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Essentials of Youth Fitness
by Avery Faigenbaum, Rhodri Lloyd, Jon Oliver and American College of Sports Medicine
448 Pages
This is a must-have resource for professionals working with young clients. Readers will learn the scientific theories behind youth training as well as how to apply them to help design effective programs that maximize creativity, engagement, and fun.
This seminal resource is broken into three parts to systematically bridge the gap between science and practice. Part I lays the groundwork for understanding fundamental concepts of pediatric exercise science, including physiology, growth and maturation, long-term athletic development, and pedagogical strategies.
Part II is devoted to the assessment of youth fitness and development of fitness components, including motor skill, strength and power, speed and agility, and aerobic and anaerobic fitness, and it features a chapter on designing integrative training programs. This practical section will demonstrate the impact of factors specific to youth on fitness, and it will teach readers how to design programs to meet the needs of youth of varying abilities and different stages of development. Sample training sessions with accompanying exercise photos within each chapter offer clear visual guidelines for implementing exercises correctly.
Part III delves into modern-day topics specific to the youth population, including participation in organized sports and injury concerns; overweight and obese youth; those diagnosed with clinical conditions such as diabetes, asthma, and physical and mental disabilities; and the role of nutrition in healthy lifestyle habits.
Learning aids throughout the text enhance comprehension and enable practitioners to quickly locate important information. Chapter objectives and key terms reinforce learning, while Teaching Tip boxes contextualize important themes and Do You Know? boxes illustrate practical application of the content.
Combining the science of pediatric exercise with the practice of designing youth fitness programs, Essentials of Youth Fitness provides professionals with the information necessary to create a safe, effective exercise experience that sparks an ongoing interest in active play, exercise, and sports participation.
Earn continuing education credits/units! A continuing education exam that uses this book is also available. It may be purchased separately or as part of a package that includes both the book and exam.
Chapter 1. Physical Activity and Children’s Health
Chapter 2. Principles of Pediatric Exercise Science
Chapter 3. Growth, Maturation, and Physical Fitness
Chapter 4. Long-Term Athletic Development
Chapter 5. Pedagogy for Youth Fitness Specialists
Part II. Youth Fitness Development
Chapter 6. Assessing Youth Fitness
Chapter 7. Dynamic Warm-Up and Flexibility
Chapter 8. Motor Skill Training
Chapter 9. Strength and Power Training
Chapter 10. Speed and Agility Training
Chapter 11. Aerobic and Anaerobic Training
Chapter 12. Integrative Program Design
Part III. Contemporary Issues
Chapter 13. Young Athletes and Sport Participation
Chapter 14. Exercise for Overweight and Obese Youth
Chapter 15. Exercise for Youth With Selected Clinical Conditions
Chapter 16. Nutrition for Youth
The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), founded in 1954, is the largest sports medicine and exercise science organization in the world. With more than 50,000 members and certified professionals worldwide, ACSM is dedicated to improving health through science, education, and medicine. ACSM members work in a wide range of medical specialties, allied health professions, and scientific disciplines. Members are committed to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of sport-related injuries and the advancement of the science of exercise. The ACSM promotes and integrates scientific research, education, and practical applications of sports medicine and exercise science to maintain and enhance physical performance, fitness, health, and quality of life.
Avery Faigenbaum, EdD, is a full professor in the department of health and exercise science at The College of New Jersey. His research interests focus on pediatric exercise science, resistance exercise, and preventive medicine, and he is devoted to bridging the gap between the laboratory and the playing field. As an active researcher and practitioner, Faigenbaum has coauthored over 240 peer-reviewed publications, 45 book chapters, and 10 books, including Youth Strength Training, Strength and Power for Young Athletes, and Progressive Plyometrics for Kids. He has been an invited speaker at more than 300 conferences throughout the world.
Faigenbaum is a fellow of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and of the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), and he serves as associate editor of Pediatric Exercise Science and the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. He was elected vice president of the NSCA in 2005 and served on the Massachusetts Governor’s Committee on Physical Fitness and Sports from 1998 to 2004. Faigenbaum was awarded the Boyd Epley Award for Lifetime Achievement from the NSCA in 2017.
Rhodri Lloyd, PhD, is a reader in pediatric strength and conditioning and the chair of the Youth Physical Development Centre at Cardiff Metropolitan University. He also holds a research associate position with Auckland University of Technology. Lloyd’s research interests surround the impact of growth and maturation on long-term athletic development and the neuromuscular mechanisms underpinning training adaptations in youth. To date he has published in excess of 90 peer-reviewed publications and more than 20 book chapters on the topics of youth fitness and pediatric strength and conditioning. He is a senior associate editor for the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research and an associate editor for the Strength and Conditioning Journal. In 2016, he received the Strength and Conditioning Coach of the Year award for research and education from the UK Strength and Conditioning Association, and in 2017 he was awarded the Terry J. Housh Outstanding Young Investigator Award from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). In 2019, he was again recognized by the NSCA, receiving both the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research Editorial Excellence Award and Educator of the Year Award.
Jon Oliver, PhD, is a professor of applied pediatric exercise science at Cardiff Metropolitan University, where he cofounded the Youth Physical Development Centre. He is also an adjunct professor at the Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ). His research focuses on youth physical development across performance, injury, and health perspectives, with an emphasis on the role of strength and conditioning to promote athletic development at all levels. He has published over 100 international peer-reviewed articles, contributed to international position and consensus statements, and authored numerous book chapters. Oliver’s research has been influential in informing both academics and practitioners on factors related to the development of physical fitness in youth. This has included developing coach education materials for professional sports organizations and national governing bodies. His research is supported by a network of research students and is built on collaborations with professional sports organizations and pediatric exercise scientists, both in the United Kingdom and in other countries.
Should youth sample or specialize?
Sampling can be defined as an approach that encourages children to experience a number of different sports or activities with qualified instruction, or a number of different positions within a sport. Arguments in favor of sampling note that it does not restrict elite development in sports where peak performance is typically witnessed after maturation; it is associated with longer sporting careers and facilitates long-term participation in sport; it positively affects youth development; and deliberate play serves as a foundation for intrinsic motivation and provides a range of motor and cognitive experiences (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). In contrast, early specialization involves intensive year-round training in a single sport from a young age, which likely limits the child's exposure to a breadth of sporting activities (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016). Although researchers and youth fitness specialists have debated the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches for youth development, concerns are now growing about the inherent risks associated with early specialization (see figure 4.1) (LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2015b; Myer et al., 2015).
Figure 4.1 Potential negative consequences of early sport specialization.
Based on data from Jayanthi et al. (2011); Fleisig, Andrews, Cutter, et al. (2011); Barynina and Vaitsekhoskii (1992); Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, and Myer (2015); Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011); Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012); Law et al. (2007); Gould et al. (1996); and Wall and Cote (2007).
Despite support for sampling, it is not uncommon for youth to specialize in a single sport from an early age (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016) where apparent benefits of early specialization are promoted. It is now acknowledged, however, that early specialization potentially increases injury rates, likelihood of burnout, and eventual disengagement from sport and physical activity (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; DiFiori et al., 2014; Feeley, Agel, & LaPrade, 2016). One particular concern focuses on the increasing incidence of overuse injuries related to participation in a single sport or a single position in a sport (DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Specialization subjects children to high volumes of repetitive training that promote the monotonous development of a narrow range of movement patterns and provides insufficient opportunities for rest, recovery, and adaptation. Such an approach to physical development can lead to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system, which may result in overuse injury (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; Stein & Micheli, 2010). For example, research indicates that when a high volume of baseball pitching is completed in the absence of developmentally appropriate preparatory physical conditioning, the risk of overuse injury in the shoulder or elbow is likely to increase in young athletes (Fleisig et al., 2011; Iyer, Thapa, Khanna, & Chew, 2012; Olsen, Fleisig, Dun, Loftice, & Andrews, 2006).
Beyond the importance of sampling with qualified instruction to reduce the risks of overuse injury, sampling is also central to the development of athleticism. Fundamental movement skills and requisite levels of muscular strength serve as the building blocks for global, more complex movements at a later stage of development (Cattuzzo et al., 2016; Deli, Bakle, & Zachopoulou, 2006; Hulteen, Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016). Therefore, for all children, possessing competence in a breadth of movement skills is more important than acquiring a depth of mastery in a very narrow range of skills.
For example, early-maturing children who are taller and stronger than peers may be encouraged to play the center position on a high school basketball team. However, even if they succeed, they risk developing only a finite number of movement competencies that are specific to that position if they engage only in sport- and position-specific practice sessions and competitive basketball matches from an early age. In addition, they will typically be at a heightened risk of developing muscular imbalances and asynchronous movement discrepancies, which, in the absence of targeted training programs to address neuromuscular deficiencies, will fail to prepare them for the demands of sport practice and competition. In such cases, though they may develop proficiency in basketball-specific skills, their athleticism and ability to use transferable motor skills in different positions, different sport environments, and different physical activities will likely be reduced, both on the playground and in sport settings.
We also find a need for sampling when we take a global health perspective on helping young people develop a broad range of movement skills in order to promote a satisfactory level of physical literacy. This notion is supported by research showing that children who possess, or perceive themselves as possessing, competent fundamental movement skills are more likely to engage in sport and physical activity, both throughout childhood (Fransen et al., 2014; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012) and into adulthood (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Stodden, Langendorfer, & Roberton, 2009). In addition, motor skill competence has been shown to be inversely associated with overweight and obesity during childhood (D'Hondt et al., 2013; D'Hondt et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2012; Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012). Moreover, motor skill competence appears to decline over time (D'Hondt et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2015; Rodrigues, Stodden, & Lopes, 2016; Stodden, True, Langendorfer, & Gao, 2013), thus highlighting the critical importance of early engagement in appropriate training for long-term athletic development.
Empirical data have shown that specializing later and being exposed to lower volumes of deliberate practice early in life act as significant determinants of elite performance in adulthood (Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). Specifically, the authors collected retrospective data about the careers of a sample of 243 Danish athletes from sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds (e.g., track and field, weightlifting, swimming). The data showed that elite athletes (those who achieved a top-10 finish in a world championship or medaled at the European level) accumulated fewer hours of practice in their “main sport” during childhood and adolescence than did near-elite athletes (see figure 4.2). In the study, age at the time of first competition was about 14.5 years for elite athletes and 12.4 years for non-elite athletes. Overall, the study indicates that athletes who accumulate more hours of specialized practice and focus on competitions at an earlier age may initially experience relative success yet be unable to maintain it as they grow older. The study also showed that elite athletes intensified their training toward the end of adolescence, which resulted in a higher accumulation of training hours around the time of early adulthood (Moesch et al., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Comparison of accumulated hours of practice during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood between elite and near-elite athletes.
Based on data from Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011).
Research also shows that greater sport diversification in early years and later specialization leads to improved physical fitness performance and superior gross motor coordination in 6- to 12-year-old boys (Fransen et al., 2012). In a sample of 735 boys, individuals were categorized as either single-sport or multisport participants. Across all three age groups (6-8, 8-10, and 10-12 years), boys involved in multiple sports spent more time on sport per week (on average, one or two additional hours). More specifically, the research reported two key findings for the 10- to 12-year-olds: Those who participated in more hours of sport per week performed better than those who participated only periodically, and those who specialized in a single sport performed significantly worse in terms of gross motor coordination and standing broad jump tests (see figure 4.3). Combined, these findings suggest that youth benefit from greater exposure to a variety of sport and physical activities (tempered with appropriate rest and preparatory conditioning) and that early specialization can lead to reduced physical performance and a blunting of motor coordination.
Figure 4.3 Performance in the standing broad jump (a) and motor skill quotient (b) for 10- to 12-year-old boys classified within either a specialization or a sampling cohort.
*Significant at P < 0.05
Data from Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012).
Aside from the potential benefits for physical performance, research has also shown that later specialization leads to reduced injury risk in adolescent females (Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, & Myer, 2015). Hall and colleagues (2015) showed that in a sample of 546 female youth athletes (comprising middle and high school years), early specialization increased the relative risk of knee-related injury by a factor of 1.5. Diagnoses included patellar tendinopathy and Osgood-Schlatter disease, the latter of which showed a fourfold increase in relative risk in single-sport specialized athletes versus multiple-sport athletes. These data show that diversification appears to be beneficial not only for physical performance but also for reducing the relative risk of injury in youth. Consequently, it would seem prudent for any long-term athletic development model to accommodate a diversification approach that enables children to sample a range of activities and sports before specializing in a single sport or activity at a later stage of development.
Youth coach's dozen
Effective pedagogy lies at the heart of any successful youth program. Although knowledge of pediatric exercise science and developmental psychology remain necessary as prerequisites for effective teaching, youth fitness specialists ultimately need to design and implement instructional methods that enhance the process of learning and discovery. Research has enhanced our understanding of effective instructional practices in the classroom, but it is up to us to adapt these fundamental principles to the practice of pediatric exercise science. We can find a useful framework for discussing the characteristics of successful exercise and sport professionals in the 5 Cs perspective on positive youth development—namely, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, 2011; Lerner et al., 2005).
The coach's dozen is a list of 12 principles that youth fitness professionals should consider when teaching children and adolescents (Faigenbaum & Meadors, 2016). Some of these principles are well supported by research (Ames, 1995; Bulger, Mohr, & Walls, 2002; Schickedanz, Schickedanz, Forsyth, & Forsyth, 2000), whereas others are based on practical experience in working with school-age youth in schools, fitness centers, and sport programs. The list is not meant to be definitive or comprehensive; rather, it is a collection of principles to help youth fitness specialists promote learning through safe, effective, and enjoyable instructional methods.
1. Ensure a safe exercise environment.
The exercise area must be spacious, uncluttered, well ventilated, and well lit. Exercise equipment should be in good working order and appropriate for the smaller body size of children and adolescents; participants should not use broken or malfunctioning equipment. Loose equipment such as dumbbells, weight plates, and medicine balls should be stored in proper locations. Participants should dress appropriately for the session, and practitioners should periodically review safety rules.
2. Stay connected.
The success of any exercise class or sport program depends largely on the leadership provided by instructors and coaches, who should stay connected to the participants in the program. Take the time to learn every child's name, address individual concerns, and show genuine interest in every participant. A child who makes friends, plays fair, and feels connected to the instructor or coach cannot at the same time be a child who routinely disrupts the program or engages in negative behavior. Encourage participants to ask questions; never use sarcasm. Just like substitute teachers in the classroom, substitute coaches who do not form partnerships with participants will have a very difficult time teaching youth and inspiring them to achieve personal goals. The best approach is for professionals to develop a positive rapport with participants and show that they care.
3. Be enthusiastic.
Youth fitness specialists should be positive and passionate about exercise, fitness, and sport. If coaches are not enthusiastic about teaching, then children will not be enthusiastic about learning. Enthusiasm is contagious and contributes to a positive learning environment. In turn, a positive learning environment contributes to participants' success, which is a powerful motivator for engaging in the desired activities with energy and vigor. Inspiring practitioners generally possess content knowledge, instructional experience, and genuine interest in helping all participants perform to the best of their abilities.
4. Foster creativity.
Youth exercise programs should be both stimulating and engaging while providing an opportunity for participants to develop a positive sense of self. Creativity is associated with physical fitness in children (Latorre Román, Pinillos, Pantoja Vallejo, & Berrios Aguayo, 2017), and efforts to encourage creativity are needed in order to reclaim opportunities for children and adolescents to use their imagination, collaborate with peers, and release their creative energy. Sadly, creative thinking appears to be declining in children (Kim, 2011), which is all the more reason that participants should be given opportunities to create new games and exercises that are safe, stimulating, and fun. Notwithstanding the importance of education and instruction, the creation of new games and exercises contributes to a mastery-oriented climate in which participants control the type of task engagement and overcome self-determined challenges as they apply learned skills in novel situations. For example, participants might create a new exercise with medicine balls or modify a game of tag that requires speed and agility. This type of instruction can enhance the learning experience and promote physical engagement during exercise classes and sport programs.
5. Understand the process.
In addition to teaching participants about the quantitative aspects of the program (e.g., sets, repetitions, training intensity), youth fitness specialists should also engage participants in activities that are both physically and mentally challenging (Collins et al., 2016). That is to say, both the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the movement experience should be considered when implementing and evaluating youth programs (Faigenbaum & Rial, 2018; Pesce, Faigenbaum, Goudas, & Tomporowski, 2018). Highly effective youth fitness specialists use instructional strategies that engage participants repeatedly throughout the practice session. When participants do something right, the practitioner should praise them; and if they do something wrong, the practitioner should help them understand that they are still liked as a person. The most important motives for youth are to demonstrate physical competence, gain social acceptance, and have fun.
6. Deliver clear instructions.
Successful youth fitness specialists are good listeners and exceptional communicators who understand individual needs and learning styles. In order to teach effectively, practitioners need to be concerned with how they deliver content to participants and how the participants react to that delivery. To help explain an exercise or game, a practitioner can use aids such as analogies, demonstrations, and coaching cues. The practitioner's tone, pronunciation, and choice of words can also influence participants' ability to understand lesson content. In some cases, it may be helpful to provide participants with an agenda for the activity period. Combining instructions with clear demonstrations and an organized lesson plan will likely yield the highest physical, cognitive, and affective benefits for participants (Tomporowski et al., 2011).
