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Strategies for Inclusion
Physical Education for Everyone
by Lauren J. Lieberman and Cathy Houston-Wilson
232 Pages
Lots of New Resources and Material
The latest edition of this popular adapted physical education text will empower you with the information and tools necessary to successfully include students with disabilities in your program. Strategies for Inclusion reflects the latest research and legislation, so you can be sure that your program is not only successful but also compliant with the goals and requirements of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act.
The text has retained and updated its instruction on assessing students, making placement decisions, developing and implementing individualized education plans (IEPs), and more. And it offers this completely new material:
- A new chapter on the referral, eligibility, and placement process, covering the nine steps required by law
- A new chapter on transition planning and how you can help students integrate into their communities after leaving school
- A new section on Paralympic sports and how they can be infused into your curriculum
- New material on functional behavioral assessments, behavior intervention plans, leadership opportunities, training techniques for peer tutors and paraeducators, and more
- A new inclusion rating scale that will help you rate how inclusive your classes are and show you areas for improvement
- A new web resource with numerous useful tools
- More than double the number of teaching units (38 units, up from 17), giving you more options for inclusion
Book Organization and Content
The text is split into two parts. Part I provides foundational information and a roadmap for how to successfully include children with disabilities in traditional PE settings. Topics in this part include legislative issues, roles and responsibilities of the teacher, effective assessment techniques, the eight-step placement process, and the teacher’s role in the IEP process. Part I also explores how to manage student behavior, make adaptations to promote universal design for learning, work with support personnel, and plan for transition.
Part II offers 38 teachable units—a sizable leap from the previous edition’s 17—complete with assessment tools for curriculum planning. Here you will learn specific strategies for inclusion as you use a step-by-step implementation guide for 14 elementary units, 11 sport units, 8 recreation units, and 5 fitness units—all with potential modifications. Adaptations are categorized by environment, equipment, instruction, and rules.
Each unit’s assessment rubric has quantitative and qualitative measures of skill level. And you’ll find ideas in each unit on how to incorporate IEP objectives that may not be part of the general PE class objectives.
A Complete Resource for Inclusion
Strategies for Inclusion offers you the most up-to-date and useful strategies to include children with disabilities in your physical education activities. Its practical applications and easy-to-implement planning and assessment strategies make this a complete resource that you can use to empower all students with the knowledge that they can enjoy the full range of benefits that physical activity offers.
Part I: Understanding Inclusion
Chapter 1: Inclusion in Physical Education
Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Placement Options in Physical Education
Roles and Responsibilities of General Physical Education Teachers
Roles and Responsibilities of Adapted Physical Education Specialists
Effectiveness of Inclusion
Summary
Chapter 2: Assessment: The Cornerstone of Effective Instruction
Features of Effective Assessment
Traditional Assessment Techniques
Authentic Assessment
Alternative Assessment
Summary
Chapter 3: The Placement Process in Physical Education
Physical Education Placement Challenges
Special Education Process
Assessing the Placement
The Lieberman/Brian Inclusion Rating Scale (LIRSPE)
Summary
Chapter 4: Individualized Education Plans
The IEP Process
The Role of Assessment in IEPs
Components of the IEP
Electronically Generated IEPs
Physical Educator’s Role in the IEP Process
Incorporating Goals and Objectives Into the General Physical Education Class
Summary
Chapter 5: Managing Student Behavior
Strategies to Avoid Behavior Problems
Understanding the Purpose of Behavior
Interventions and Strategies to Improve Behavior
Strategies to Decrease Inappropriate Behavior
Summary
Chapter 6: Universal Design for Learning
Universal Design for Learning
Universal Design in Physical Education
Differentiated Instruction
Process of Adapting Activities
Types of Adaptation
Summary
Chapter 7: Support Personnel
Peer Tutors
Paraeducators
Senior Citizens
College Students
Summary
Chapter 8: Transition Planning
Dr. Amaury Samalot-Rivera
Transition Services and the IEP
Functional Approach in Transition Planning
Transition Activities for Effective Social Inclusion
Assessment in Transition
Summary
Part II: Strategies for Inclusion
Chapter 9: Basic Skills
Balance
Body Awareness
Hula Hoops
Jump Rope
Locomotor Skills
Object Control Skills
Cooperative Games
Parachute Activities
Rhythmic Skills
Scooter Board Activities
Chapter 10: Sport Skills
Softball
Basketball
Soccer
Tennis
Badminton
Flag Football
Golf
Gymnastics
Track and Field
Volleyball
Wrestling
Chapter 11: Recreation and Leisure Skills
Backpacking and Hiking
Bowling
Fishing
Rock Climbing
Skating and In-Line Skating
Canoeing
Line Dancing
Martial Arts
Yoga
Dancing
Paddleboarding
Spikeball
Chapter 12: Health and Fitness
Aerobics
Swimming
Weight Training
Cross-Country Skiing
Fitness Activities
Appendix A: Disabilities in Kid Terms
Appendix B: Special Education Terminology
Appendix C: Brockport Aquatic Skills Checklist
Lauren J. Lieberman, PhD, is a distinguished service professor at the College at Brockport, State University of New York. She has taught higher education since 1995 and previously taught in the Deafblind Program at Perkins School for the Blind. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in adapted physical education. She is on the editorial board of the Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (JOPERD).
