding activities and noise. Research indicates that students with ASD tend to be visual learners (Sicile-Kira, 2014), although all learning modalities should be employed from time to time. As indicated previously, the use of pictures and communication boards is by far the most effective teaching strategy used to communicate with and teach students with ASD.

Support Personnel

Teachers should take advantage of support personnel to assist them in implementing programs. Teaching assistants, paraprofessionals, and peer tutors are all valuable resources that can help in providing individualized instruction to students with ASD in physical education. Teachers can request support personnel through the child's IEP as a necessary component to support the learning of children with ASD.

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Early Childhood Program Standards and Learning Objectives

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges.

The development of early childhood physical education programs should be aligned with best practices in early childhood education and early childhood special education. Young children experiencing delays in their motor development should receive opportunities and instruction designed to parallel what their same-age peers receive but modified to address individual challenges. Early childhood movement programs should provide children with the opportunity to explore and act on objects in their physical environment (Odom & Wolery, 2003). A well-designed movement curriculum for preschool through third grade should focus on fundamental movement abilities in the preschool years, specialized movement abilities in the early elementary years, and opportunities for all children to be physically active.

The preschool years give instructors the opportunity to guide children through games and activities in order to build a skill foundation and maintain appropriate activity levels. This fundamental movement phase should focus on stability, locomotor, and object-control skills (see chapter 19 for a review of the fundamental movement phase). It follows, then, that the early elementary years (kindergarten through third grade) allow the teacher to integrate the knowledge and skills that children have acquired and begin to refine fundamental skills required for more advanced games and activities. The specialized movement phase gives children the opportunity to use several fundamental skills to complete a single activity that is more specialized (see chapter 19 for a review of the specialized movement phase).

The importance of seeing the connection between the fundamental movement phase and specialized movement phase in the early childhood years is critical for physical education curriculum development. As a guide, national standards for physical education (SHAPE America, 2014) have been written for elementary children in the United States. These five physical education standards are in place for five- to nine-year-old children and are written to reflect what children should be able to do after participation in a quality physical education program. PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008) is a valid and reliable tool developed to assess the first national physical education standard, which reads "The physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 12). A quality physical education program for elementary-aged children should follow national standards and build on the fundamental movement skill programs introduced in preschool.

However, early learning standards vary state by state for preschool-aged children. To assist early childhood educators, the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has organized a standards database on what states have identified as educational priorities for children of prekindergarten age (NIEER, 2014). Using learning standards to guide programming for children with and without disabilities through the early childhood years can be beneficial in all domains of learning, including physical health and development. Early childhood physical educators should be knowledgeable about learning standards and assessing them and how they contribute to program development. Mastering fundamental movements and skills and integrating them into games and activities are processes.

Regarding physical activity for young children, it has been recommended that preschool-aged children accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity per day, and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping (NASPE, 2002). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009) also recommends that playing time (including large motor activities) can benefit young children in physical competence, social skills, self-control, and problem-solving abilities as well as giving them an opportunity to practice emerging skills.

Activity environments designed to provide instruction for young children with developmental delays and those with disabilities should be individualized according to assessment information. Arbitrarily selecting games and activities because they seem fun and the children appear to enjoy them is not necessarily in line with good practice. Specifically, learning environments should parallel the strengths and challenges identified during the assessment process and written in the IEP as instructional objectives. Instruction is based on a good understanding of each child's present level of performance. An activity setting should be carefully planned to build on what children already know and promote the acquisition of new skills.

Developmental theorists support instruction that encourages children to explore and manipulate their environment in order to construct meaning (Lefrancois, 2006). Individualizing instruction for each child in the class is the challenge faced by teachers providing early childhood adapted physical education in an integrated setting. Using a differentiated instructional approach helps teachers address the diverse learning needs of several children in the same class (Sands & Barker, 2004). The child's developmental abilities (physical, social, and cognitive) and the effect that a certain disability might have on this development must be considered.

Developmental Differences Between Preschoolers and Primary-Aged Children

The cognitive and social developmental status of a four-year-old differs from that of a six-year-old. As children develop cognitively and socially, they incorporate their movement strategies in new ways. Teachers providing adapted physical education must understand age-related developmental differences in order to construct appropriate learning environments for children who exhibit delays in one or more areas of learning (Haywood & Getchell, 2014).

