In an age when information is everywhere, the challenge is finding safe, effective, and evidence-based science. Cue the National Strength and Conditioning Association, the world’s leading organization in strength and conditioning. The first release of Strength Training redefined exercise instruction with no-nonsense, straightforward science. Now the new second edition raises that bar even further.
Written by a team of experts chosen by the NSCA, Strength Training combines the most valuable information with best instruction for proven results:
• Assessing strength to personalize programs
• Incorporating new exercises and equipment for increased intensity
• Increasing muscle mass as well as strength, power, and muscular endurance
• Preventing injuries
• Improving performance
Serving more than 30,000 members from the sport science, athletic, allied health, and fitness industries, the NSCA is the authoritative source on strength training. Now the proven techniques developed by these renowned experts are available to you.
Whether you’re launching a lifting program or fine-tuning a serious training regimen, Strength Training will fill any knowledge void and correct the misconceptions to ensure proper technique, safety, and progressions. Multiple program options for specific machines, free weights, body weight, and other types of apparatus provide the flexibility to tailor your training to personal preferences or needs. It’s the authoritative guide from the world’s authority on strength training.
Earn continuing education credits/units! A continuing education course and exam that uses this book is also available. It may be purchased separately or as part of a package that includes all the course materials and exam.
Part I: The Origin of Strength
Chapter 1. Muscle Anatomy 101
Chapter 2. How Muscle Grows
Chapter 3. Types of Muscle Training
Chapter 4. Nutrition for Muscle Growth
Part II: Resistance Training Guidelines
Chapter 5. Strength Assessment
Chapter 6. Types of Strength and Power Training
Chapter 7. Workout Schedule and Rest
Chapter 8. Safety, Soreness, and Injury
Part III: Exercise Technique
Chapter 9. Upper Body Exercises
Chapter 10. Lower Body Exercises
Chapter 11. Torso Exercises
Chapter 12. Explosive Movements
Part IV: Sample Programs
Chapter 13. Beginner Programs
Chapter 14. Intermediates Programs
Chapter 15. Advanced Programs
Chapter 16. Youth Programs
Chapter 17. Senior Programs
The National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) is the world’s leading organization in the field of sport conditioning. Drawing on the resources and expertise of the most recognized professionals in strength training and conditioning, sport science, performance research, education, and sports medicine, the NSCA is the world’s trusted source of knowledge and training guidelines for coaches and athletes. The NSCA provides the crucial link between the lab and the field.
"Strength Training is a valuable resource for anyone who wants to maximize their muscular fitness. Written by top experts in the field, it provides a thorough overview of the underlying science of resistance exercise as well as discussing practical approaches to achieve optimal results. Highly recommended!"
Brad Schoenfeld, PhD, CSCS, CSPS, FNSCA-- Author of Science and Development of Muscle Hypertrophy and Strong & Sculpted
“The second edition of the NSCA’s Strength Training provides excellent coverage of the science of developing strength, resistance training guidelines, exercise technique, and practical programming. It is a must have for all in the strength and conditioning industry and those who are serious about their training.”
G. Gregory Haff, Ph.D., C.S.C.S.*D, FNSCA-- Associate Professor, Master of Exercise Science (Strength and Conditioning)
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Supplements
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete.
Several nutritional supplements are marketed with claims of increasing muscular strength and size, but many of these claims lack scientific support. Investing in these ineffective supplements may be a waste of money for the strength athlete. However, evidence supports the use of some supplements, such as creatine, branched-chain amino acids, and L-carnitine; these supplements may be beneficial to the strength athlete when used correctly. In a survey of Division I athletes, 89 percent had used or currently were using nutritional supplements, including sport drinks and bars. Additionally, about 47 percent consumed a multivitamin, and 37 percent used a creatine supplement.
Creatine
Creatine is an amino acid derivative (from arginine, glycine, and methionine) that is available in meats and fish and is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Because creatine plays a critical role in ATP metabolism, creatine supplementation theoretically increases the bioavailability of phosphocreatine (PCr) in skeletal muscle cells, enhancing muscle performance. Having more available PCr facilitates the resynthesis of ATP to provide energy for brief, high-intensity exercise (e.g., resistance training). This results in a better match between ATP supply and demand. PCr may also increase the force of muscular contraction and delay fatigue during anaerobic exercise by buffering the intracellular hydrogen ions formed with lactate production.
The amount of creatine in human skeletal muscle normally ranges between 90 and 160 mmoles per kilogram of muscle in dry muscle. The effectiveness of creatine supplementation appears to vary with these baseline levels; the greatest advantage is observed in those with the lowest baseline levels. Although anecdotal evidence suggests that increased muscle cramping occurs with creatine supplementation, no serious side effects have been scientifically verified.