7. Diversify the portfolio.
The most stimulating youth programs encompass a variety of skills and activities that are developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fun. The outcome of a youth exercise program is determined by systematic and sensible progression of program variables over time, along with enthusiastic instruction. Most children find prolonged periods of monotonousaerobicexercise to be boring. Instead, youth should be exposed to an assortment of exercises and sport activities in a variety of settings with different people so that they can discover what they enjoy while maximizing their physical, psychological, and social development (Lloyd et al., 2014; Pesce et al., 2018).
8. Learn from mistakes.
Youth will inevitably make mistakes when they learn a new exercise or perform a complex skill. Instead of being viewed in a negative light, mistakes should be recognized as valuable parts of the learning process that provide opportunities for participants to become aware of what they know and what they need to improve. When participants correct their own mistakes or offer constructive feedback to a peer, they become engaged learners who are able to think for themselves. Consequently, instead of merely recognizing the strongest participants, or those who perform a complex movement correctly, practitioners should also acknowledge participants who learn from their mistakes, ask for advice, and offer meaningful assistance to others. Collaborative learning provides an opportunity for youth fitness specialists and participants alike to share ideas, learn from each other, and work toward a common goal. This type of engagement can facilitate the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve long-term objectives.
9. Be patient.
Although it may be tempting to look for quick fixes and rapidly advance youth through exercise protocols, sustained participation in exercise and sport is built on a solid foundation of general preparation (Haff, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2016). Therefore, youth fitness specialists need to be patient in their practice so that participants have time to develop basic movement patterns before progressing to more complex skills and advanced training techniques. Practitioners should also recognize individual differences and realize that progression or regression should be based on skill proficiency, disposition, and understanding of training principles. Patience is needed in order to correct technical errors and develop physical skills that properly prepare youth for the enduring demands of exercise and sport. In contrast, an impatient approach to teaching and training increases the risk of injury and limits participants' long-term potential.
10. Maximize recovery.
Designing programs foryouth of any age involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation) (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although any practitioner can make a child tired, successful youth fitness specialists understand and value the importance of developing high-quality movement patterns and enhancing the learning experience through less intense training sessions and appropriate recovery strategies. A training and recovery schedule that is well planned and well balanced improves participants' learning and the program's overall effectiveness. Practitioners need to attend to what is done between sessions as well as what is done during them. The importance of adequate recovery needs to be reinforced regularly because a ‘‘more is better'' attitude is counterproductive. Related factors such as adequate hydration, proper nutrition, and sufficient sleep also promote well-being, which in turn enhances learning and on-task behavior during exercise sessions and sport practices (Oliver et al., 2011).
11. Think long-term.
Physical activity is a learned behavior; therefore, children and adolescents should be given ongoing opportunities to participate in exercise and sport programs. Without a long-term approach to physical development, boys and girls are less likely to reach their performance potential (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although some practitioners may want immediate results and quick-fix solutions to problems they encounter, a long-term approach is needed in order to optimize training adaptations and enhance the holistic development of all youth (Oliver et al., 2011). If the health-enhancing benefits of daily physical activity early in life are to be realized later in life, youth fitness specialists must know when to progress an activity and how to modify or even regress an exercise due to poor technique or inappropriate behavior. When practitioners help participants connect new information with what they already know, they encourage participants to think long-term about their education and training.
12. Enjoy the game.
The importance of having fun should not be underestimated when engaging youth in fitness, sport, and clinical exercise programs (Dishman et al., 2005; Visek et al., 2015; Watson, Baker, & Chadwick, 2016). When participants see others having fun and learning new skills, they are more likely to participate and become or remain engaged learners. Although encouragement and support from youth fitness specialists can influence exercise habits, the sheer enjoyment that a child experiences during an exercise session can facilitate sustainment of desired behaviors. In this vein, it is sometimes helpful for practitioners to remember what types of fitness activities they enjoyed as children. The most successful professionals maintain a balance between skill and challenge so that exercises and sport activities remain enjoyable. Participants who become proficient and perceive themselves as skilled are more likely to respond to effective teaching with a higher level of engagement and enjoyment.
The language of movement
Although children require opportunities for experiential learning and exposure to free play in order to refine motor skill patterns, it is often mistakenly thought that children will innately develop motor skill proficiency simply as a result of growth and development. In reality, existing data show that many children are not competent in a range of motor skills (Bryant et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2013), which increases their likelihood of living in a sedentary manner. Thus it is clear that motor skills need to be taught, and teaching effectively means using appropriate pedagogy (Logan, Robinson, Wilson, & Lucas, 2012; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2017). Although multiple factors play a role in the process of learning new skills, we should not underestimate the importance of providing developmentally appropriate instruction during childhood (Foulkes et al., 2015; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). Much in the same way that children require support and guidance from teachers in order to learn to read or play a musical instrument, they also need youth fitness specialists to teach them to move correctly. Indeed, developing a vocabulary of rudimentary and fundamental motor skills early in life should be viewed as the foundation for more specialized motor skills at a later stage of development. Pedagogically, the crucial skill of the youth fitness specialist is to say the right thing to the right individual at the right time in order to foster a positive learning environment for the child, which helps guide the child toward competence in a range of motor skills.
Achievement goal theory describes the goals and attributions that individuals embrace in the learning process and that ultimately influence the way in which they approach and engage with their learning environment (Palmer et al., 2017). The literature indicates that learners typically assume either a mastery orientation or a performance orientation in regard to the process of learning (Ames, 1992; Palmer et al., 2017; Robinson, 2011a). Fostering a mastery-oriented climate to learning encourages youth to engage in learning for intrinsic value and to judge improvement against self-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is one's motor skill performance now than it was in the previous session). In contrast, a task-oriented climate leads the child to try to prove competence, avoid failure, and judge successful learning against norm-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is a child's motor skill performance than that of others in the group).
Within the education literature, research shows that adopting a mastery-oriented learning climate leads to greater intrinsic interest and more time spent on task (Butler, 1987; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988), belief in the notion that effort leads to success (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985), positive attitudes toward learning (Ames, 1992), and greater resilience in the face of challenges (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). In addition, recent systematic review data have shown that adopting a mastery-oriented climate leads to improved motor skill competence in young children (Palmer et al., 2017); more specifically, studies have shown enhanced competence in object control (Robinson, 2011a; Robinson, Palmer, & Bub, 2016; L.E. Robinson, Veldman, Palmer, & Okely, 2017) and locomotive skills (L.E. Robinson et al., 2016; Robinson, Webster, Logan, Lucas, & Barber, 2012). From a holistic perspective, practitioners should promote intrinsic motivation in youth in order to encourage children and adolescents to participate, improve, and develop skills while also reducing the risk of being driven solely by external rewards such as trophies.
Should youth sample or specialize?
Sampling can be defined as an approach that encourages children to experience a number of different sports or activities with qualified instruction, or a number of different positions within a sport. Arguments in favor of sampling note that it does not restrict elite development in sports where peak performance is typically witnessed after maturation; it is associated with longer sporting careers and facilitates long-term participation in sport; it positively affects youth development; and deliberate play serves as a foundation for intrinsic motivation and provides a range of motor and cognitive experiences (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). In contrast, early specialization involves intensive year-round training in a single sport from a young age, which likely limits the child's exposure to a breadth of sporting activities (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016). Although researchers and youth fitness specialists have debated the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches for youth development, concerns are now growing about the inherent risks associated with early specialization (see figure 4.1) (LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2015b; Myer et al., 2015).
Figure 4.1 Potential negative consequences of early sport specialization.
Based on data from Jayanthi et al. (2011); Fleisig, Andrews, Cutter, et al. (2011); Barynina and Vaitsekhoskii (1992); Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, and Myer (2015); Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011); Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012); Law et al. (2007); Gould et al. (1996); and Wall and Cote (2007).
Despite support for sampling, it is not uncommon for youth to specialize in a single sport from an early age (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016) where apparent benefits of early specialization are promoted. It is now acknowledged, however, that early specialization potentially increases injury rates, likelihood of burnout, and eventual disengagement from sport and physical activity (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; DiFiori et al., 2014; Feeley, Agel, & LaPrade, 2016). One particular concern focuses on the increasing incidence of overuse injuries related to participation in a single sport or a single position in a sport (DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Specialization subjects children to high volumes of repetitive training that promote the monotonous development of a narrow range of movement patterns and provides insufficient opportunities for rest, recovery, and adaptation. Such an approach to physical development can lead to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system, which may result in overuse injury (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; Stein & Micheli, 2010). For example, research indicates that when a high volume of baseball pitching is completed in the absence of developmentally appropriate preparatory physical conditioning, the risk of overuse injury in the shoulder or elbow is likely to increase in young athletes (Fleisig et al., 2011; Iyer, Thapa, Khanna, & Chew, 2012; Olsen, Fleisig, Dun, Loftice, & Andrews, 2006).
Beyond the importance of sampling with qualified instruction to reduce the risks of overuse injury, sampling is also central to the development of athleticism. Fundamental movement skills and requisite levels of muscular strength serve as the building blocks for global, more complex movements at a later stage of development (Cattuzzo et al., 2016; Deli, Bakle, & Zachopoulou, 2006; Hulteen, Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016). Therefore, for all children, possessing competence in a breadth of movement skills is more important than acquiring a depth of mastery in a very narrow range of skills.
For example, early-maturing children who are taller and stronger than peers may be encouraged to play the center position on a high school basketball team. However, even if they succeed, they risk developing only a finite number of movement competencies that are specific to that position if they engage only in sport- and position-specific practice sessions and competitive basketball matches from an early age. In addition, they will typically be at a heightened risk of developing muscular imbalances and asynchronous movement discrepancies, which, in the absence of targeted training programs to address neuromuscular deficiencies, will fail to prepare them for the demands of sport practice and competition. In such cases, though they may develop proficiency in basketball-specific skills, their athleticism and ability to use transferable motor skills in different positions, different sport environments, and different physical activities will likely be reduced, both on the playground and in sport settings.
We also find a need for sampling when we take a global health perspective on helping young people develop a broad range of movement skills in order to promote a satisfactory level of physical literacy. This notion is supported by research showing that children who possess, or perceive themselves as possessing, competent fundamental movement skills are more likely to engage in sport and physical activity, both throughout childhood (Fransen et al., 2014; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012) and into adulthood (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Stodden, Langendorfer, & Roberton, 2009). In addition, motor skill competence has been shown to be inversely associated with overweight and obesity during childhood (D'Hondt et al., 2013; D'Hondt et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2012; Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012). Moreover, motor skill competence appears to decline over time (D'Hondt et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2015; Rodrigues, Stodden, & Lopes, 2016; Stodden, True, Langendorfer, & Gao, 2013), thus highlighting the critical importance of early engagement in appropriate training for long-term athletic development.
Empirical data have shown that specializing later and being exposed to lower volumes of deliberate practice early in life act as significant determinants of elite performance in adulthood (Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). Specifically, the authors collected retrospective data about the careers of a sample of 243 Danish athletes from sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds (e.g., track and field, weightlifting, swimming). The data showed that elite athletes (those who achieved a top-10 finish in a world championship or medaled at the European level) accumulated fewer hours of practice in their “main sport” during childhood and adolescence than did near-elite athletes (see figure 4.2). In the study, age at the time of first competition was about 14.5 years for elite athletes and 12.4 years for non-elite athletes. Overall, the study indicates that athletes who accumulate more hours of specialized practice and focus on competitions at an earlier age may initially experience relative success yet be unable to maintain it as they grow older. The study also showed that elite athletes intensified their training toward the end of adolescence, which resulted in a higher accumulation of training hours around the time of early adulthood (Moesch et al., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Comparison of accumulated hours of practice during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood between elite and near-elite athletes.
Based on data from Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011).
Research also shows that greater sport diversification in early years and later specialization leads to improved physical fitness performance and superior gross motor coordination in 6- to 12-year-old boys (Fransen et al., 2012). In a sample of 735 boys, individuals were categorized as either single-sport or multisport participants. Across all three age groups (6-8, 8-10, and 10-12 years), boys involved in multiple sports spent more time on sport per week (on average, one or two additional hours). More specifically, the research reported two key findings for the 10- to 12-year-olds: Those who participated in more hours of sport per week performed better than those who participated only periodically, and those who specialized in a single sport performed significantly worse in terms of gross motor coordination and standing broad jump tests (see figure 4.3). Combined, these findings suggest that youth benefit from greater exposure to a variety of sport and physical activities (tempered with appropriate rest and preparatory conditioning) and that early specialization can lead to reduced physical performance and a blunting of motor coordination.
Figure 4.3 Performance in the standing broad jump (a) and motor skill quotient (b) for 10- to 12-year-old boys classified within either a specialization or a sampling cohort.
*Significant at P < 0.05
Data from Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012).
Aside from the potential benefits for physical performance, research has also shown that later specialization leads to reduced injury risk in adolescent females (Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, & Myer, 2015). Hall and colleagues (2015) showed that in a sample of 546 female youth athletes (comprising middle and high school years), early specialization increased the relative risk of knee-related injury by a factor of 1.5. Diagnoses included patellar tendinopathy and Osgood-Schlatter disease, the latter of which showed a fourfold increase in relative risk in single-sport specialized athletes versus multiple-sport athletes. These data show that diversification appears to be beneficial not only for physical performance but also for reducing the relative risk of injury in youth. Consequently, it would seem prudent for any long-term athletic development model to accommodate a diversification approach that enables children to sample a range of activities and sports before specializing in a single sport or activity at a later stage of development.
Youth coach's dozen
Effective pedagogy lies at the heart of any successful youth program. Although knowledge of pediatric exercise science and developmental psychology remain necessary as prerequisites for effective teaching, youth fitness specialists ultimately need to design and implement instructional methods that enhance the process of learning and discovery. Research has enhanced our understanding of effective instructional practices in the classroom, but it is up to us to adapt these fundamental principles to the practice of pediatric exercise science. We can find a useful framework for discussing the characteristics of successful exercise and sport professionals in the 5 Cs perspective on positive youth development—namely, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, 2011; Lerner et al., 2005).
The coach's dozen is a list of 12 principles that youth fitness professionals should consider when teaching children and adolescents (Faigenbaum & Meadors, 2016). Some of these principles are well supported by research (Ames, 1995; Bulger, Mohr, & Walls, 2002; Schickedanz, Schickedanz, Forsyth, & Forsyth, 2000), whereas others are based on practical experience in working with school-age youth in schools, fitness centers, and sport programs. The list is not meant to be definitive or comprehensive; rather, it is a collection of principles to help youth fitness specialists promote learning through safe, effective, and enjoyable instructional methods.
1. Ensure a safe exercise environment.
The exercise area must be spacious, uncluttered, well ventilated, and well lit. Exercise equipment should be in good working order and appropriate for the smaller body size of children and adolescents; participants should not use broken or malfunctioning equipment. Loose equipment such as dumbbells, weight plates, and medicine balls should be stored in proper locations. Participants should dress appropriately for the session, and practitioners should periodically review safety rules.
2. Stay connected.
The success of any exercise class or sport program depends largely on the leadership provided by instructors and coaches, who should stay connected to the participants in the program. Take the time to learn every child's name, address individual concerns, and show genuine interest in every participant. A child who makes friends, plays fair, and feels connected to the instructor or coach cannot at the same time be a child who routinely disrupts the program or engages in negative behavior. Encourage participants to ask questions; never use sarcasm. Just like substitute teachers in the classroom, substitute coaches who do not form partnerships with participants will have a very difficult time teaching youth and inspiring them to achieve personal goals. The best approach is for professionals to develop a positive rapport with participants and show that they care.
3. Be enthusiastic.
Youth fitness specialists should be positive and passionate about exercise, fitness, and sport. If coaches are not enthusiastic about teaching, then children will not be enthusiastic about learning. Enthusiasm is contagious and contributes to a positive learning environment. In turn, a positive learning environment contributes to participants' success, which is a powerful motivator for engaging in the desired activities with energy and vigor. Inspiring practitioners generally possess content knowledge, instructional experience, and genuine interest in helping all participants perform to the best of their abilities.
4. Foster creativity.
Youth exercise programs should be both stimulating and engaging while providing an opportunity for participants to develop a positive sense of self. Creativity is associated with physical fitness in children (Latorre Román, Pinillos, Pantoja Vallejo, & Berrios Aguayo, 2017), and efforts to encourage creativity are needed in order to reclaim opportunities for children and adolescents to use their imagination, collaborate with peers, and release their creative energy. Sadly, creative thinking appears to be declining in children (Kim, 2011), which is all the more reason that participants should be given opportunities to create new games and exercises that are safe, stimulating, and fun. Notwithstanding the importance of education and instruction, the creation of new games and exercises contributes to a mastery-oriented climate in which participants control the type of task engagement and overcome self-determined challenges as they apply learned skills in novel situations. For example, participants might create a new exercise with medicine balls or modify a game of tag that requires speed and agility. This type of instruction can enhance the learning experience and promote physical engagement during exercise classes and sport programs.