Developmentally appropriate movement environments designed for preschool-aged children (three to five years of age) differ from those planned for kindergarten and elementary school children (six to eight years of age). A watered-down kindergarten curriculum presented to children in preschool is not appropriate. Games, activities, and equipment meaningful to a four-year-old might be of little interest to a seven-year-old and vice versa. For example, preschoolers love to experiment with speed, direction change, and space. Figure 22.1 shows a young boy making his way through a tunnel placed within a larger activity area. With a little creativity and imagination, teachers of early childhood physical education can create stimulating and motivating learning environments. A refrigerator box that has holes cut for climbing and hiding might entice a preschooler to explore and move for a long time. Preschoolers are intrigued by new spaces and the opportunity to explore these seemingly simple environments. On the other hand, a seven-year-old might find these activities simplistic and boring. She would be much more interested and challenged by moving under and through a parachute lifted by classmates. A child in first or second grade (six or seven years old) might be challenged by activities that encourage a higher level of problem solving. Children at this age have greater ability to reason and logically integrate thoughts than younger children do. For a three- or four-year-old, a parachute activity that includes anything more than moving the parachute up and down is often frightening and unpredictable.

A young boy makes his way through a tunnel, a familiar play space for preschoolers.
© Lauriece Zittel

The NAEYC (2009) provides guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood and discusses the differences between preschool and primary-aged children in their physical, social, cognitive, and language development. Teachers providing adapted physical education should keep in mind that the cognitive and social development of young children cannot be ignored when developing goals and objectives in the psychomotor domain. The interplay between each of these functional areas of learning and an individual child's development within each area must be considered when planning movement environments and instruction.

Developmental Considerations for Young Children With Disabilities

The effect of a disability on the communication, social, cognitive, or motor development of a child must be recognized before planning instruction. Knowing how a child's disability affects motor learning and performance is essential for the development of an appropriate physical education program. Young children with orthopedic impairments, for example, might begin independently exploring their physical environments by using a walker, wheelchair, or crutches but might also require accommodations in order to benefit from age-appropriate activities. Instructors should be aware of physical barriers that exist in the activity setting and design the environment in a way that encourages interactions with peers and equipment. Assistive devices that allow children with orthopedic impairments to initiate tasks that are both physically and intellectually challenging should be available to promote independence.

Young children with delays in social interaction - for example, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - may require modifications in the introduction and delivery of games and activities. Small- or large-group activities may be difficult for children with ASD, and practicing motor skills might need to occur in social environments that offer options for solitary and parallel play. For young children with ASD, interaction with others might not be the best instructional approach or least restrictive environment for learning new skills. On the other hand, children with intellectual disabilities often benefit from age-appropriate peer interactions that are consistent and repetitive. As shown in figure 22.2, a predictable environment with familiar equipment and routines will enhance opportunities for learning. Physical educators need to be aware of the characteristics of young children with disabilities and plan activities and environments accordingly.

Familiar environments promote learning among children with disabilities.
Photo courtesy of NIU. Photographer: Molly Coleman.

Facilitating Communication in a Movement Lesson

Interacting with others requires some level of communication. Some young children with disabilities use speech and language to communicate, whereas others who are nonverbal might use alternative methods and strategies. Although speech or language impairment is considered the most prevalent disability category among preschoolers, children with many diagnoses might have communication needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The movement setting, typically a motivating setting for young children, can be an ideal environment to enhance communication skills. Collaboration with classroom teachers and speech therapists assists the early childhood physical educator in determining what communication goals and objectives can be integrated within the physical education setting.

Young children with disabilities or developmental delays who are verbal might use speech and language to communicate with peers and teachers. The movement setting is a natural place to incorporate concepts such as under, over, more, through, and around. To reinforce the meaning of movement concepts and model the use of speech, a physical educator should talk with children as they participate in each movement lesson. For example, as children are pretending to be in the jungle climbing over rocks (bolsters under mats) and jumping over cutout ants and snakes (taped to the floor), a teacher might say, "I like the way everyone is jumping over the creatures in the jungle. Everyone find a creature and say ‘over' as we jump. Ready?" Prompting children to use the words to identify the concept (e.g., over) as they practice the skill (e.g., horizontal jump) reinforces the meaning of commonly taught concepts in early childhood and encourages children to use speech. Similarly, identifying shapes, colors, or equipment can become a natural part of an early childhood movement setting.

Children with speech and language delays or those who are nonverbal as a result of a particular disability or multiple disabilities might use augmentative and alternative systems to communicate (Millar, Light, & Schlosser, 2006). Sign language and picture systems are nonverbal options used by teachers to communicate with young children. Sign language is a popular method of communicating with young children of all abilities; however, children with communication delays and those who are hard of hearing might benefit in particular. Physical educators not proficient in sign language should consult with classroom teachers, interpreters, or speech therapists to learn the signs used by young children in the classroom.

Picture systems can also be used in a movement setting to increase communication between the child and teacher. Young children with autism often have sophisticated picture systems in place to assist with identifying activities, equipment, activity directions, and transitions. Picture systems can increase the probability that children with communication delays have the opportunity to engage in movement activities to the maximum extent possible. Helping a child understand what to do and when to do it often decreases the time needed to manage unwanted behaviors. Pictures posted in the activity area or taped to pieces of equipment are a great communication strategy for all children. A sequence of pictur