Lieberman has written 20 books on adapted physical education and more than 118 peer-reviewed articles. She started Camp Abilities, an overnight educational sports camp for children with visual impairments. This camp is now replicated in 18 states and eight countries.
Lieberman is past chair of the Adapted Physical Activity Council (APAC). She is currently on the board of the division of recreation and sport for the Association for the Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired (AER), and she serves on the board of the United States Association of Blind Athletes (USABA). She acts as a consultant for the American Printing House for the Blind and the New York Deaf-Blind Collaborative. In her leisure time, she enjoys playing Ultimate Frisbee, biking, running, kayaking, hiking, and playing the guitar.
Cathy Houston-Wilson, PhD, is a professor at the College at Brockport, State University of New York. She also serves as chairperson for the department of kinesiology, sport studies, and physical education. Cathy has taught in higher education since 1993, teaching classes in adapted physical education and pedagogy. She is a frequent presenter on adapted physical education (APE) at conferences and workshops and provides in-service training on APE to school districts across New York State. Houston-Wilson has taught APE in a residential facility as well as in public schools. She is past president of the adapted physical education section of New York State AHPERD, and she is past president and a current board member of Phi Epsilon Kappa. In addition, she is actively involved in a variety of community-based activities, including Lifetime Assistance, an agency dedicated to serving individuals with developmental disabilities; SportsNet, an agency dedicated to providing sport opportunities for individuals with disabilities; Brockport Community Rowing Club, a club of which she is president and a founding member; and Camp Koinonia, a faith-based camp for families. In her leisure time, she enjoys accompanying her youngest daughter to Irish dance competitions, practicing yoga, and coaching a highly competitive girls soccer team.
Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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Learn more about Strategies for Inclusion With Web Resource, Third Edition.
Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education.
Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One component of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding. This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabilities should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g., accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities. This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law 108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruction can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals. This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and individual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service. Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education (Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education. New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education. Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions, however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist; a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations, participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a disability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so. Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary, students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical education, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.
Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA
- 34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
- physical and motor skills;
- fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
- skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).
- 20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This includes
- instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings; and
- instruction in physical education.
- 34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies comply with the following:
- a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabilities and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the same grades.
- b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to nondisabled children unless
- the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
- the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the child's IEP.
- c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed in a child's IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through other public or private programs.
- d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
Placement Options in Physical Education
The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion. When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education. Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, specific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.
A. Inclusion Options
- Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
- Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
- Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
- Full inclusion with paraeducators
- Full inclusion with specialists
- Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers
B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement Options
- Split placement without additional support
- Split placement with additional support
C. Community-Based Placement Options
- Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
- Full-time community-based placement
D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular School District
- Self-contained placement with no additional support
- Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a disability)
- Paraeducator one-to-one support
E. Other Placement Options
- Day school for specific disabilities
- Residential school for specific disabilities
- Home schooling
- Institution
- Hospital
The least restrictive placement for this student is with a peer tutor who provides physical assistance.
Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes. See chapter 3 for more information on placement.
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Functional Approach in Transition Planning
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education.