5. Understand the process.
In addition to teaching participants about the quantitative aspects of the program (e.g., sets, repetitions, training intensity), youth fitness specialists should also engage participants in activities that are both physically and mentally challenging (Collins et al., 2016). That is to say, both the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the movement experience should be considered when implementing and evaluating youth programs (Faigenbaum & Rial, 2018; Pesce, Faigenbaum, Goudas, & Tomporowski, 2018). Highly effective youth fitness specialists use instructional strategies that engage participants repeatedly throughout the practice session. When participants do something right, the practitioner should praise them; and if they do something wrong, the practitioner should help them understand that they are still liked as a person. The most important motives for youth are to demonstrate physical competence, gain social acceptance, and have fun.
6. Deliver clear instructions.
Successful youth fitness specialists are good listeners and exceptional communicators who understand individual needs and learning styles. In order to teach effectively, practitioners need to be concerned with how they deliver content to participants and how the participants react to that delivery. To help explain an exercise or game, a practitioner can use aids such as analogies, demonstrations, and coaching cues. The practitioner's tone, pronunciation, and choice of words can also influence participants' ability to understand lesson content. In some cases, it may be helpful to provide participants with an agenda for the activity period. Combining instructions with clear demonstrations and an organized lesson plan will likely yield the highest physical, cognitive, and affective benefits for participants (Tomporowski et al., 2011).
7. Diversify the portfolio.
The most stimulating youth programs encompass a variety of skills and activities that are developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fun. The outcome of a youth exercise program is determined by systematic and sensible progression of program variables over time, along with enthusiastic instruction. Most children find prolonged periods of monotonousaerobicexercise to be boring. Instead, youth should be exposed to an assortment of exercises and sport activities in a variety of settings with different people so that they can discover what they enjoy while maximizing their physical, psychological, and social development (Lloyd et al., 2014; Pesce et al., 2018).
8. Learn from mistakes.
Youth will inevitably make mistakes when they learn a new exercise or perform a complex skill. Instead of being viewed in a negative light, mistakes should be recognized as valuable parts of the learning process that provide opportunities for participants to become aware of what they know and what they need to improve. When participants correct their own mistakes or offer constructive feedback to a peer, they become engaged learners who are able to think for themselves. Consequently, instead of merely recognizing the strongest participants, or those who perform a complex movement correctly, practitioners should also acknowledge participants who learn from their mistakes, ask for advice, and offer meaningful assistance to others. Collaborative learning provides an opportunity for youth fitness specialists and participants alike to share ideas, learn from each other, and work toward a common goal. This type of engagement can facilitate the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve long-term objectives.
9. Be patient.
Although it may be tempting to look for quick fixes and rapidly advance youth through exercise protocols, sustained participation in exercise and sport is built on a solid foundation of general preparation (Haff, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2016). Therefore, youth fitness specialists need to be patient in their practice so that participants have time to develop basic movement patterns before progressing to more complex skills and advanced training techniques. Practitioners should also recognize individual differences and realize that progression or regression should be based on skill proficiency, disposition, and understanding of training principles. Patience is needed in order to correct technical errors and develop physical skills that properly prepare youth for the enduring demands of exercise and sport. In contrast, an impatient approach to teaching and training increases the risk of injury and limits participants' long-term potential.
10. Maximize recovery.
Designing programs foryouth of any age involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation) (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although any practitioner can make a child tired, successful youth fitness specialists understand and value the importance of developing high-quality movement patterns and enhancing the learning experience through less intense training sessions and appropriate recovery strategies. A training and recovery schedule that is well planned and well balanced improves participants' learning and the program's overall effectiveness. Practitioners need to attend to what is done between sessions as well as what is done during them. The importance of adequate recovery needs to be reinforced regularly because a ‘‘more is better'' attitude is counterproductive. Related factors such as adequate hydration, proper nutrition, and sufficient sleep also promote well-being, which in turn enhances learning and on-task behavior during exercise sessions and sport practices (Oliver et al., 2011).
11. Think long-term.
Physical activity is a learned behavior; therefore, children and adolescents should be given ongoing opportunities to participate in exercise and sport programs. Without a long-term approach to physical development, boys and girls are less likely to reach their performance potential (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although some practitioners may want immediate results and quick-fix solutions to problems they encounter, a long-term approach is needed in order to optimize training adaptations and enhance the holistic development of all youth (Oliver et al., 2011). If the health-enhancing benefits of daily physical activity early in life are to be realized later in life, youth fitness specialists must know when to progress an activity and how to modify or even regress an exercise due to poor technique or inappropriate behavior. When practitioners help participants connect new information with what they already know, they encourage participants to think long-term about their education and training.
12. Enjoy the game.
The importance of having fun should not be underestimated when engaging youth in fitness, sport, and clinical exercise programs (Dishman et al., 2005; Visek et al., 2015; Watson, Baker, & Chadwick, 2016). When participants see others having fun and learning new skills, they are more likely to participate and become or remain engaged learners. Although encouragement and support from youth fitness specialists can influence exercise habits, the sheer enjoyment that a child experiences during an exercise session can facilitate sustainment of desired behaviors. In this vein, it is sometimes helpful for practitioners to remember what types of fitness activities they enjoyed as children. The most successful professionals maintain a balance between skill and challenge so that exercises and sport activities remain enjoyable. Participants who become proficient and perceive themselves as skilled are more likely to respond to effective teaching with a higher level of engagement and enjoyment.
The language of movement
Although children require opportunities for experiential learning and exposure to free play in order to refine motor skill patterns, it is often mistakenly thought that children will innately develop motor skill proficiency simply as a result of growth and development. In reality, existing data show that many children are not competent in a range of motor skills (Bryant et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2013), which increases their likelihood of living in a sedentary manner. Thus it is clear that motor skills need to be taught, and teaching effectively means using appropriate pedagogy (Logan, Robinson, Wilson, & Lucas, 2012; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2017). Although multiple factors play a role in the process of learning new skills, we should not underestimate the importance of providing developmentally appropriate instruction during childhood (Foulkes et al., 2015; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). Much in the same way that children require support and guidance from teachers in order to learn to read or play a musical instrument, they also need youth fitness specialists to teach them to move correctly. Indeed, developing a vocabulary of rudimentary and fundamental motor skills early in life should be viewed as the foundation for more specialized motor skills at a later stage of development. Pedagogically, the crucial skill of the youth fitness specialist is to say the right thing to the right individual at the right time in order to foster a positive learning environment for the child, which helps guide the child toward competence in a range of motor skills.
Achievement goal theory describes the goals and attributions that individuals embrace in the learning process and that ultimately influence the way in which they approach and engage with their learning environment (Palmer et al., 2017). The literature indicates that learners typically assume either a mastery orientation or a performance orientation in regard to the process of learning (Ames, 1992; Palmer et al., 2017; Robinson, 2011a). Fostering a mastery-oriented climate to learning encourages youth to engage in learning for intrinsic value and to judge improvement against self-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is one's motor skill performance now than it was in the previous session). In contrast, a task-oriented climate leads the child to try to prove competence, avoid failure, and judge successful learning against norm-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is a child's motor skill performance than that of others in the group).
Within the education literature, research shows that adopting a mastery-oriented learning climate leads to greater intrinsic interest and more time spent on task (Butler, 1987; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988), belief in the notion that effort leads to success (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985), positive attitudes toward learning (Ames, 1992), and greater resilience in the face of challenges (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). In addition, recent systematic review data have shown that adopting a mastery-oriented climate leads to improved motor skill competence in young children (Palmer et al., 2017); more specifically, studies have shown enhanced competence in object control (Robinson, 2011a; Robinson, Palmer, & Bub, 2016; L.E. Robinson, Veldman, Palmer, & Okely, 2017) and locomotive skills (L.E. Robinson et al., 2016; Robinson, Webster, Logan, Lucas, & Barber, 2012). From a holistic perspective, practitioners should promote intrinsic motivation in youth in order to encourage children and adolescents to participate, improve, and develop skills while also reducing the risk of being driven solely by external rewards such as trophies.
Should youth sample or specialize?
Sampling can be defined as an approach that encourages children to experience a number of different sports or activities with qualified instruction, or a number of different positions within a sport. Arguments in favor of sampling note that it does not restrict elite development in sports where peak performance is typically witnessed after maturation; it is associated with longer sporting careers and facilitates long-term participation in sport; it positively affects youth development; and deliberate play serves as a foundation for intrinsic motivation and provides a range of motor and cognitive experiences (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). In contrast, early specialization involves intensive year-round training in a single sport from a young age, which likely limits the child's exposure to a breadth of sporting activities (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016). Although researchers and youth fitness specialists have debated the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches for youth development, concerns are now growing about the inherent risks associated with early specialization (see figure 4.1) (LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2015b; Myer et al., 2015).
Figure 4.1 Potential negative consequences of early sport specialization.
Based on data from Jayanthi et al. (2011); Fleisig, Andrews, Cutter, et al. (2011); Barynina and Vaitsekhoskii (1992); Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, and Myer (2015); Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011); Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012); Law et al. (2007); Gould et al. (1996); and Wall and Cote (2007).
Despite support for sampling, it is not uncommon for youth to specialize in a single sport from an early age (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016) where apparent benefits of early specialization are promoted. It is now acknowledged, however, that early specialization potentially increases injury rates, likelihood of burnout, and eventual disengagement from sport and physical activity (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; DiFiori et al., 2014; Feeley, Agel, & LaPrade, 2016). One particular concern focuses on the increasing incidence of overuse injuries related to participation in a single sport or a single position in a sport (DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Specialization subjects children to high volumes of repetitive training that promote the monotonous development of a narrow range of movement patterns and provides insufficient opportunities for rest, recovery, and adaptation. Such an approach to physical development can lead to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system, which may result in overuse injury (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; Stein & Micheli, 2010). For example, research indicates that when a high volume of baseball pitching is completed in the absence of developmentally appropriate preparatory physical conditioning, the risk of overuse injury in the shoulder or elbow is likely to increase in young athletes (Fleisig et al., 2011; Iyer, Thapa, Khanna, & Chew, 2012; Olsen, Fleisig, Dun, Loftice, & Andrews, 2006).
Beyond the importance of sampling with qualified instruction to reduce the risks of overuse injury, sampling is also central to the development of athleticism. Fundamental movement skills and requisite levels of muscular strength serve as the building blocks for global, more complex movements at a later stage of development (Cattuzzo et al., 2016; Deli, Bakle, & Zachopoulou, 2006; Hulteen, Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016). Therefore, for all children, possessing competence in a breadth of movement skills is more important than acquiring a depth of mastery in a very narrow range of skills.
For example, early-maturing children who are taller and stronger than peers may be encouraged to play the center position on a high school basketball team. However, even if they succeed, they risk developing only a finite number of movement competencies that are specific to that position if they engage only in sport- and position-specific practice sessions and competitive basketball matches from an early age. In addition, they will typically be at a heightened risk of developing muscular imbalances and asynchronous movement discrepancies, which, in the absence of targeted training programs to address neuromuscular deficiencies, will fail to prepare them for the demands of sport practice and competition. In such cases, though they may develop proficiency in basketball-specific skills, their athleticism and ability to use transferable motor skills in different positions, different sport environments, and different physical activities will likely be reduced, both on the playground and in sport settings.
We also find a need for sampling when we take a global health perspective on helping young people develop a broad range of movement skills in order to promote a satisfactory level of physical literacy. This notion is supported by research showing that children who possess, or perceive themselves as possessing, competent fundamental movement skills are more likely to engage in sport and physical activity, both throughout childhood (Fransen et al., 2014; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012) and into adulthood (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Stodden, Langendorfer, & Roberton, 2009). In addition, motor skill competence has been shown to be inversely associated with overweight and obesity during childhood (D'Hondt et al., 2013; D'Hondt et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2012; Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012). Moreover, motor skill competence appears to decline over time (D'Hondt et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2015; Rodrigues, Stodden, & Lopes, 2016; Stodden, True, Langendorfer, & Gao, 2013), thus highlighting the critical importance of early engagement in appropriate training for long-term athletic development.
Empirical data have shown that specializing later and being exposed to lower volumes of deliberate practice early in life act as significant determinants of elite performance in adulthood (Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). Specifically, the authors collected retrospective data about the careers of a sample of 243 Danish athletes from sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds (e.g., track and field, weightlifting, swimming). The data showed that elite athletes (those who achieved a top-10 finish in a world championship or medaled at the European level) accumulated fewer hours of practice in their “main sport” during childhood and adolescence than did near-elite athletes (see figure 4.2). In the study, age at the time of first competition was about 14.5 years for elite athletes and 12.4 years for non-elite athletes. Overall, the study indicates that athletes who accumulate more hours of specialized practice and focus on competitions at an earlier age may initially experience relative success yet be unable to maintain it as they grow older. The study also showed that elite athletes intensified their training toward the end of adolescence, which resulted in a higher accumulation of training hours around the time of early adulthood (Moesch et al., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Comparison of accumulated hours of practice during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood between elite and near-elite athletes.
Based on data from Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011).
Research also shows that greater sport diversification in early years and later specialization leads to improved physical fitness performance and superior gross motor coordination in 6- to 12-year-old boys (Fransen et al., 2012). In a sample of 735 boys, individuals were categorized as either single-sport or multisport participants. Across all three age groups (6-8, 8-10, and 10-12 years), boys involved in multiple sports spent more time on sport per week (on average, one or two additional hours). More specifically, the research reported two key findings for the 10- to 12-year-olds: Those who participated in more hours of sport per week performed better than those who participated only periodically, and those who specialized in a single sport performed significantly worse in terms of gross motor coordination and standing broad jump tests (see figure 4.3). Combined, these findings suggest that youth benefit from greater exposure to a variety of sport and physical activities (tempered with appropriate rest and preparatory conditioning) and that early specialization can lead to reduced physical performance and a blunting of motor coordination.
Figure 4.3 Performance in the standing broad jump (a) and motor skill quotient (b) for 10- to 12-year-old boys classified within either a specialization or a sampling cohort.
*Significant at P < 0.05
Data from Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012).
Aside from the potential benefits for physical performance, research has also shown that later specialization leads to reduced injury risk in adolescent females (Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, & Myer, 2015). Hall and colleagues (2015) showed that in a sample of 546 female youth athletes (comprising middle and high school years), early specialization increased the relative risk of knee-related injury by a factor of 1.5. Diagnoses included patellar tendinopathy and Osgood-Schlatter disease, the latter of which showed a fourfold increase in relative risk in single-sport specialized athletes versus multiple-sport athletes. These data show that diversification appears to be beneficial not only for physical performance but also for reducing the relative risk of injury in youth. Consequently, it would seem prudent for any long-term athletic development model to accommodate a diversification approach that enables children to sample a range of activities and sports before specializing in a single sport or activity at a later stage of development.
Youth coach's dozen
Effective pedagogy lies at the heart of any successful youth program. Although knowledge of pediatric exercise science and developmental psychology remain necessary as prerequisites for effective teaching, youth fitness specialists ultimately need to design and implement instructional methods that enhance the process of learning and discovery. Research has enhanced our understanding of effective instructional practices in the classroom, but it is up to us to adapt these fundamental principles to the practice of pediatric exercise science. We can find a useful framework for discussing the characteristics of successful exercise and sport professionals in the 5 Cs perspective on positive youth development—namely, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, 2011; Lerner et al., 2005).
The coach's dozen is a list of 12 principles that youth fitness professionals should consider when teaching children and adolescents (Faigenbaum & Meadors, 2016). Some of these principles are well supported by research (Ames, 1995; Bulger, Mohr, & Walls, 2002; Schickedanz, Schickedanz, Forsyth, & Forsyth, 2000), whereas others are based on practical experience in working with school-age youth in schools, fitness centers, and sport programs. The list is not meant to be definitive or comprehensive; rather, it is a collection of principles to help youth fitness specialists promote learning through safe, effective, and enjoyable instructional methods.
1. Ensure a safe exercise environment.
The exercise area must be spacious, uncluttered, well ventilated, and well lit. Exercise equipment should be in good working order and appropriate for the smaller body size of children and adolescents; participants should not use broken or malfunctioning equipment. Loose equipment such as dumbbells, weight plates, and medicine balls should be stored in proper locations. Participants should dress appropriately for the session, and practitioners should periodically review safety rules.
2. Stay connected.
The success of any exercise class or sport program depends largely on the leadership provided by instructors and coaches, who should stay connected to the participants in the program. Take the time to learn every child's name, address individual concerns, and show genuine interest in every participant. A child who makes friends, plays fair, and feels connected to the instructor or coach cannot at the same time be a child who routinely disrupts the program or engages in negative behavior. Encourage participants to ask questions; never use sarcasm. Just like substitute teachers in the classroom, substitute coaches who do not form partnerships with participants will have a very difficult time teaching youth and inspiring them to achieve personal goals. The best approach is for professionals to develop a positive rapport with participants and show that they care.