More than two dozen studies have reported that creatine supplementation enhances the development of lean body mass and muscle strength in response to resistance training. This increased muscle strength and mass could be attributable to several mechanisms, including an effect on protein metabolism, synthesis, and transcriptional expression at the genetic level. Research supports this theory: Five-day oral dosages of 20 grams per day have been shown to increase muscle creatine availability by 20 percent and significantly accelerate PCr regeneration after intense muscle contraction. Significant enhancement of performance - both brief, high-intensity work and total time to exhaustion - has been observed in male athletes using creatine supplementation of 20 to 30 grams per day.
Long-term creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance the progress of muscle strength during resistance training in sedentary males and females. Twelve weeks of creatine supplementation enhances fat-free mass, physical performance, and muscle morphology in healthy men in response to heavy resistance training. This likely is attributable to higher-quality training sessions. Short-term creatine loading results in enhancement of both maximal strength and weightlifting performance. Therefore, part of the ergogenic (performance enhancing) effect of creatine shown in studies is likely attributable to this acute effect and part likely is attributable to the ability to train with higher workloads (although the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain unclear).
Branched-Chain Amino Acids
Branched-chain amino acids include three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that are needed to maintain muscle and preserve glycogen. Branched-chain amino acids are found naturally in foods such as dairy products, meat, whey, and eggs. Because of their role in muscle metabolism, branched-chain amino acids sometimes are isolated and consumed as a dietary supplement. In a study of branched-chain amino acid supplementation during four weeks of resistance training overreaching (defined earlier), initial reductions in strength and power were attenuated.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine is synthesized in the human liver and kidneys and is found in meats and dairy products. L-carnitine (the supplement form of carnitine) is thought to benefit exercise performance because it spares muscle glycogen by increasing free fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes, thus increasing fatty acid oxidation and use for energy. L-carnitine also appears to delay fatigue by reducing muscle lactate accumulation associated with exercise.
Some studies have shown a decreased respiratory exchange ratio - the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs - with L-carnitine supplementation (2-6 grams per day) during exercise, suggesting that fatty acids rather than carbohydrate were used for energy. However, another study measuring muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations directly through biopsy and serum analysis failed to demonstrate any glycogen-sparing effect or reductions in lactate concentrations while supplementing with 6 grams per day of L-carnitine. Supplementation of L-carnitine L-tartrate (a source of L-carnitine when split into L-carnitine and L-tartaric acid in the body) in healthy men for three weeks has been shown to reduce the amount of exercise-induced muscle tissue damage, leave a greater number of receptors intact for hormonal interactions, reduce the level of muscle soreness, and result in less of an increase in markers of muscle damage and free radicals (atoms or compounds with unpaired electrons, which are thought to cause cellular damage).
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Injury
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation.
An injury occurs when a tissue (e.g., ligament, tendon, muscle, or bone) is subjected to an acute or chronic load that is too great. The damage triggers a response commonly referred to as inflammation. Inflammation is misunderstood and often seen as negative, when in actuality inflammation is a bodily response that removes injured tissue and repairs damage. When the body incurs an injury, a cascade of chemical reactions occurs as the body begins to repair the damaged tissue. Inflammation, heat, and redness often are symptoms of this healing process. Therefore, inflammation is the body's way of healing. However, acute inflammation is different from chronic or excessive inflammation, which often is a sign of a larger problem. If inflammation lasts longer than several days or is excessive in severity, you should see your doctor.
The general signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function. Pain indicates that an injury has occurred, and further stress will cause more damage. Swelling prevents normal function and creates a natural splint that protects the damaged tissue. However, each individual and injury are different, and signs and symptoms may not be present to the same degree. Signs and symptoms typically are more intense at the onset of injury and diminish as the injury begins to heal. Signs are objective indications of injury, whereas symptoms are subjective indications. For example, redness is a sign that a medical professional could see, but pain is a symptom that only the injured party can feel.
It is important to recognize any recurring signs and symptoms when considering a return to activity. Are signs and symptoms increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? If an injury is subjected to too much stress before it heals properly, the body may reinitiate the inflammatory response. No exact timetable for healing exists. Depending on the type of tissue and amount of trauma, signs and symptoms can increase for 48 to 72 hours and may persist for months or even years. Therefore, the old adage of "work through the pain" should be avoided when an injury has occurred.