The functional approach in transition planning is used to create appropriate goals in physical education. This model is based off the work of Flexer et al. (2013) and incorporates legal requirements and best practices in special education. When creating transition goals, consider the following:
- The student's needs, interests, and preferences
- How achievement will be measured
- Coordinated activities that can be included
- How the goals promote movement from school to community
Figure 8.1 provides the steps for creating a transition program in physical education. Through this process, you can assist students with disabilities in preparing for healthy, active lives in the community. Figure 8.2 provides an example of a suggested ITP in adapted physical education that aligns with the six steps presented in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Functional approach to transition planning.
Step 1: Assess student interest.
- Determine the availability of programs, services, and facilities related to sport, recreation, and physical activities in the community.
- Ask students about their interests in sport, recreation, and physical activities (provide various options and examples to assist students in the assessment process).
- Ask parents about the interests and goals they have for the child regarding sport, recreation, and physical activities.
Step 2: Establish long-term transition goals.
- Based on the information obtained in step 1, develop long-term goals related to desired outcomes.
- Share the long-term goals with the student and family.
- If necessary, adjust goals based on feedback.
Step 3: Determine present level of performance.
- Determine the student's current level of function related to the desired outcomes.
- Evaluate the skill set needed in relation to the environment, the task, and the unique attributes of the student.
Step 4: Create short-term objectives to meet long-term goals.
- Identify sequential steps needed to achieve long-term goals.
- Readjust as necessary along the way (e.g., if the goals are too easy or too challenging).
Step 5: Evaluate student progress and modify as needed.
- Assess the student's abilities.
- If student achievement is below the established goal, modify activities to promote opportunities for success.
Step 6: Reassess and determine continuing or future goals.
- Reassess the student's performance at the end of the academic year and compare it to long-term goals.
- Identify areas that need further development.
- Identify future long-term goals if possible.
This student is learning the prerequisite skills for bowling in the community.
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Authentic Assessment
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives.
Researchers have indicated that standardized testing protocols may present challenges in adapted physical education. For example, Block (2016) noted that outcomes from standardized tests have been misused in determining IEP goals and objectives. In addition, some standardized tests do not provide an instructional link to the PE curriculum (Good, 2014), and some items are not functional in relation to PE goals and objectives. For example, although the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), is considered a blue-ribbon standardized test for determining the need for special education services (such as adapted physical education), components of this test bear little relation to typical PE curriculum content (e.g., stringing beads [fine motor skill], stopping a falling ruler [reaction time]). Their value should not be minimized, however, because these tasks are used to develop an overall picture of the child's motor proficiency. Although standardized tests are useful, other forms of assessment need to be used to provide content-specific data. Authentic assessment fills this gap.
Authentic assessment is an ongoing feedback system that monitors and records student learning and outcomes under authentic conditions. Authentic assessment is conducted in real-life situations, and it gives students opportunities to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and competencies in age-appropriate, functional activities. It is a performance-based approach to testing, which means that students are evaluated on skills that are directly related to outcomes of the program. The results provide unparalleled information about students' learning and achievement. Many in the teaching field agree that this assessment technique should be infused into the teaching process (Lund & Veal, 2013).
The benefits of authentic assessment include the following:
- Authentic assessment can be used in the current curriculum.
- It is created specifically for the goals and objectives of each unit.
- It can be created in a way that includes every level of ability in the class.
- Students know what is expected ahead of time.
- Students are held accountable for their own learning.
- It is motivating and challenging, and it keeps students interested in learning.
Authentic assessment is a clear, concise, measurable, and motivating way of assessing student learning, improvement, and achievement. Authentic assessment uses tasks that are based on content and situational criteria; as a result, students must rely on higher-level thinking and concept application to complete tasks. In addition, because the assessed skills are directly tied to the curriculum, students are informed in advance and have time to practice the skills. This advance knowledge gives students ownership of the process. They can prepare mentally and physically for testing and thus perform at the highest competency level (Mitchell & Walton-Fisette, 2016). The following sections describe several kinds of authentic assessment.
Rubrics
A rubric is a form of assessment used to measure the attainment of skills, knowledge, or performance against a consistent set of criteria. Rubrics are designed to be explicit, observable, and measurable. Scoring relies heavily on the qualitative aspects of a task and generally assigns a numbering system or checklist that yields quantitative data. In some cases, rubrics may be scored based on the levels of physical assistance students with disabilities need to perform the task.