3. Be enthusiastic.
Youth fitness specialists should be positive and passionate about exercise, fitness, and sport. If coaches are not enthusiastic about teaching, then children will not be enthusiastic about learning. Enthusiasm is contagious and contributes to a positive learning environment. In turn, a positive learning environment contributes to participants' success, which is a powerful motivator for engaging in the desired activities with energy and vigor. Inspiring practitioners generally possess content knowledge, instructional experience, and genuine interest in helping all participants perform to the best of their abilities.
4. Foster creativity.
Youth exercise programs should be both stimulating and engaging while providing an opportunity for participants to develop a positive sense of self. Creativity is associated with physical fitness in children (Latorre Román, Pinillos, Pantoja Vallejo, & Berrios Aguayo, 2017), and efforts to encourage creativity are needed in order to reclaim opportunities for children and adolescents to use their imagination, collaborate with peers, and release their creative energy. Sadly, creative thinking appears to be declining in children (Kim, 2011), which is all the more reason that participants should be given opportunities to create new games and exercises that are safe, stimulating, and fun. Notwithstanding the importance of education and instruction, the creation of new games and exercises contributes to a mastery-oriented climate in which participants control the type of task engagement and overcome self-determined challenges as they apply learned skills in novel situations. For example, participants might create a new exercise with medicine balls or modify a game of tag that requires speed and agility. This type of instruction can enhance the learning experience and promote physical engagement during exercise classes and sport programs.
5. Understand the process.
In addition to teaching participants about the quantitative aspects of the program (e.g., sets, repetitions, training intensity), youth fitness specialists should also engage participants in activities that are both physically and mentally challenging (Collins et al., 2016). That is to say, both the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the movement experience should be considered when implementing and evaluating youth programs (Faigenbaum & Rial, 2018; Pesce, Faigenbaum, Goudas, & Tomporowski, 2018). Highly effective youth fitness specialists use instructional strategies that engage participants repeatedly throughout the practice session. When participants do something right, the practitioner should praise them; and if they do something wrong, the practitioner should help them understand that they are still liked as a person. The most important motives for youth are to demonstrate physical competence, gain social acceptance, and have fun.
6. Deliver clear instructions.
Successful youth fitness specialists are good listeners and exceptional communicators who understand individual needs and learning styles. In order to teach effectively, practitioners need to be concerned with how they deliver content to participants and how the participants react to that delivery. To help explain an exercise or game, a practitioner can use aids such as analogies, demonstrations, and coaching cues. The practitioner's tone, pronunciation, and choice of words can also influence participants' ability to understand lesson content. In some cases, it may be helpful to provide participants with an agenda for the activity period. Combining instructions with clear demonstrations and an organized lesson plan will likely yield the highest physical, cognitive, and affective benefits for participants (Tomporowski et al., 2011).
7. Diversify the portfolio.
The most stimulating youth programs encompass a variety of skills and activities that are developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fun. The outcome of a youth exercise program is determined by systematic and sensible progression of program variables over time, along with enthusiastic instruction. Most children find prolonged periods of monotonousaerobicexercise to be boring. Instead, youth should be exposed to an assortment of exercises and sport activities in a variety of settings with different people so that they can discover what they enjoy while maximizing their physical, psychological, and social development (Lloyd et al., 2014; Pesce et al., 2018).
8. Learn from mistakes.
Youth will inevitably make mistakes when they learn a new exercise or perform a complex skill. Instead of being viewed in a negative light, mistakes should be recognized as valuable parts of the learning process that provide opportunities for participants to become aware of what they know and what they need to improve. When participants correct their own mistakes or offer constructive feedback to a peer, they become engaged learners who are able to think for themselves. Consequently, instead of merely recognizing the strongest participants, or those who perform a complex movement correctly, practitioners should also acknowledge participants who learn from their mistakes, ask for advice, and offer meaningful assistance to others. Collaborative learning provides an opportunity for youth fitness specialists and participants alike to share ideas, learn from each other, and work toward a common goal. This type of engagement can facilitate the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve long-term objectives.
9. Be patient.
Although it may be tempting to look for quick fixes and rapidly advance youth through exercise protocols, sustained participation in exercise and sport is built on a solid foundation of general preparation (Haff, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2016). Therefore, youth fitness specialists need to be patient in their practice so that participants have time to develop basic movement patterns before progressing to more complex skills and advanced training techniques. Practitioners should also recognize individual differences and realize that progression or regression should be based on skill proficiency, disposition, and understanding of training principles. Patience is needed in order to correct technical errors and develop physical skills that properly prepare youth for the enduring demands of exercise and sport. In contrast, an impatient approach to teaching and training increases the risk of injury and limits participants' long-term potential.
10. Maximize recovery.
Designing programs foryouth of any age involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation) (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although any practitioner can make a child tired, successful youth fitness specialists understand and value the importance of developing high-quality movement patterns and enhancing the learning experience through less intense training sessions and appropriate recovery strategies. A training and recovery schedule that is well planned and well balanced improves participants' learning and the program's overall effectiveness. Practitioners need to attend to what is done between sessions as well as what is done during them. The importance of adequate recovery needs to be reinforced regularly because a ‘‘more is better'' attitude is counterproductive. Related factors such as adequate hydration, proper nutrition, and sufficient sleep also promote well-being, which in turn enhances learning and on-task behavior during exercise sessions and sport practices (Oliver et al., 2011).
11. Think long-term.
Physical activity is a learned behavior; therefore, children and adolescents should be given ongoing opportunities to participate in exercise and sport programs. Without a long-term approach to physical development, boys and girls are less likely to reach their performance potential (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although some practitioners may want immediate results and quick-fix solutions to problems they encounter, a long-term approach is needed in order to optimize training adaptations and enhance the holistic development of all youth (Oliver et al., 2011). If the health-enhancing benefits of daily physical activity early in life are to be realized later in life, youth fitness specialists must know when to progress an activity and how to modify or even regress an exercise due to poor technique or inappropriate behavior. When practitioners help participants connect new information with what they already know, they encourage participants to think long-term about their education and training.
12. Enjoy the game.
The importance of having fun should not be underestimated when engaging youth in fitness, sport, and clinical exercise programs (Dishman et al., 2005; Visek et al., 2015; Watson, Baker, & Chadwick, 2016). When participants see others having fun and learning new skills, they are more likely to participate and become or remain engaged learners. Although encouragement and support from youth fitness specialists can influence exercise habits, the sheer enjoyment that a child experiences during an exercise session can facilitate sustainment of desired behaviors. In this vein, it is sometimes helpful for practitioners to remember what types of fitness activities they enjoyed as children. The most successful professionals maintain a balance between skill and challenge so that exercises and sport activities remain enjoyable. Participants who become proficient and perceive themselves as skilled are more likely to respond to effective teaching with a higher level of engagement and enjoyment.
The language of movement
Although children require opportunities for experiential learning and exposure to free play in order to refine motor skill patterns, it is often mistakenly thought that children will innately develop motor skill proficiency simply as a result of growth and development. In reality, existing data show that many children are not competent in a range of motor skills (Bryant et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2013), which increases their likelihood of living in a sedentary manner. Thus it is clear that motor skills need to be taught, and teaching effectively means using appropriate pedagogy (Logan, Robinson, Wilson, & Lucas, 2012; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2017). Although multiple factors play a role in the process of learning new skills, we should not underestimate the importance of providing developmentally appropriate instruction during childhood (Foulkes et al., 2015; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). Much in the same way that children require support and guidance from teachers in order to learn to read or play a musical instrument, they also need youth fitness specialists to teach them to move correctly. Indeed, developing a vocabulary of rudimentary and fundamental motor skills early in life should be viewed as the foundation for more specialized motor skills at a later stage of development. Pedagogically, the crucial skill of the youth fitness specialist is to say the right thing to the right individual at the right time in order to foster a positive learning environment for the child, which helps guide the child toward competence in a range of motor skills.
Achievement goal theory describes the goals and attributions that individuals embrace in the learning process and that ultimately influence the way in which they approach and engage with their learning environment (Palmer et al., 2017). The literature indicates that learners typically assume either a mastery orientation or a performance orientation in regard to the process of learning (Ames, 1992; Palmer et al., 2017; Robinson, 2011a). Fostering a mastery-oriented climate to learning encourages youth to engage in learning for intrinsic value and to judge improvement against self-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is one's motor skill performance now than it was in the previous session). In contrast, a task-oriented climate leads the child to try to prove competence, avoid failure, and judge successful learning against norm-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is a child's motor skill performance than that of others in the group).
Within the education literature, research shows that adopting a mastery-oriented learning climate leads to greater intrinsic interest and more time spent on task (Butler, 1987; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988), belief in the notion that effort leads to success (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985), positive attitudes toward learning (Ames, 1992), and greater resilience in the face of challenges (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). In addition, recent systematic review data have shown that adopting a mastery-oriented climate leads to improved motor skill competence in young children (Palmer et al., 2017); more specifically, studies have shown enhanced competence in object control (Robinson, 2011a; Robinson, Palmer, & Bub, 2016; L.E. Robinson, Veldman, Palmer, & Okely, 2017) and locomotive skills (L.E. Robinson et al., 2016; Robinson, Webster, Logan, Lucas, & Barber, 2012). From a holistic perspective, practitioners should promote intrinsic motivation in youth in order to encourage children and adolescents to participate, improve, and develop skills while also reducing the risk of being driven solely by external rewards such as trophies.
Should youth sample or specialize?
Sampling can be defined as an approach that encourages children to experience a number of different sports or activities with qualified instruction, or a number of different positions within a sport. Arguments in favor of sampling note that it does not restrict elite development in sports where peak performance is typically witnessed after maturation; it is associated with longer sporting careers and facilitates long-term participation in sport; it positively affects youth development; and deliberate play serves as a foundation for intrinsic motivation and provides a range of motor and cognitive experiences (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). In contrast, early specialization involves intensive year-round training in a single sport from a young age, which likely limits the child's exposure to a breadth of sporting activities (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016). Although researchers and youth fitness specialists have debated the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches for youth development, concerns are now growing about the inherent risks associated with early specialization (see figure 4.1) (LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2015b; Myer et al., 2015).
Figure 4.1 Potential negative consequences of early sport specialization.
Based on data from Jayanthi et al. (2011); Fleisig, Andrews, Cutter, et al. (2011); Barynina and Vaitsekhoskii (1992); Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, and Myer (2015); Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011); Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012); Law et al. (2007); Gould et al. (1996); and Wall and Cote (2007).
Despite support for sampling, it is not uncommon for youth to specialize in a single sport from an early age (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016) where apparent benefits of early specialization are promoted. It is now acknowledged, however, that early specialization potentially increases injury rates, likelihood of burnout, and eventual disengagement from sport and physical activity (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; DiFiori et al., 2014; Feeley, Agel, & LaPrade, 2016). One particular concern focuses on the increasing incidence of overuse injuries related to participation in a single sport or a single position in a sport (DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Specialization subjects children to high volumes of repetitive training that promote the monotonous development of a narrow range of movement patterns and provides insufficient opportunities for rest, recovery, and adaptation. Such an approach to physical development can lead to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system, which may result in overuse injury (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; Stein & Micheli, 2010). For example, research indicates that when a high volume of baseball pitching is completed in the absence of developmentally appropriate preparatory physical conditioning, the risk of overuse injury in the shoulder or elbow is likely to increase in young athletes (Fleisig et al., 2011; Iyer, Thapa, Khanna, & Chew, 2012; Olsen, Fleisig, Dun, Loftice, & Andrews, 2006).
Beyond the importance of sampling with qualified instruction to reduce the risks of overuse injury, sampling is also central to the development of athleticism. Fundamental movement skills and requisite levels of muscular strength serve as the building blocks for global, more complex movements at a later stage of development (Cattuzzo et al., 2016; Deli, Bakle, & Zachopoulou, 2006; Hulteen, Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016). Therefore, for all children, possessing competence in a breadth of movement skills is more important than acquiring a depth of mastery in a very narrow range of skills.
For example, early-maturing children who are taller and stronger than peers may be encouraged to play the center position on a high school basketball team. However, even if they succeed, they risk developing only a finite number of movement competencies that are specific to that position if they engage only in sport- and position-specific practice sessions and competitive basketball matches from an early age. In addition, they will typically be at a heightened risk of developing muscular imbalances and asynchronous movement discrepancies, which, in the absence of targeted training programs to address neuromuscular deficiencies, will fail to prepare them for the demands of sport practice and competition. In such cases, though they may develop proficiency in basketball-specific skills, their athleticism and ability to use transferable motor skills in different positions, different sport environments, and different physical activities will likely be reduced, both on the playground and in sport settings.
We also find a need for sampling when we take a global health perspective on helping young people develop a broad range of movement skills in order to promote a satisfactory level of physical literacy. This notion is supported by research showing that children who possess, or perceive themselves as possessing, competent fundamental movement skills are more likely to engage in sport and physical activity, both throughout childhood (Fransen et al., 2014; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012) and into adulthood (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Stodden, Langendorfer, & Roberton, 2009). In addition, motor skill competence has been shown to be inversely associated with overweight and obesity during childhood (D'Hondt et al., 2013; D'Hondt et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2012; Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012). Moreover, motor skill competence appears to decline over time (D'Hondt et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2015; Rodrigues, Stodden, & Lopes, 2016; Stodden, True, Langendorfer, & Gao, 2013), thus highlighting the critical importance of early engagement in appropriate training for long-term athletic development.
Empirical data have shown that specializing later and being exposed to lower volumes of deliberate practice early in life act as significant determinants of elite performance in adulthood (Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). Specifically, the authors collected retrospective data about the careers of a sample of 243 Danish athletes from sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds (e.g., track and field, weightlifting, swimming). The data showed that elite athletes (those who achieved a top-10 finish in a world championship or medaled at the European level) accumulated fewer hours of practice in their “main sport” during childhood and adolescence than did near-elite athletes (see figure 4.2). In the study, age at the time of first competition was about 14.5 years for elite athletes and 12.4 years for non-elite athletes. Overall, the study indicates that athletes who accumulate more hours of specialized practice and focus on competitions at an earlier age may initially experience relative success yet be unable to maintain it as they grow older. The study also showed that elite athletes intensified their training toward the end of adolescence, which resulted in a higher accumulation of training hours around the time of early adulthood (Moesch et al., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Comparison of accumulated hours of practice during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood between elite and near-elite athletes.
Based on data from Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011).
Research also shows that greater sport diversification in early years and later specialization leads to improved physical fitness performance and superior gross motor coordination in 6- to 12-year-old boys (Fransen et al., 2012). In a sample of 735 boys, individuals were categorized as either single-sport or multisport participants. Across all three age groups (6-8, 8-10, and 10-12 years), boys involved in multiple sports spent more time on sport per week (on average, one or two additional hours). More specifically, the research reported two key findings for the 10- to 12-year-olds: Those who participated in more hours of sport per week performed better than those who participated only periodically, and those who specialized in a single sport performed significantly worse in terms of gross motor coordination and standing broad jump tests (see figure 4.3). Combined, these findings suggest that youth benefit from greater exposure to a variety of sport and physical activities (tempered with appropriate rest and preparatory conditioning) and that early specialization can lead to reduced physical performance and a blunting of motor coordination.
Figure 4.3 Performance in the standing broad jump (a) and motor skill quotient (b) for 10- to 12-year-old boys classified within either a specialization or a sampling cohort.
*Significant at P < 0.05
Data from Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012).
Aside from the potential benefits for physical performance, research has also shown that later specialization leads to reduced injury risk in adolescent females (Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, & Myer, 2015). Hall and colleagues (2015) showed that in a sample of 546 female youth athletes (comprising middle and high school years), early specialization increased the relative risk of knee-related injury by a factor of 1.5. Diagnoses included patellar tendinopathy and Osgood-Schlatter disease, the latter of which showed a fourfold increase in relative risk in single-sport specialized athletes versus multiple-sport athletes. These data show that diversification appears to be beneficial not only for physical performance but also for reducing the relative risk of injury in youth. Consequently, it would seem prudent for any long-term athletic development model to accommodate a diversification approach that enables children to sample a range of activities and sports before specializing in a single sport or activity at a later stage of development.
Youth coach's dozen
Effective pedagogy lies at the heart of any successful youth program. Although knowledge of pediatric exercise science and developmental psychology remain necessary as prerequisites for effective teaching, youth fitness specialists ultimately need to design and implement instructional methods that enhance the process of learning and discovery. Research has enhanced our understanding of effective instructional practices in the classroom, but it is up to us to adapt these fundamental principles to the practice of pediatric exercise science. We can find a useful framework for discussing the characteristics of successful exercise and sport professionals in the 5 Cs perspective on positive youth development—namely, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, 2011; Lerner et al., 2005).