The PRICE Method of Injury Management
PRICE is an acronym for a commonly accepted injury management protocol: protect, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The PRICE protocol can be enacted when an injury presents with excessive pain, swelling, or inflammation. Protect the injury from further stress or loading. Although swelling creates a natural splint, the area can be protected further with the application of padding or a brace. Rest the injured area to prevent further trauma and to allow the healing processes to occur. Ice provides pain relief and other anti-inflammatory effects. Compression, generally with an elastic bandage, helps resolve swelling. Elevating the body part above the level of the heart counteracts the effects of gravity and supports the gains of rest and compression.
The practice of PRICE is warranted in the acute management of injury, but modifications may need to occur as healing progresses. For example, active motion helps align healing tissues and should be incorporated as signs and symptoms begin to lessen. Although it is critical that injured tissues are provided an ample amount of rest to heal, active rest can help prepare the body to return to activity as well as prevent excessive loss of muscular gains due to immobilization or decreased loading.
The application of ice or other cold agents has been shown to reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, causing vessels to constrict and nerve conduction to decrease. Although this helps attenuate the symptoms of inflammation, constricting vessels can lead to decreased delivery of the substances necessary for healing and may impede the process. No definitive evidence suggests that cold agents are detrimental; at the same time, no evidence shows that they are beneficial in injury management.
Dealing With Muscle Soreness
Unfortunately, muscular soreness is something that often comes with the territory when you begin resistance training. This soreness is the result of the muscle undergoing unfamiliar stress. Although the actual physiological processes involved in producing this soreness are not completely understood, the most likely theory is that unaccustomed exercise actually leads to microscopic tears in the muscle cells. These tears produce swelling, pain, inflammation, and loss of motion in the muscle, leading to decreased or altered function and to stiffness. These symptoms can begin as soon as a few hours after a resistance training session but often will not peak until 48 to 72 hours later. For this reason, the soreness associated with any type of resistance exercise is referred to as delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
The lack of understanding of the specific processes resulting in DOMS provides us with little ability to treat or prevent it. Rather, we attempt to manage the symptoms of pain and swelling. Ice, heat compresses, stretching, and ibuprofen have been used to treat DOMS. Unfortunately, none of these regimens have resulted in universal success.
One thing we know about DOMS is that it occurs to a lesser and lesser degree as resistance training is repeated. This is known as the repeated bout effect. Although you may experience significant discomfort after your first few training sessions, this discomfort is drastically reduced as you continue to train.
DOMS occurs to a greater degree when exercise is intense and is especially evident after intense eccentric training. Therefore, it is recommended that beginners work out with less intensity than intermediate and advanced lifters and minimize eccentric muscle actions in their routines. There is no reason for beginners to start their training with high-intensity workouts when they can accomplish significant gains with lower intensities and, in doing so, reduce the degree of DOMS.
It generally is recommended that lifters wait for the soreness of a prior workout session to fade before lifting again. DOMS acutely reduces strength and diminishes effort, which decreases the quality of a workout and increases the chance of injury. A lifter will be able to return to training without decrements in strength once the soreness is resolved. However, strength and DOMS return to normal levels at different times. Therefore, DOMS is not always a valid indicator of when to return to lifting. Research has shown that although strength may return to normal after 24 to 48 hours, DOMS may persist for 72 hours or longer, especially in beginners.
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Barbell upright row
Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
Medial deltoid, upper trapezius
Starting Position
- Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, maintaining upright posture with the knees slightly bent.
- Grip the bar with the hands approximately shoulder-width apart or slightly wider and the palms facing the thighs.
Action
- Initiate the movement by bending at the elbows while simultaneously shrugging the shoulders. Raise the hands to shoulder level.
- Keep the barbell close to the body and the elbows pointed outward.
- Do not jerk the body or use momentum to swing the barbell upward.
- Briefly pause with the hands fully raised while squeezing the shoulders. Begin the descent to the starting position. (At the highest position, the elbows should be level with or slightly higher than the shoulders and wrists.)
- Lower the shoulders while simultaneously extending at the elbows to return to the starting position before beginning the next repetition.
Save
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.
Medicine ball overhead reach
Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
Rectus abdominis
Starting Position
- Sit slightly to the front of the top of a stability ball, with the torso at about a 45-degree angle.
- Hold a medicine ball directly in front of the torso with the arms straight.
Action
- Keeping the arms straight and the spine neutral, slowly raise the medicine ball upward until it is directly overhead or until it reaches a level just before the torso position cannot be maintained.
- Slowly return to the starting position following the same path used for the upward movement.
Tips
- Avoid using a medicine ball that is too heavy.
- Keep the abdominal muscles tight.
- Although this movement actively uses the shoulders, the muscles of the torso are extremely involved in an effort to stabilize the body and control the movement.
Save
Learn more about Strength Training, Second Edition.