You can develop rubrics for each unit of instruction, and they can easily be individualized based on the learners and the intended objectives. The rubric can cover a wide range of abilities and accommodate heterogeneous classes by including multiple levels of achievement. Rubrics are also useful in developing a progressive curriculum in which students must attain prerequisite levels of a skill before they move on to more advanced forms of the skill. This process can help ensure the safety of the learners. Rubrics allow students to become more independent learners because they are given the rubric at the start of the unit, which allows them to know what is expected. This system enhances motivation in learning because students strive to reach the highest level possible for each given skill set. Rubrics also promote the use of self-assessment and peer assessment, which encourage students to work together to improve performance.
Rubrics should be created with all students in mind. Every rubric should be universally designed and developed with the heterogeneity of the class in mind. For rubrics, universal design is a process whereby consideration is given to all learners before creating a task rather than having to change something that has already been created. (See chapter 6 for a more thorough explanation of universal design.) Students with the highest and the lowest skills should be able to achieve and improve using the class rubric. In order to do this, there must be small variations between rubric levels and a wide range of options for all students. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are sample rubrics that are universally designed.
Students with disabilities should be included in a GPE class and assessed on their individual skill levels.
Ecological Task Analysis
Another form of authentic assessment that has been used with students with disabilities is ecological task analysis (ETA) (Horvat, Block, & Kelly, 2007). ETA provides students with choices for executing skills. You set the parameters or objectives, and students make choices on how best to meet the objectives based on their abilities. Some choices from which students choose include equipment, distance, time, with or without a partner, and individually or in a group, to name a few. Teachers observe and maintain data about these behaviors, and use the data to continually challenge students within their comfort levels. The following is an example of ETA for striking a ball:
- Present the task goal: striking or propelling a ball.
- Provide options such as size, color, and weight of the ball; size and weight of the bat; and use of batting tee, a thrown pitch, or a hanging ball.
- Document student choices (e.g., red ball off a tee with Wiffle bat).
- Manipulate task variables to further challenge the student (e.g., to a partner, to a location, or change the striking implement).
This system offers several advantages: You learn what movement forms and equipment are most comfortable for the student, the student starts out with success, and you know that the student is being realistically challenged because you set the task goal. There are no right or wrong choices for equipment or execution of performance; however, the type of equipment made available limits the student's choices (Carson, Bulger, & Townsend, 2007). ETA is used to determine preferences and skill level and is a starting point in deciding how to further challenge the student (Mitchell & Oslin, 2007).
Consider this example that illustrates the concept. Felicia is a middle school student with mild intellectual disability, and her class is participating in a volleyball unit. Felicia is being taught the underhand serve and is given a choice between a beach ball, a volleyball trainer, and a regulation volleyball. She is also given a choice about how far from the net she will be when she serves; tape marks are placed on the floor in 1-foot (0.3-meter) increments from the net to the serving line. She chooses a beach ball and serves from a line located 2 feet (0.6 meters) from the net. Based on these choices, the teacher now knows that Felicia is a beginner. The teacher can further refine Felicia's skills and slowly work toward using smaller and harder balls until Felicia feels comfortable making an underhand serve from the service line with a regulation volleyball.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a compilation of a student's best work; as such, it reflects a student's progress toward physical literacy (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011; Melograno, 2006). Portfolios are also the most promising method of exhibiting and recording student performances. Because they reflect the outcomes of performance in each domain (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective), they provide a broad overview that gives teachers, parents, and learners a genuine picture of achievement. The visual presentation of student performance can be used as a motivational tool, a method of communication with the family, a means for grading, and a vehicle for program promotion. Portfolios can be used to chart progress in all domains over the course of a unit, a semester, a year, or a period of multiple years (Melograno, 2006). Following are examples of items that can be included in a portfolio:
- Journals
- Self-reflections or self-assessments
- Rubrics, checklists, or rating scales
- Peer evaluations
- Fitness, cognitive, or affective tests
- Articles, article critiques, or collages
- Videos
- Skill analyses
- Game statistics
- Special individual and group projects
- Teacher comments
- Interest surveys
Portfolio entries can be made to reflect progress each day, or specific achievements can be added when they occur. Students can be evaluated on portfolio contents in various ways depending on the age of the student and the content and purpose of the portfolio. If the portfolio is used as an evaluation or grading tool, you can give an objective point or percentage value to contents in each domain to produce a composite score. For example, the portfolio can be divided into sections such as psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and physical fitness. Within each section, point values can be attached to each item. Portfolio scores can then be generated based on the portfolio contents.
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