The coach's dozen is a list of 12 principles that youth fitness professionals should consider when teaching children and adolescents (Faigenbaum & Meadors, 2016). Some of these principles are well supported by research (Ames, 1995; Bulger, Mohr, & Walls, 2002; Schickedanz, Schickedanz, Forsyth, & Forsyth, 2000), whereas others are based on practical experience in working with school-age youth in schools, fitness centers, and sport programs. The list is not meant to be definitive or comprehensive; rather, it is a collection of principles to help youth fitness specialists promote learning through safe, effective, and enjoyable instructional methods.
1. Ensure a safe exercise environment.
The exercise area must be spacious, uncluttered, well ventilated, and well lit. Exercise equipment should be in good working order and appropriate for the smaller body size of children and adolescents; participants should not use broken or malfunctioning equipment. Loose equipment such as dumbbells, weight plates, and medicine balls should be stored in proper locations. Participants should dress appropriately for the session, and practitioners should periodically review safety rules.
2. Stay connected.
The success of any exercise class or sport program depends largely on the leadership provided by instructors and coaches, who should stay connected to the participants in the program. Take the time to learn every child's name, address individual concerns, and show genuine interest in every participant. A child who makes friends, plays fair, and feels connected to the instructor or coach cannot at the same time be a child who routinely disrupts the program or engages in negative behavior. Encourage participants to ask questions; never use sarcasm. Just like substitute teachers in the classroom, substitute coaches who do not form partnerships with participants will have a very difficult time teaching youth and inspiring them to achieve personal goals. The best approach is for professionals to develop a positive rapport with participants and show that they care.
3. Be enthusiastic.
Youth fitness specialists should be positive and passionate about exercise, fitness, and sport. If coaches are not enthusiastic about teaching, then children will not be enthusiastic about learning. Enthusiasm is contagious and contributes to a positive learning environment. In turn, a positive learning environment contributes to participants' success, which is a powerful motivator for engaging in the desired activities with energy and vigor. Inspiring practitioners generally possess content knowledge, instructional experience, and genuine interest in helping all participants perform to the best of their abilities.
4. Foster creativity.
Youth exercise programs should be both stimulating and engaging while providing an opportunity for participants to develop a positive sense of self. Creativity is associated with physical fitness in children (Latorre Román, Pinillos, Pantoja Vallejo, & Berrios Aguayo, 2017), and efforts to encourage creativity are needed in order to reclaim opportunities for children and adolescents to use their imagination, collaborate with peers, and release their creative energy. Sadly, creative thinking appears to be declining in children (Kim, 2011), which is all the more reason that participants should be given opportunities to create new games and exercises that are safe, stimulating, and fun. Notwithstanding the importance of education and instruction, the creation of new games and exercises contributes to a mastery-oriented climate in which participants control the type of task engagement and overcome self-determined challenges as they apply learned skills in novel situations. For example, participants might create a new exercise with medicine balls or modify a game of tag that requires speed and agility. This type of instruction can enhance the learning experience and promote physical engagement during exercise classes and sport programs.
5. Understand the process.
In addition to teaching participants about the quantitative aspects of the program (e.g., sets, repetitions, training intensity), youth fitness specialists should also engage participants in activities that are both physically and mentally challenging (Collins et al., 2016). That is to say, both the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the movement experience should be considered when implementing and evaluating youth programs (Faigenbaum & Rial, 2018; Pesce, Faigenbaum, Goudas, & Tomporowski, 2018). Highly effective youth fitness specialists use instructional strategies that engage participants repeatedly throughout the practice session. When participants do something right, the practitioner should praise them; and if they do something wrong, the practitioner should help them understand that they are still liked as a person. The most important motives for youth are to demonstrate physical competence, gain social acceptance, and have fun.
6. Deliver clear instructions.
Successful youth fitness specialists are good listeners and exceptional communicators who understand individual needs and learning styles. In order to teach effectively, practitioners need to be concerned with how they deliver content to participants and how the participants react to that delivery. To help explain an exercise or game, a practitioner can use aids such as analogies, demonstrations, and coaching cues. The practitioner's tone, pronunciation, and choice of words can also influence participants' ability to understand lesson content. In some cases, it may be helpful to provide participants with an agenda for the activity period. Combining instructions with clear demonstrations and an organized lesson plan will likely yield the highest physical, cognitive, and affective benefits for participants (Tomporowski et al., 2011).
7. Diversify the portfolio.
The most stimulating youth programs encompass a variety of skills and activities that are developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fun. The outcome of a youth exercise program is determined by systematic and sensible progression of program variables over time, along with enthusiastic instruction. Most children find prolonged periods of monotonousaerobicexercise to be boring. Instead, youth should be exposed to an assortment of exercises and sport activities in a variety of settings with different people so that they can discover what they enjoy while maximizing their physical, psychological, and social development (Lloyd et al., 2014; Pesce et al., 2018).
8. Learn from mistakes.
Youth will inevitably make mistakes when they learn a new exercise or perform a complex skill. Instead of being viewed in a negative light, mistakes should be recognized as valuable parts of the learning process that provide opportunities for participants to become aware of what they know and what they need to improve. When participants correct their own mistakes or offer constructive feedback to a peer, they become engaged learners who are able to think for themselves. Consequently, instead of merely recognizing the strongest participants, or those who perform a complex movement correctly, practitioners should also acknowledge participants who learn from their mistakes, ask for advice, and offer meaningful assistance to others. Collaborative learning provides an opportunity for youth fitness specialists and participants alike to share ideas, learn from each other, and work toward a common goal. This type of engagement can facilitate the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve long-term objectives.
9. Be patient.
Although it may be tempting to look for quick fixes and rapidly advance youth through exercise protocols, sustained participation in exercise and sport is built on a solid foundation of general preparation (Haff, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2016). Therefore, youth fitness specialists need to be patient in their practice so that participants have time to develop basic movement patterns before progressing to more complex skills and advanced training techniques. Practitioners should also recognize individual differences and realize that progression or regression should be based on skill proficiency, disposition, and understanding of training principles. Patience is needed in order to correct technical errors and develop physical skills that properly prepare youth for the enduring demands of exercise and sport. In contrast, an impatient approach to teaching and training increases the risk of injury and limits participants' long-term potential.
10. Maximize recovery.
Designing programs foryouth of any age involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation) (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although any practitioner can make a child tired, successful youth fitness specialists understand and value the importance of developing high-quality movement patterns and enhancing the learning experience through less intense training sessions and appropriate recovery strategies. A training and recovery schedule that is well planned and well balanced improves participants' learning and the program's overall effectiveness. Practitioners need to attend to what is done between sessions as well as what is done during them. The importance of adequate recovery needs to be reinforced regularly because a ‘‘more is better'' attitude is counterproductive. Related factors such as adequate hydration, proper nutrition, and sufficient sleep also promote well-being, which in turn enhances learning and on-task behavior during exercise sessions and sport practices (Oliver et al., 2011).
11. Think long-term.
Physical activity is a learned behavior; therefore, children and adolescents should be given ongoing opportunities to participate in exercise and sport programs. Without a long-term approach to physical development, boys and girls are less likely to reach their performance potential (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although some practitioners may want immediate results and quick-fix solutions to problems they encounter, a long-term approach is needed in order to optimize training adaptations and enhance the holistic development of all youth (Oliver et al., 2011). If the health-enhancing benefits of daily physical activity early in life are to be realized later in life, youth fitness specialists must know when to progress an activity and how to modify or even regress an exercise due to poor technique or inappropriate behavior. When practitioners help participants connect new information with what they already know, they encourage participants to think long-term about their education and training.
12. Enjoy the game.
The importance of having fun should not be underestimated when engaging youth in fitness, sport, and clinical exercise programs (Dishman et al., 2005; Visek et al., 2015; Watson, Baker, & Chadwick, 2016). When participants see others having fun and learning new skills, they are more likely to participate and become or remain engaged learners. Although encouragement and support from youth fitness specialists can influence exercise habits, the sheer enjoyment that a child experiences during an exercise session can facilitate sustainment of desired behaviors. In this vein, it is sometimes helpful for practitioners to remember what types of fitness activities they enjoyed as children. The most successful professionals maintain a balance between skill and challenge so that exercises and sport activities remain enjoyable. Participants who become proficient and perceive themselves as skilled are more likely to respond to effective teaching with a higher level of engagement and enjoyment.
The language of movement
Although children require opportunities for experiential learning and exposure to free play in order to refine motor skill patterns, it is often mistakenly thought that children will innately develop motor skill proficiency simply as a result of growth and development. In reality, existing data show that many children are not competent in a range of motor skills (Bryant et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2013), which increases their likelihood of living in a sedentary manner. Thus it is clear that motor skills need to be taught, and teaching effectively means using appropriate pedagogy (Logan, Robinson, Wilson, & Lucas, 2012; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2017). Although multiple factors play a role in the process of learning new skills, we should not underestimate the importance of providing developmentally appropriate instruction during childhood (Foulkes et al., 2015; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). Much in the same way that children require support and guidance from teachers in order to learn to read or play a musical instrument, they also need youth fitness specialists to teach them to move correctly. Indeed, developing a vocabulary of rudimentary and fundamental motor skills early in life should be viewed as the foundation for more specialized motor skills at a later stage of development. Pedagogically, the crucial skill of the youth fitness specialist is to say the right thing to the right individual at the right time in order to foster a positive learning environment for the child, which helps guide the child toward competence in a range of motor skills.
Achievement goal theory describes the goals and attributions that individuals embrace in the learning process and that ultimately influence the way in which they approach and engage with their learning environment (Palmer et al., 2017). The literature indicates that learners typically assume either a mastery orientation or a performance orientation in regard to the process of learning (Ames, 1992; Palmer et al., 2017; Robinson, 2011a). Fostering a mastery-oriented climate to learning encourages youth to engage in learning for intrinsic value and to judge improvement against self-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is one's motor skill performance now than it was in the previous session). In contrast, a task-oriented climate leads the child to try to prove competence, avoid failure, and judge successful learning against norm-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is a child's motor skill performance than that of others in the group).
Within the education literature, research shows that adopting a mastery-oriented learning climate leads to greater intrinsic interest and more time spent on task (Butler, 1987; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988), belief in the notion that effort leads to success (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985), positive attitudes toward learning (Ames, 1992), and greater resilience in the face of challenges (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). In addition, recent systematic review data have shown that adopting a mastery-oriented climate leads to improved motor skill competence in young children (Palmer et al., 2017); more specifically, studies have shown enhanced competence in object control (Robinson, 2011a; Robinson, Palmer, & Bub, 2016; L.E. Robinson, Veldman, Palmer, & Okely, 2017) and locomotive skills (L.E. Robinson et al., 2016; Robinson, Webster, Logan, Lucas, & Barber, 2012). From a holistic perspective, practitioners should promote intrinsic motivation in youth in order to encourage children and adolescents to participate, improve, and develop skills while also reducing the risk of being driven solely by external rewards such as trophies.
Should youth sample or specialize?
Sampling can be defined as an approach that encourages children to experience a number of different sports or activities with qualified instruction, or a number of different positions within a sport. Arguments in favor of sampling note that it does not restrict elite development in sports where peak performance is typically witnessed after maturation; it is associated with longer sporting careers and facilitates long-term participation in sport; it positively affects youth development; and deliberate play serves as a foundation for intrinsic motivation and provides a range of motor and cognitive experiences (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). In contrast, early specialization involves intensive year-round training in a single sport from a young age, which likely limits the child's exposure to a breadth of sporting activities (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016). Although researchers and youth fitness specialists have debated the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches for youth development, concerns are now growing about the inherent risks associated with early specialization (see figure 4.1) (LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2015b; Myer et al., 2015).
Figure 4.1 Potential negative consequences of early sport specialization.
Based on data from Jayanthi et al. (2011); Fleisig, Andrews, Cutter, et al. (2011); Barynina and Vaitsekhoskii (1992); Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, and Myer (2015); Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011); Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012); Law et al. (2007); Gould et al. (1996); and Wall and Cote (2007).
Despite support for sampling, it is not uncommon for youth to specialize in a single sport from an early age (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016) where apparent benefits of early specialization are promoted. It is now acknowledged, however, that early specialization potentially increases injury rates, likelihood of burnout, and eventual disengagement from sport and physical activity (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; DiFiori et al., 2014; Feeley, Agel, & LaPrade, 2016). One particular concern focuses on the increasing incidence of overuse injuries related to participation in a single sport or a single position in a sport (DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Specialization subjects children to high volumes of repetitive training that promote the monotonous development of a narrow range of movement patterns and provides insufficient opportunities for rest, recovery, and adaptation. Such an approach to physical development can lead to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system, which may result in overuse injury (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; Stein & Micheli, 2010). For example, research indicates that when a high volume of baseball pitching is completed in the absence of developmentally appropriate preparatory physical conditioning, the risk of overuse injury in the shoulder or elbow is likely to increase in young athletes (Fleisig et al., 2011; Iyer, Thapa, Khanna, & Chew, 2012; Olsen, Fleisig, Dun, Loftice, & Andrews, 2006).
Beyond the importance of sampling with qualified instruction to reduce the risks of overuse injury, sampling is also central to the development of athleticism. Fundamental movement skills and requisite levels of muscular strength serve as the building blocks for global, more complex movements at a later stage of development (Cattuzzo et al., 2016; Deli, Bakle, & Zachopoulou, 2006; Hulteen, Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016). Therefore, for all children, possessing competence in a breadth of movement skills is more important than acquiring a depth of mastery in a very narrow range of skills.
For example, early-maturing children who are taller and stronger than peers may be encouraged to play the center position on a high school basketball team. However, even if they succeed, they risk developing only a finite number of movement competencies that are specific to that position if they engage only in sport- and position-specific practice sessions and competitive basketball matches from an early age. In addition, they will typically be at a heightened risk of developing muscular imbalances and asynchronous movement discrepancies, which, in the absence of targeted training programs to address neuromuscular deficiencies, will fail to prepare them for the demands of sport practice and competition. In such cases, though they may develop proficiency in basketball-specific skills, their athleticism and ability to use transferable motor skills in different positions, different sport environments, and different physical activities will likely be reduced, both on the playground and in sport settings.
We also find a need for sampling when we take a global health perspective on helping young people develop a broad range of movement skills in order to promote a satisfactory level of physical literacy. This notion is supported by research showing that children who possess, or perceive themselves as possessing, competent fundamental movement skills are more likely to engage in sport and physical activity, both throughout childhood (Fransen et al., 2014; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012) and into adulthood (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Stodden, Langendorfer, & Roberton, 2009). In addition, motor skill competence has been shown to be inversely associated with overweight and obesity during childhood (D'Hondt et al., 2013; D'Hondt et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2012; Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012). Moreover, motor skill competence appears to decline over time (D'Hondt et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2015; Rodrigues, Stodden, & Lopes, 2016; Stodden, True, Langendorfer, & Gao, 2013), thus highlighting the critical importance of early engagement in appropriate training for long-term athletic development.
Empirical data have shown that specializing later and being exposed to lower volumes of deliberate practice early in life act as significant determinants of elite performance in adulthood (Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). Specifically, the authors collected retrospective data about the careers of a sample of 243 Danish athletes from sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds (e.g., track and field, weightlifting, swimming). The data showed that elite athletes (those who achieved a top-10 finish in a world championship or medaled at the European level) accumulated fewer hours of practice in their “main sport” during childhood and adolescence than did near-elite athletes (see figure 4.2). In the study, age at the time of first competition was about 14.5 years for elite athletes and 12.4 years for non-elite athletes. Overall, the study indicates that athletes who accumulate more hours of specialized practice and focus on competitions at an earlier age may initially experience relative success yet be unable to maintain it as they grow older. The study also showed that elite athletes intensified their training toward the end of adolescence, which resulted in a higher accumulation of training hours around the time of early adulthood (Moesch et al., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Comparison of accumulated hours of practice during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood between elite and near-elite athletes.
Based on data from Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011).
Research also shows that greater sport diversification in early years and later specialization leads to improved physical fitness performance and superior gross motor coordination in 6- to 12-year-old boys (Fransen et al., 2012). In a sample of 735 boys, individuals were categorized as either single-sport or multisport participants. Across all three age groups (6-8, 8-10, and 10-12 years), boys involved in multiple sports spent more time on sport per week (on average, one or two additional hours). More specifically, the research reported two key findings for the 10- to 12-year-olds: Those who participated in more hours of sport per week performed better than those who participated only periodically, and those who specialized in a single sport performed significantly worse in terms of gross motor coordination and standing broad jump tests (see figure 4.3). Combined, these findings suggest that youth benefit from greater exposure to a variety of sport and physical activities (tempered with appropriate rest and preparatory conditioning) and that early specialization can lead to reduced physical performance and a blunting of motor coordination.
Figure 4.3 Performance in the standing broad jump (a) and motor skill quotient (b) for 10- to 12-year-old boys classified within either a specialization or a sampling cohort.
*Significant at P < 0.05
Data from Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012).
Aside from the potential benefits for physical performance, research has also shown that later specialization leads to reduced injury risk in adolescent females (Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, & Myer, 2015). Hall and colleagues (2015) showed that in a sample of 546 female youth athletes (comprising middle and high school years), early specialization increased the relative risk of knee-related injury by a factor of 1.5. Diagnoses included patellar tendinopathy and Osgood-Schlatter disease, the latter of which showed a fourfold increase in relative risk in single-sport specialized athletes versus multiple-sport athletes. These data show that diversification appears to be beneficial not only for physical performance but also for reducing the relative risk of injury in youth. Consequently, it would seem prudent for any long-term athletic development model to accommodate a diversification approach that enables children to sample a range of activities and sports before specializing in a single sport or activity at a later stage of development.
Youth coach's dozen
Effective pedagogy lies at the heart of any successful youth program. Although knowledge of pediatric exercise science and developmental psychology remain necessary as prerequisites for effective teaching, youth fitness specialists ultimately need to design and implement instructional methods that enhance the process of learning and discovery. Research has enhanced our understanding of effective instructional practices in the classroom, but it is up to us to adapt these fundamental principles to the practice of pediatric exercise science. We can find a useful framework for discussing the characteristics of successful exercise and sport professionals in the 5 Cs perspective on positive youth development—namely, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, 2011; Lerner et al., 2005).
The coach's dozen is a list of 12 principles that youth fitness professionals should consider when teaching children and adolescents (Faigenbaum & Meadors, 2016). Some of these principles are well supported by research (Ames, 1995; Bulger, Mohr, & Walls, 2002; Schickedanz, Schickedanz, Forsyth, & Forsyth, 2000), whereas others are based on practical experience in working with school-age youth in schools, fitness centers, and sport programs. The list is not meant to be definitive or comprehensive; rather, it is a collection of principles to help youth fitness specialists promote learning through safe, effective, and enjoyable instructional methods.
1. Ensure a safe exercise environment.
The exercise area must be spacious, uncluttered, well ventilated, and well lit. Exercise equipment should be in good working order and appropriate for the smaller body size of children and adolescents; participants should not use broken or malfunctioning equipment. Loose equipment such as dumbbells, weight plates, and medicine balls should be stored in proper locations. Participants should dress appropriately for the session, and practitioners should periodically review safety rules.
2. Stay connected.
The success of any exercise class or sport program depends largely on the leadership provided by instructors and coaches, who should stay connected to the participants in the program. Take the time to learn every child's name, address individual concerns, and show genuine interest in every participant. A child who makes friends, plays fair, and feels connected to the instructor or coach cannot at the same time be a child who routinely disrupts the program or engages in negative behavior. Encourage participants to ask questions; never use sarcasm. Just like substitute teachers in the classroom, substitute coaches who do not form partnerships with participants will have a very difficult time teaching youth and inspiring them to achieve personal goals. The best approach is for professionals to develop a positive rapport with participants and show that they care.
3. Be enthusiastic.
Youth fitness specialists should be positive and passionate about exercise, fitness, and sport. If coaches are not enthusiastic about teaching, then children will not be enthusiastic about learning. Enthusiasm is contagious and contributes to a positive learning environment. In turn, a positive learning environment contributes to participants' success, which is a powerful motivator for engaging in the desired activities with energy and vigor. Inspiring practitioners generally possess content knowledge, instructional experience, and genuine interest in helping all participants perform to the best of their abilities.
4. Foster creativity.
Youth exercise programs should be both stimulating and engaging while providing an opportunity for participants to develop a positive sense of self. Creativity is associated with physical fitness in children (Latorre Román, Pinillos, Pantoja Vallejo, & Berrios Aguayo, 2017), and efforts to encourage creativity are needed in order to reclaim opportunities for children and adolescents to use their imagination, collaborate with peers, and release their creative energy. Sadly, creative thinking appears to be declining in children (Kim, 2011), which is all the more reason that participants should be given opportunities to create new games and exercises that are safe, stimulating, and fun. Notwithstanding the importance of education and instruction, the creation of new games and exercises contributes to a mastery-oriented climate in which participants control the type of task engagement and overcome self-determined challenges as they apply learned skills in novel situations. For example, participants might create a new exercise with medicine balls or modify a game of tag that requires speed and agility. This type of instruction can enhance the learning experience and promote physical engagement during exercise classes and sport programs.
5. Understand the process.
In addition to teaching participants about the quantitative aspects of the program (e.g., sets, repetitions, training intensity), youth fitness specialists should also engage participants in activities that are both physically and mentally challenging (Collins et al., 2016). That is to say, both the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the movement experience should be considered when implementing and evaluating youth programs (Faigenbaum & Rial, 2018; Pesce, Faigenbaum, Goudas, & Tomporowski, 2018). Highly effective youth fitness specialists use instructional strategies that engage participants repeatedly throughout the practice session. When participants do something right, the practitioner should praise them; and if they do something wrong, the practitioner should help them understand that they are still liked as a person. The most important motives for youth are to demonstrate physical competence, gain social acceptance, and have fun.
6. Deliver clear instructions.
Successful youth fitness specialists are good listeners and exceptional communicators who understand individual needs and learning styles. In order to teach effectively, practitioners need to be concerned with how they deliver content to participants and how the participants react to that delivery. To help explain an exercise or game, a practitioner can use aids such as analogies, demonstrations, and coaching cues. The practitioner's tone, pronunciation, and choice of words can also influence participants' ability to understand lesson content. In some cases, it may be helpful to provide participants with an agenda for the activity period. Combining instructions with clear demonstrations and an organized lesson plan will likely yield the highest physical, cognitive, and affective benefits for participants (Tomporowski et al., 2011).
7. Diversify the portfolio.
The most stimulating youth programs encompass a variety of skills and activities that are developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fun. The outcome of a youth exercise program is determined by systematic and sensible progression of program variables over time, along with enthusiastic instruction. Most children find prolonged periods of monotonousaerobicexercise to be boring. Instead, youth should be exposed to an assortment of exercises and sport activities in a variety of settings with different people so that they can discover what they enjoy while maximizing their physical, psychological, and social development (Lloyd et al., 2014; Pesce et al., 2018).
8. Learn from mistakes.
Youth will inevitably make mistakes when they learn a new exercise or perform a complex skill. Instead of being viewed in a negative light, mistakes should be recognized as valuable parts of the learning process that provide opportunities for participants to become aware of what they know and what they need to improve. When participants correct their own mistakes or offer constructive feedback to a peer, they become engaged learners who are able to think for themselves. Consequently, instead of merely recognizing the strongest participants, or those who perform a complex movement correctly, practitioners should also acknowledge participants who learn from their mistakes, ask for advice, and offer meaningful assistance to others. Collaborative learning provides an opportunity for youth fitness specialists and participants alike to share ideas, learn from each other, and work toward a common goal. This type of engagement can facilitate the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve long-term objectives.
9. Be patient.
Although it may be tempting to look for quick fixes and rapidly advance youth through exercise protocols, sustained participation in exercise and sport is built on a solid foundation of general preparation (Haff, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2016). Therefore, youth fitness specialists need to be patient in their practice so that participants have time to develop basic movement patterns before progressing to more complex skills and advanced training techniques. Practitioners should also recognize individual differences and realize that progression or regression should be based on skill proficiency, disposition, and understanding of training principles. Patience is needed in order to correct technical errors and develop physical skills that properly prepare youth for the enduring demands of exercise and sport. In contrast, an impatient approach to teaching and training increases the risk of injury and limits participants' long-term potential.
10. Maximize recovery.
Designing programs foryouth of any age involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation) (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although any practitioner can make a child tired, successful youth fitness specialists understand and value the importance of developing high-quality movement patterns and enhancing the learning experience through less intense training sessions and appropriate recovery strategies. A training and recovery schedule that is well planned and well balanced improves participants' learning and the program's overall effectiveness. Practitioners need to attend to what is done between sessions as well as what is done during them. The importance of adequate recovery needs to be reinforced regularly because a ‘‘more is better'' attitude is counterproductive. Related factors such as adequate hydration, proper nutrition, and sufficient sleep also promote well-being, which in turn enhances learning and on-task behavior during exercise sessions and sport practices (Oliver et al., 2011).
11. Think long-term.
Physical activity is a learned behavior; therefore, children and adolescents should be given ongoing opportunities to participate in exercise and sport programs. Without a long-term approach to physical development, boys and girls are less likely to reach their performance potential (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although some practitioners may want immediate results and quick-fix solutions to problems they encounter, a long-term approach is needed in order to optimize training adaptations and enhance the holistic development of all youth (Oliver et al., 2011). If the health-enhancing benefits of daily physical activity early in life are to be realized later in life, youth fitness specialists must know when to progress an activity and how to modify or even regress an exercise due to poor technique or inappropriate behavior. When practitioners help participants connect new information with what they already know, they encourage participants to think long-term about their education and training.
12. Enjoy the game.
The importance of having fun should not be underestimated when engaging youth in fitness, sport, and clinical exercise programs (Dishman et al., 2005; Visek et al., 2015; Watson, Baker, & Chadwick, 2016). When participants see others having fun and learning new skills, they are more likely to participate and become or remain engaged learners. Although encouragement and support from youth fitness specialists can influence exercise habits, the sheer enjoyment that a child experiences during an exercise session can facilitate sustainment of desired behaviors. In this vein, it is sometimes helpful for practitioners to remember what types of fitness activities they enjoyed as children. The most successful professionals maintain a balance between skill and challenge so that exercises and sport activities remain enjoyable. Participants who become proficient and perceive themselves as skilled are more likely to respond to effective teaching with a higher level of engagement and enjoyment.
The language of movement
Although children require opportunities for experiential learning and exposure to free play in order to refine motor skill patterns, it is often mistakenly thought that children will innately develop motor skill proficiency simply as a result of growth and development. In reality, existing data show that many children are not competent in a range of motor skills (Bryant et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2013), which increases their likelihood of living in a sedentary manner. Thus it is clear that motor skills need to be taught, and teaching effectively means using appropriate pedagogy (Logan, Robinson, Wilson, & Lucas, 2012; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2017). Although multiple factors play a role in the process of learning new skills, we should not underestimate the importance of providing developmentally appropriate instruction during childhood (Foulkes et al., 2015; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). Much in the same way that children require support and guidance from teachers in order to learn to read or play a musical instrument, they also need youth fitness specialists to teach them to move correctly. Indeed, developing a vocabulary of rudimentary and fundamental motor skills early in life should be viewed as the foundation for more specialized motor skills at a later stage of development. Pedagogically, the crucial skill of the youth fitness specialist is to say the right thing to the right individual at the right time in order to foster a positive learning environment for the child, which helps guide the child toward competence in a range of motor skills.
Achievement goal theory describes the goals and attributions that individuals embrace in the learning process and that ultimately influence the way in which they approach and engage with their learning environment (Palmer et al., 2017). The literature indicates that learners typically assume either a mastery orientation or a performance orientation in regard to the process of learning (Ames, 1992; Palmer et al., 2017; Robinson, 2011a). Fostering a mastery-oriented climate to learning encourages youth to engage in learning for intrinsic value and to judge improvement against self-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is one's motor skill performance now than it was in the previous session). In contrast, a task-oriented climate leads the child to try to prove competence, avoid failure, and judge successful learning against norm-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is a child's motor skill performance than that of others in the group).
Within the education literature, research shows that adopting a mastery-oriented learning climate leads to greater intrinsic interest and more time spent on task (Butler, 1987; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988), belief in the notion that effort leads to success (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985), positive attitudes toward learning (Ames, 1992), and greater resilience in the face of challenges (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). In addition, recent systematic review data have shown that adopting a mastery-oriented climate leads to improved motor skill competence in young children (Palmer et al., 2017); more specifically, studies have shown enhanced competence in object control (Robinson, 2011a; Robinson, Palmer, & Bub, 2016; L.E. Robinson, Veldman, Palmer, & Okely, 2017) and locomotive skills (L.E. Robinson et al., 2016; Robinson, Webster, Logan, Lucas, & Barber, 2012). From a holistic perspective, practitioners should promote intrinsic motivation in youth in order to encourage children and adolescents to participate, improve, and develop skills while also reducing the risk of being driven solely by external rewards such as trophies.
Should youth sample or specialize?
Sampling can be defined as an approach that encourages children to experience a number of different sports or activities with qualified instruction, or a number of different positions within a sport. Arguments in favor of sampling note that it does not restrict elite development in sports where peak performance is typically witnessed after maturation; it is associated with longer sporting careers and facilitates long-term participation in sport; it positively affects youth development; and deliberate play serves as a foundation for intrinsic motivation and provides a range of motor and cognitive experiences (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). In contrast, early specialization involves intensive year-round training in a single sport from a young age, which likely limits the child's exposure to a breadth of sporting activities (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016). Although researchers and youth fitness specialists have debated the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches for youth development, concerns are now growing about the inherent risks associated with early specialization (see figure 4.1) (LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2015b; Myer et al., 2015).
Figure 4.1 Potential negative consequences of early sport specialization.
Based on data from Jayanthi et al. (2011); Fleisig, Andrews, Cutter, et al. (2011); Barynina and Vaitsekhoskii (1992); Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, and Myer (2015); Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011); Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012); Law et al. (2007); Gould et al. (1996); and Wall and Cote (2007).
Despite support for sampling, it is not uncommon for youth to specialize in a single sport from an early age (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016) where apparent benefits of early specialization are promoted. It is now acknowledged, however, that early specialization potentially increases injury rates, likelihood of burnout, and eventual disengagement from sport and physical activity (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; DiFiori et al., 2014; Feeley, Agel, & LaPrade, 2016). One particular concern focuses on the increasing incidence of overuse injuries related to participation in a single sport or a single position in a sport (DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Specialization subjects children to high volumes of repetitive training that promote the monotonous development of a narrow range of movement patterns and provides insufficient opportunities for rest, recovery, and adaptation. Such an approach to physical development can lead to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system, which may result in overuse injury (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; Stein & Micheli, 2010). For example, research indicates that when a high volume of baseball pitching is completed in the absence of developmentally appropriate preparatory physical conditioning, the risk of overuse injury in the shoulder or elbow is likely to increase in young athletes (Fleisig et al., 2011; Iyer, Thapa, Khanna, & Chew, 2012; Olsen, Fleisig, Dun, Loftice, & Andrews, 2006).
Beyond the importance of sampling with qualified instruction to reduce the risks of overuse injury, sampling is also central to the development of athleticism. Fundamental movement skills and requisite levels of muscular strength serve as the building blocks for global, more complex movements at a later stage of development (Cattuzzo et al., 2016; Deli, Bakle, & Zachopoulou, 2006; Hulteen, Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016). Therefore, for all children, possessing competence in a breadth of movement skills is more important than acquiring a depth of mastery in a very narrow range of skills.
For example, early-maturing children who are taller and stronger than peers may be encouraged to play the center position on a high school basketball team. However, even if they succeed, they risk developing only a finite number of movement competencies that are specific to that position if they engage only in sport- and position-specific practice sessions and competitive basketball matches from an early age. In addition, they will typically be at a heightened risk of developing muscular imbalances and asynchronous movement discrepancies, which, in the absence of targeted training programs to address neuromuscular deficiencies, will fail to prepare them for the demands of sport practice and competition. In such cases, though they may develop proficiency in basketball-specific skills, their athleticism and ability to use transferable motor skills in different positions, different sport environments, and different physical activities will likely be reduced, both on the playground and in sport settings.
We also find a need for sampling when we take a global health perspective on helping young people develop a broad range of movement skills in order to promote a satisfactory level of physical literacy. This notion is supported by research showing that children who possess, or perceive themselves as possessing, competent fundamental movement skills are more likely to engage in sport and physical activity, both throughout childhood (Fransen et al., 2014; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012) and into adulthood (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Stodden, Langendorfer, & Roberton, 2009). In addition, motor skill competence has been shown to be inversely associated with overweight and obesity during childhood (D'Hondt et al., 2013; D'Hondt et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2012; Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012). Moreover, motor skill competence appears to decline over time (D'Hondt et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2015; Rodrigues, Stodden, & Lopes, 2016; Stodden, True, Langendorfer, & Gao, 2013), thus highlighting the critical importance of early engagement in appropriate training for long-term athletic development.
Empirical data have shown that specializing later and being exposed to lower volumes of deliberate practice early in life act as significant determinants of elite performance in adulthood (Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). Specifically, the authors collected retrospective data about the careers of a sample of 243 Danish athletes from sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds (e.g., track and field, weightlifting, swimming). The data showed that elite athletes (those who achieved a top-10 finish in a world championship or medaled at the European level) accumulated fewer hours of practice in their “main sport” during childhood and adolescence than did near-elite athletes (see figure 4.2). In the study, age at the time of first competition was about 14.5 years for elite athletes and 12.4 years for non-elite athletes. Overall, the study indicates that athletes who accumulate more hours of specialized practice and focus on competitions at an earlier age may initially experience relative success yet be unable to maintain it as they grow older. The study also showed that elite athletes intensified their training toward the end of adolescence, which resulted in a higher accumulation of training hours around the time of early adulthood (Moesch et al., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Comparison of accumulated hours of practice during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood between elite and near-elite athletes.
Based on data from Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011).
Research also shows that greater sport diversification in early years and later specialization leads to improved physical fitness performance and superior gross motor coordination in 6- to 12-year-old boys (Fransen et al., 2012). In a sample of 735 boys, individuals were categorized as either single-sport or multisport participants. Across all three age groups (6-8, 8-10, and 10-12 years), boys involved in multiple sports spent more time on sport per week (on average, one or two additional hours). More specifically, the research reported two key findings for the 10- to 12-year-olds: Those who participated in more hours of sport per week performed better than those who participated only periodically, and those who specialized in a single sport performed significantly worse in terms of gross motor coordination and standing broad jump tests (see figure 4.3). Combined, these findings suggest that youth benefit from greater exposure to a variety of sport and physical activities (tempered with appropriate rest and preparatory conditioning) and that early specialization can lead to reduced physical performance and a blunting of motor coordination.
Figure 4.3 Performance in the standing broad jump (a) and motor skill quotient (b) for 10- to 12-year-old boys classified within either a specialization or a sampling cohort.
*Significant at P < 0.05
Data from Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012).
Aside from the potential benefits for physical performance, research has also shown that later specialization leads to reduced injury risk in adolescent females (Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, & Myer, 2015). Hall and colleagues (2015) showed that in a sample of 546 female youth athletes (comprising middle and high school years), early specialization increased the relative risk of knee-related injury by a factor of 1.5. Diagnoses included patellar tendinopathy and Osgood-Schlatter disease, the latter of which showed a fourfold increase in relative risk in single-sport specialized athletes versus multiple-sport athletes. These data show that diversification appears to be beneficial not only for physical performance but also for reducing the relative risk of injury in youth. Consequently, it would seem prudent for any long-term athletic development model to accommodate a diversification approach that enables children to sample a range of activities and sports before specializing in a single sport or activity at a later stage of development.
Youth coach's dozen
Effective pedagogy lies at the heart of any successful youth program. Although knowledge of pediatric exercise science and developmental psychology remain necessary as prerequisites for effective teaching, youth fitness specialists ultimately need to design and implement instructional methods that enhance the process of learning and discovery. Research has enhanced our understanding of effective instructional practices in the classroom, but it is up to us to adapt these fundamental principles to the practice of pediatric exercise science. We can find a useful framework for discussing the characteristics of successful exercise and sport professionals in the 5 Cs perspective on positive youth development—namely, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, 2011; Lerner et al., 2005).
The coach's dozen is a list of 12 principles that youth fitness professionals should consider when teaching children and adolescents (Faigenbaum & Meadors, 2016). Some of these principles are well supported by research (Ames, 1995; Bulger, Mohr, & Walls, 2002; Schickedanz, Schickedanz, Forsyth, & Forsyth, 2000), whereas others are based on practical experience in working with school-age youth in schools, fitness centers, and sport programs. The list is not meant to be definitive or comprehensive; rather, it is a collection of principles to help youth fitness specialists promote learning through safe, effective, and enjoyable instructional methods.
1. Ensure a safe exercise environment.
The exercise area must be spacious, uncluttered, well ventilated, and well lit. Exercise equipment should be in good working order and appropriate for the smaller body size of children and adolescents; participants should not use broken or malfunctioning equipment. Loose equipment such as dumbbells, weight plates, and medicine balls should be stored in proper locations. Participants should dress appropriately for the session, and practitioners should periodically review safety rules.
2. Stay connected.
The success of any exercise class or sport program depends largely on the leadership provided by instructors and coaches, who should stay connected to the participants in the program. Take the time to learn every child's name, address individual concerns, and show genuine interest in every participant. A child who makes friends, plays fair, and feels connected to the instructor or coach cannot at the same time be a child who routinely disrupts the program or engages in negative behavior. Encourage participants to ask questions; never use sarcasm. Just like substitute teachers in the classroom, substitute coaches who do not form partnerships with participants will have a very difficult time teaching youth and inspiring them to achieve personal goals. The best approach is for professionals to develop a positive rapport with participants and show that they care.
3. Be enthusiastic.
Youth fitness specialists should be positive and passionate about exercise, fitness, and sport. If coaches are not enthusiastic about teaching, then children will not be enthusiastic about learning. Enthusiasm is contagious and contributes to a positive learning environment. In turn, a positive learning environment contributes to participants' success, which is a powerful motivator for engaging in the desired activities with energy and vigor. Inspiring practitioners generally possess content knowledge, instructional experience, and genuine interest in helping all participants perform to the best of their abilities.
4. Foster creativity.
Youth exercise programs should be both stimulating and engaging while providing an opportunity for participants to develop a positive sense of self. Creativity is associated with physical fitness in children (Latorre Román, Pinillos, Pantoja Vallejo, & Berrios Aguayo, 2017), and efforts to encourage creativity are needed in order to reclaim opportunities for children and adolescents to use their imagination, collaborate with peers, and release their creative energy. Sadly, creative thinking appears to be declining in children (Kim, 2011), which is all the more reason that participants should be given opportunities to create new games and exercises that are safe, stimulating, and fun. Notwithstanding the importance of education and instruction, the creation of new games and exercises contributes to a mastery-oriented climate in which participants control the type of task engagement and overcome self-determined challenges as they apply learned skills in novel situations. For example, participants might create a new exercise with medicine balls or modify a game of tag that requires speed and agility. This type of instruction can enhance the learning experience and promote physical engagement during exercise classes and sport programs.
5. Understand the process.
In addition to teaching participants about the quantitative aspects of the program (e.g., sets, repetitions, training intensity), youth fitness specialists should also engage participants in activities that are both physically and mentally challenging (Collins et al., 2016). That is to say, both the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the movement experience should be considered when implementing and evaluating youth programs (Faigenbaum & Rial, 2018; Pesce, Faigenbaum, Goudas, & Tomporowski, 2018). Highly effective youth fitness specialists use instructional strategies that engage participants repeatedly throughout the practice session. When participants do something right, the practitioner should praise them; and if they do something wrong, the practitioner should help them understand that they are still liked as a person. The most important motives for youth are to demonstrate physical competence, gain social acceptance, and have fun.
6. Deliver clear instructions.
Successful youth fitness specialists are good listeners and exceptional communicators who understand individual needs and learning styles. In order to teach effectively, practitioners need to be concerned with how they deliver content to participants and how the participants react to that delivery. To help explain an exercise or game, a practitioner can use aids such as analogies, demonstrations, and coaching cues. The practitioner's tone, pronunciation, and choice of words can also influence participants' ability to understand lesson content. In some cases, it may be helpful to provide participants with an agenda for the activity period. Combining instructions with clear demonstrations and an organized lesson plan will likely yield the highest physical, cognitive, and affective benefits for participants (Tomporowski et al., 2011).
7. Diversify the portfolio.
The most stimulating youth programs encompass a variety of skills and activities that are developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fun. The outcome of a youth exercise program is determined by systematic and sensible progression of program variables over time, along with enthusiastic instruction. Most children find prolonged periods of monotonousaerobicexercise to be boring. Instead, youth should be exposed to an assortment of exercises and sport activities in a variety of settings with different people so that they can discover what they enjoy while maximizing their physical, psychological, and social development (Lloyd et al., 2014; Pesce et al., 2018).
8. Learn from mistakes.
Youth will inevitably make mistakes when they learn a new exercise or perform a complex skill. Instead of being viewed in a negative light, mistakes should be recognized as valuable parts of the learning process that provide opportunities for participants to become aware of what they know and what they need to improve. When participants correct their own mistakes or offer constructive feedback to a peer, they become engaged learners who are able to think for themselves. Consequently, instead of merely recognizing the strongest participants, or those who perform a complex movement correctly, practitioners should also acknowledge participants who learn from their mistakes, ask for advice, and offer meaningful assistance to others. Collaborative learning provides an opportunity for youth fitness specialists and participants alike to share ideas, learn from each other, and work toward a common goal. This type of engagement can facilitate the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve long-term objectives.
9. Be patient.
Although it may be tempting to look for quick fixes and rapidly advance youth through exercise protocols, sustained participation in exercise and sport is built on a solid foundation of general preparation (Haff, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2016). Therefore, youth fitness specialists need to be patient in their practice so that participants have time to develop basic movement patterns before progressing to more complex skills and advanced training techniques. Practitioners should also recognize individual differences and realize that progression or regression should be based on skill proficiency, disposition, and understanding of training principles. Patience is needed in order to correct technical errors and develop physical skills that properly prepare youth for the enduring demands of exercise and sport. In contrast, an impatient approach to teaching and training increases the risk of injury and limits participants' long-term potential.
10. Maximize recovery.
Designing programs foryouth of any age involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation) (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although any practitioner can make a child tired, successful youth fitness specialists understand and value the importance of developing high-quality movement patterns and enhancing the learning experience through less intense training sessions and appropriate recovery strategies. A training and recovery schedule that is well planned and well balanced improves participants' learning and the program's overall effectiveness. Practitioners need to attend to what is done between sessions as well as what is done during them. The importance of adequate recovery needs to be reinforced regularly because a ‘‘more is better'' attitude is counterproductive. Related factors such as adequate hydration, proper nutrition, and sufficient sleep also promote well-being, which in turn enhances learning and on-task behavior during exercise sessions and sport practices (Oliver et al., 2011).
11. Think long-term.
Physical activity is a learned behavior; therefore, children and adolescents should be given ongoing opportunities to participate in exercise and sport programs. Without a long-term approach to physical development, boys and girls are less likely to reach their performance potential (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although some practitioners may want immediate results and quick-fix solutions to problems they encounter, a long-term approach is needed in order to optimize training adaptations and enhance the holistic development of all youth (Oliver et al., 2011). If the health-enhancing benefits of daily physical activity early in life are to be realized later in life, youth fitness specialists must know when to progress an activity and how to modify or even regress an exercise due to poor technique or inappropriate behavior. When practitioners help participants connect new information with what they already know, they encourage participants to think long-term about their education and training.
12. Enjoy the game.
The importance of having fun should not be underestimated when engaging youth in fitness, sport, and clinical exercise programs (Dishman et al., 2005; Visek et al., 2015; Watson, Baker, & Chadwick, 2016). When participants see others having fun and learning new skills, they are more likely to participate and become or remain engaged learners. Although encouragement and support from youth fitness specialists can influence exercise habits, the sheer enjoyment that a child experiences during an exercise session can facilitate sustainment of desired behaviors. In this vein, it is sometimes helpful for practitioners to remember what types of fitness activities they enjoyed as children. The most successful professionals maintain a balance between skill and challenge so that exercises and sport activities remain enjoyable. Participants who become proficient and perceive themselves as skilled are more likely to respond to effective teaching with a higher level of engagement and enjoyment.
The language of movement
Although children require opportunities for experiential learning and exposure to free play in order to refine motor skill patterns, it is often mistakenly thought that children will innately develop motor skill proficiency simply as a result of growth and development. In reality, existing data show that many children are not competent in a range of motor skills (Bryant et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2013), which increases their likelihood of living in a sedentary manner. Thus it is clear that motor skills need to be taught, and teaching effectively means using appropriate pedagogy (Logan, Robinson, Wilson, & Lucas, 2012; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2017). Although multiple factors play a role in the process of learning new skills, we should not underestimate the importance of providing developmentally appropriate instruction during childhood (Foulkes et al., 2015; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). Much in the same way that children require support and guidance from teachers in order to learn to read or play a musical instrument, they also need youth fitness specialists to teach them to move correctly. Indeed, developing a vocabulary of rudimentary and fundamental motor skills early in life should be viewed as the foundation for more specialized motor skills at a later stage of development. Pedagogically, the crucial skill of the youth fitness specialist is to say the right thing to the right individual at the right time in order to foster a positive learning environment for the child, which helps guide the child toward competence in a range of motor skills.
Achievement goal theory describes the goals and attributions that individuals embrace in the learning process and that ultimately influence the way in which they approach and engage with their learning environment (Palmer et al., 2017). The literature indicates that learners typically assume either a mastery orientation or a performance orientation in regard to the process of learning (Ames, 1992; Palmer et al., 2017; Robinson, 2011a). Fostering a mastery-oriented climate to learning encourages youth to engage in learning for intrinsic value and to judge improvement against self-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is one's motor skill performance now than it was in the previous session). In contrast, a task-oriented climate leads the child to try to prove competence, avoid failure, and judge successful learning against norm-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is a child's motor skill performance than that of others in the group).
Within the education literature, research shows that adopting a mastery-oriented learning climate leads to greater intrinsic interest and more time spent on task (Butler, 1987; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988), belief in the notion that effort leads to success (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985), positive attitudes toward learning (Ames, 1992), and greater resilience in the face of challenges (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). In addition, recent systematic review data have shown that adopting a mastery-oriented climate leads to improved motor skill competence in young children (Palmer et al., 2017); more specifically, studies have shown enhanced competence in object control (Robinson, 2011a; Robinson, Palmer, & Bub, 2016; L.E. Robinson, Veldman, Palmer, & Okely, 2017) and locomotive skills (L.E. Robinson et al., 2016; Robinson, Webster, Logan, Lucas, & Barber, 2012). From a holistic perspective, practitioners should promote intrinsic motivation in youth in order to encourage children and adolescents to participate, improve, and develop skills while also reducing the risk of being driven solely by external rewards such as trophies.
Should youth sample or specialize?
Sampling can be defined as an approach that encourages children to experience a number of different sports or activities with qualified instruction, or a number of different positions within a sport. Arguments in favor of sampling note that it does not restrict elite development in sports where peak performance is typically witnessed after maturation; it is associated with longer sporting careers and facilitates long-term participation in sport; it positively affects youth development; and deliberate play serves as a foundation for intrinsic motivation and provides a range of motor and cognitive experiences (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). In contrast, early specialization involves intensive year-round training in a single sport from a young age, which likely limits the child's exposure to a breadth of sporting activities (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016). Although researchers and youth fitness specialists have debated the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches for youth development, concerns are now growing about the inherent risks associated with early specialization (see figure 4.1) (LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2015b; Myer et al., 2015).
Figure 4.1 Potential negative consequences of early sport specialization.
Based on data from Jayanthi et al. (2011); Fleisig, Andrews, Cutter, et al. (2011); Barynina and Vaitsekhoskii (1992); Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, and Myer (2015); Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011); Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012); Law et al. (2007); Gould et al. (1996); and Wall and Cote (2007).
Despite support for sampling, it is not uncommon for youth to specialize in a single sport from an early age (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016) where apparent benefits of early specialization are promoted. It is now acknowledged, however, that early specialization potentially increases injury rates, likelihood of burnout, and eventual disengagement from sport and physical activity (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; DiFiori et al., 2014; Feeley, Agel, & LaPrade, 2016). One particular concern focuses on the increasing incidence of overuse injuries related to participation in a single sport or a single position in a sport (DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Specialization subjects children to high volumes of repetitive training that promote the monotonous development of a narrow range of movement patterns and provides insufficient opportunities for rest, recovery, and adaptation. Such an approach to physical development can lead to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system, which may result in overuse injury (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; Stein & Micheli, 2010). For example, research indicates that when a high volume of baseball pitching is completed in the absence of developmentally appropriate preparatory physical conditioning, the risk of overuse injury in the shoulder or elbow is likely to increase in young athletes (Fleisig et al., 2011; Iyer, Thapa, Khanna, & Chew, 2012; Olsen, Fleisig, Dun, Loftice, & Andrews, 2006).
Beyond the importance of sampling with qualified instruction to reduce the risks of overuse injury, sampling is also central to the development of athleticism. Fundamental movement skills and requisite levels of muscular strength serve as the building blocks for global, more complex movements at a later stage of development (Cattuzzo et al., 2016; Deli, Bakle, & Zachopoulou, 2006; Hulteen, Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016). Therefore, for all children, possessing competence in a breadth of movement skills is more important than acquiring a depth of mastery in a very narrow range of skills.
For example, early-maturing children who are taller and stronger than peers may be encouraged to play the center position on a high school basketball team. However, even if they succeed, they risk developing only a finite number of movement competencies that are specific to that position if they engage only in sport- and position-specific practice sessions and competitive basketball matches from an early age. In addition, they will typically be at a heightened risk of developing muscular imbalances and asynchronous movement discrepancies, which, in the absence of targeted training programs to address neuromuscular deficiencies, will fail to prepare them for the demands of sport practice and competition. In such cases, though they may develop proficiency in basketball-specific skills, their athleticism and ability to use transferable motor skills in different positions, different sport environments, and different physical activities will likely be reduced, both on the playground and in sport settings.
We also find a need for sampling when we take a global health perspective on helping young people develop a broad range of movement skills in order to promote a satisfactory level of physical literacy. This notion is supported by research showing that children who possess, or perceive themselves as possessing, competent fundamental movement skills are more likely to engage in sport and physical activity, both throughout childhood (Fransen et al., 2014; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012) and into adulthood (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Stodden, Langendorfer, & Roberton, 2009). In addition, motor skill competence has been shown to be inversely associated with overweight and obesity during childhood (D'Hondt et al., 2013; D'Hondt et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2012; Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012). Moreover, motor skill competence appears to decline over time (D'Hondt et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2015; Rodrigues, Stodden, & Lopes, 2016; Stodden, True, Langendorfer, & Gao, 2013), thus highlighting the critical importance of early engagement in appropriate training for long-term athletic development.
Empirical data have shown that specializing later and being exposed to lower volumes of deliberate practice early in life act as significant determinants of elite performance in adulthood (Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). Specifically, the authors collected retrospective data about the careers of a sample of 243 Danish athletes from sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds (e.g., track and field, weightlifting, swimming). The data showed that elite athletes (those who achieved a top-10 finish in a world championship or medaled at the European level) accumulated fewer hours of practice in their “main sport” during childhood and adolescence than did near-elite athletes (see figure 4.2). In the study, age at the time of first competition was about 14.5 years for elite athletes and 12.4 years for non-elite athletes. Overall, the study indicates that athletes who accumulate more hours of specialized practice and focus on competitions at an earlier age may initially experience relative success yet be unable to maintain it as they grow older. The study also showed that elite athletes intensified their training toward the end of adolescence, which resulted in a higher accumulation of training hours around the time of early adulthood (Moesch et al., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Comparison of accumulated hours of practice during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood between elite and near-elite athletes.
Based on data from Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011).
Research also shows that greater sport diversification in early years and later specialization leads to improved physical fitness performance and superior gross motor coordination in 6- to 12-year-old boys (Fransen et al., 2012). In a sample of 735 boys, individuals were categorized as either single-sport or multisport participants. Across all three age groups (6-8, 8-10, and 10-12 years), boys involved in multiple sports spent more time on sport per week (on average, one or two additional hours). More specifically, the research reported two key findings for the 10- to 12-year-olds: Those who participated in more hours of sport per week performed better than those who participated only periodically, and those who specialized in a single sport performed significantly worse in terms of gross motor coordination and standing broad jump tests (see figure 4.3). Combined, these findings suggest that youth benefit from greater exposure to a variety of sport and physical activities (tempered with appropriate rest and preparatory conditioning) and that early specialization can lead to reduced physical performance and a blunting of motor coordination.
Figure 4.3 Performance in the standing broad jump (a) and motor skill quotient (b) for 10- to 12-year-old boys classified within either a specialization or a sampling cohort.
*Significant at P < 0.05
Data from Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012).
Aside from the potential benefits for physical performance, research has also shown that later specialization leads to reduced injury risk in adolescent females (Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, & Myer, 2015). Hall and colleagues (2015) showed that in a sample of 546 female youth athletes (comprising middle and high school years), early specialization increased the relative risk of knee-related injury by a factor of 1.5. Diagnoses included patellar tendinopathy and Osgood-Schlatter disease, the latter of which showed a fourfold increase in relative risk in single-sport specialized athletes versus multiple-sport athletes. These data show that diversification appears to be beneficial not only for physical performance but also for reducing the relative risk of injury in youth. Consequently, it would seem prudent for any long-term athletic development model to accommodate a diversification approach that enables children to sample a range of activities and sports before specializing in a single sport or activity at a later stage of development.
Youth coach's dozen
Effective pedagogy lies at the heart of any successful youth program. Although knowledge of pediatric exercise science and developmental psychology remain necessary as prerequisites for effective teaching, youth fitness specialists ultimately need to design and implement instructional methods that enhance the process of learning and discovery. Research has enhanced our understanding of effective instructional practices in the classroom, but it is up to us to adapt these fundamental principles to the practice of pediatric exercise science. We can find a useful framework for discussing the characteristics of successful exercise and sport professionals in the 5 Cs perspective on positive youth development—namely, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, 2011; Lerner et al., 2005).
The coach's dozen is a list of 12 principles that youth fitness professionals should consider when teaching children and adolescents (Faigenbaum & Meadors, 2016). Some of these principles are well supported by research (Ames, 1995; Bulger, Mohr, & Walls, 2002; Schickedanz, Schickedanz, Forsyth, & Forsyth, 2000), whereas others are based on practical experience in working with school-age youth in schools, fitness centers, and sport programs. The list is not meant to be definitive or comprehensive; rather, it is a collection of principles to help youth fitness specialists promote learning through safe, effective, and enjoyable instructional methods.
1. Ensure a safe exercise environment.
The exercise area must be spacious, uncluttered, well ventilated, and well lit. Exercise equipment should be in good working order and appropriate for the smaller body size of children and adolescents; participants should not use broken or malfunctioning equipment. Loose equipment such as dumbbells, weight plates, and medicine balls should be stored in proper locations. Participants should dress appropriately for the session, and practitioners should periodically review safety rules.
2. Stay connected.
The success of any exercise class or sport program depends largely on the leadership provided by instructors and coaches, who should stay connected to the participants in the program. Take the time to learn every child's name, address individual concerns, and show genuine interest in every participant. A child who makes friends, plays fair, and feels connected to the instructor or coach cannot at the same time be a child who routinely disrupts the program or engages in negative behavior. Encourage participants to ask questions; never use sarcasm. Just like substitute teachers in the classroom, substitute coaches who do not form partnerships with participants will have a very difficult time teaching youth and inspiring them to achieve personal goals. The best approach is for professionals to develop a positive rapport with participants and show that they care.
3. Be enthusiastic.
Youth fitness specialists should be positive and passionate about exercise, fitness, and sport. If coaches are not enthusiastic about teaching, then children will not be enthusiastic about learning. Enthusiasm is contagious and contributes to a positive learning environment. In turn, a positive learning environment contributes to participants' success, which is a powerful motivator for engaging in the desired activities with energy and vigor. Inspiring practitioners generally possess content knowledge, instructional experience, and genuine interest in helping all participants perform to the best of their abilities.
4. Foster creativity.
Youth exercise programs should be both stimulating and engaging while providing an opportunity for participants to develop a positive sense of self. Creativity is associated with physical fitness in children (Latorre Román, Pinillos, Pantoja Vallejo, & Berrios Aguayo, 2017), and efforts to encourage creativity are needed in order to reclaim opportunities for children and adolescents to use their imagination, collaborate with peers, and release their creative energy. Sadly, creative thinking appears to be declining in children (Kim, 2011), which is all the more reason that participants should be given opportunities to create new games and exercises that are safe, stimulating, and fun. Notwithstanding the importance of education and instruction, the creation of new games and exercises contributes to a mastery-oriented climate in which participants control the type of task engagement and overcome self-determined challenges as they apply learned skills in novel situations. For example, participants might create a new exercise with medicine balls or modify a game of tag that requires speed and agility. This type of instruction can enhance the learning experience and promote physical engagement during exercise classes and sport programs.
5. Understand the process.
In addition to teaching participants about the quantitative aspects of the program (e.g., sets, repetitions, training intensity), youth fitness specialists should also engage participants in activities that are both physically and mentally challenging (Collins et al., 2016). That is to say, both the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the movement experience should be considered when implementing and evaluating youth programs (Faigenbaum & Rial, 2018; Pesce, Faigenbaum, Goudas, & Tomporowski, 2018). Highly effective youth fitness specialists use instructional strategies that engage participants repeatedly throughout the practice session. When participants do something right, the practitioner should praise them; and if they do something wrong, the practitioner should help them understand that they are still liked as a person. The most important motives for youth are to demonstrate physical competence, gain social acceptance, and have fun.
6. Deliver clear instructions.
Successful youth fitness specialists are good listeners and exceptional communicators who understand individual needs and learning styles. In order to teach effectively, practitioners need to be concerned with how they deliver content to participants and how the participants react to that delivery. To help explain an exercise or game, a practitioner can use aids such as analogies, demonstrations, and coaching cues. The practitioner's tone, pronunciation, and choice of words can also influence participants' ability to understand lesson content. In some cases, it may be helpful to provide participants with an agenda for the activity period. Combining instructions with clear demonstrations and an organized lesson plan will likely yield the highest physical, cognitive, and affective benefits for participants (Tomporowski et al., 2011).
7. Diversify the portfolio.
The most stimulating youth programs encompass a variety of skills and activities that are developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fun. The outcome of a youth exercise program is determined by systematic and sensible progression of program variables over time, along with enthusiastic instruction. Most children find prolonged periods of monotonousaerobicexercise to be boring. Instead, youth should be exposed to an assortment of exercises and sport activities in a variety of settings with different people so that they can discover what they enjoy while maximizing their physical, psychological, and social development (Lloyd et al., 2014; Pesce et al., 2018).
8. Learn from mistakes.
Youth will inevitably make mistakes when they learn a new exercise or perform a complex skill. Instead of being viewed in a negative light, mistakes should be recognized as valuable parts of the learning process that provide opportunities for participants to become aware of what they know and what they need to improve. When participants correct their own mistakes or offer constructive feedback to a peer, they become engaged learners who are able to think for themselves. Consequently, instead of merely recognizing the strongest participants, or those who perform a complex movement correctly, practitioners should also acknowledge participants who learn from their mistakes, ask for advice, and offer meaningful assistance to others. Collaborative learning provides an opportunity for youth fitness specialists and participants alike to share ideas, learn from each other, and work toward a common goal. This type of engagement can facilitate the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve long-term objectives.
9. Be patient.
Although it may be tempting to look for quick fixes and rapidly advance youth through exercise protocols, sustained participation in exercise and sport is built on a solid foundation of general preparation (Haff, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2016). Therefore, youth fitness specialists need to be patient in their practice so that participants have time to develop basic movement patterns before progressing to more complex skills and advanced training techniques. Practitioners should also recognize individual differences and realize that progression or regression should be based on skill proficiency, disposition, and understanding of training principles. Patience is needed in order to correct technical errors and develop physical skills that properly prepare youth for the enduring demands of exercise and sport. In contrast, an impatient approach to teaching and training increases the risk of injury and limits participants' long-term potential.
10. Maximize recovery.
Designing programs foryouth of any age involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation) (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although any practitioner can make a child tired, successful youth fitness specialists understand and value the importance of developing high-quality movement patterns and enhancing the learning experience through less intense training sessions and appropriate recovery strategies. A training and recovery schedule that is well planned and well balanced improves participants' learning and the program's overall effectiveness. Practitioners need to attend to what is done between sessions as well as what is done during them. The importance of adequate recovery needs to be reinforced regularly because a ‘‘more is better'' attitude is counterproductive. Related factors such as adequate hydration, proper nutrition, and sufficient sleep also promote well-being, which in turn enhances learning and on-task behavior during exercise sessions and sport practices (Oliver et al., 2011).
11. Think long-term.
Physical activity is a learned behavior; therefore, children and adolescents should be given ongoing opportunities to participate in exercise and sport programs. Without a long-term approach to physical development, boys and girls are less likely to reach their performance potential (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although some practitioners may want immediate results and quick-fix solutions to problems they encounter, a long-term approach is needed in order to optimize training adaptations and enhance the holistic development of all youth (Oliver et al., 2011). If the health-enhancing benefits of daily physical activity early in life are to be realized later in life, youth fitness specialists must know when to progress an activity and how to modify or even regress an exercise due to poor technique or inappropriate behavior. When practitioners help participants connect new information with what they already know, they encourage participants to think long-term about their education and training.
12. Enjoy the game.
The importance of having fun should not be underestimated when engaging youth in fitness, sport, and clinical exercise programs (Dishman et al., 2005; Visek et al., 2015; Watson, Baker, & Chadwick, 2016). When participants see others having fun and learning new skills, they are more likely to participate and become or remain engaged learners. Although encouragement and support from youth fitness specialists can influence exercise habits, the sheer enjoyment that a child experiences during an exercise session can facilitate sustainment of desired behaviors. In this vein, it is sometimes helpful for practitioners to remember what types of fitness activities they enjoyed as children. The most successful professionals maintain a balance between skill and challenge so that exercises and sport activities remain enjoyable. Participants who become proficient and perceive themselves as skilled are more likely to respond to effective teaching with a higher level of engagement and enjoyment.
The language of movement
Although children require opportunities for experiential learning and exposure to free play in order to refine motor skill patterns, it is often mistakenly thought that children will innately develop motor skill proficiency simply as a result of growth and development. In reality, existing data show that many children are not competent in a range of motor skills (Bryant et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2013), which increases their likelihood of living in a sedentary manner. Thus it is clear that motor skills need to be taught, and teaching effectively means using appropriate pedagogy (Logan, Robinson, Wilson, & Lucas, 2012; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2017). Although multiple factors play a role in the process of learning new skills, we should not underestimate the importance of providing developmentally appropriate instruction during childhood (Foulkes et al., 2015; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). Much in the same way that children require support and guidance from teachers in order to learn to read or play a musical instrument, they also need youth fitness specialists to teach them to move correctly. Indeed, developing a vocabulary of rudimentary and fundamental motor skills early in life should be viewed as the foundation for more specialized motor skills at a later stage of development. Pedagogically, the crucial skill of the youth fitness specialist is to say the right thing to the right individual at the right time in order to foster a positive learning environment for the child, which helps guide the child toward competence in a range of motor skills.
Achievement goal theory describes the goals and attributions that individuals embrace in the learning process and that ultimately influence the way in which they approach and engage with their learning environment (Palmer et al., 2017). The literature indicates that learners typically assume either a mastery orientation or a performance orientation in regard to the process of learning (Ames, 1992; Palmer et al., 2017; Robinson, 2011a). Fostering a mastery-oriented climate to learning encourages youth to engage in learning for intrinsic value and to judge improvement against self-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is one's motor skill performance now than it was in the previous session). In contrast, a task-oriented climate leads the child to try to prove competence, avoid failure, and judge successful learning against norm-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is a child's motor skill performance than that of others in the group).
Within the education literature, research shows that adopting a mastery-oriented learning climate leads to greater intrinsic interest and more time spent on task (Butler, 1987; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988), belief in the notion that effort leads to success (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985), positive attitudes toward learning (Ames, 1992), and greater resilience in the face of challenges (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). In addition, recent systematic review data have shown that adopting a mastery-oriented climate leads to improved motor skill competence in young children (Palmer et al., 2017); more specifically, studies have shown enhanced competence in object control (Robinson, 2011a; Robinson, Palmer, & Bub, 2016; L.E. Robinson, Veldman, Palmer, & Okely, 2017) and locomotive skills (L.E. Robinson et al., 2016; Robinson, Webster, Logan, Lucas, & Barber, 2012). From a holistic perspective, practitioners should promote intrinsic motivation in youth in order to encourage children and adolescents to participate, improve, and develop skills while also reducing the risk of being driven solely by external rewards such as trophies.
Should youth sample or specialize?
Sampling can be defined as an approach that encourages children to experience a number of different sports or activities with qualified instruction, or a number of different positions within a sport. Arguments in favor of sampling note that it does not restrict elite development in sports where peak performance is typically witnessed after maturation; it is associated with longer sporting careers and facilitates long-term participation in sport; it positively affects youth development; and deliberate play serves as a foundation for intrinsic motivation and provides a range of motor and cognitive experiences (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). In contrast, early specialization involves intensive year-round training in a single sport from a young age, which likely limits the child's exposure to a breadth of sporting activities (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016). Although researchers and youth fitness specialists have debated the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches for youth development, concerns are now growing about the inherent risks associated with early specialization (see figure 4.1) (LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2015b; Myer et al., 2015).
Figure 4.1 Potential negative consequences of early sport specialization.
Based on data from Jayanthi et al. (2011); Fleisig, Andrews, Cutter, et al. (2011); Barynina and Vaitsekhoskii (1992); Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, and Myer (2015); Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011); Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012); Law et al. (2007); Gould et al. (1996); and Wall and Cote (2007).
Despite support for sampling, it is not uncommon for youth to specialize in a single sport from an early age (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016) where apparent benefits of early specialization are promoted. It is now acknowledged, however, that early specialization potentially increases injury rates, likelihood of burnout, and eventual disengagement from sport and physical activity (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; DiFiori et al., 2014; Feeley, Agel, & LaPrade, 2016). One particular concern focuses on the increasing incidence of overuse injuries related to participation in a single sport or a single position in a sport (DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Specialization subjects children to high volumes of repetitive training that promote the monotonous development of a narrow range of movement patterns and provides insufficient opportunities for rest, recovery, and adaptation. Such an approach to physical development can lead to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system, which may result in overuse injury (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; Stein & Micheli, 2010). For example, research indicates that when a high volume of baseball pitching is completed in the absence of developmentally appropriate preparatory physical conditioning, the risk of overuse injury in the shoulder or elbow is likely to increase in young athletes (Fleisig et al., 2011; Iyer, Thapa, Khanna, & Chew, 2012; Olsen, Fleisig, Dun, Loftice, & Andrews, 2006).
Beyond the importance of sampling with qualified instruction to reduce the risks of overuse injury, sampling is also central to the development of athleticism. Fundamental movement skills and requisite levels of muscular strength serve as the building blocks for global, more complex movements at a later stage of development (Cattuzzo et al., 2016; Deli, Bakle, & Zachopoulou, 2006; Hulteen, Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016). Therefore, for all children, possessing competence in a breadth of movement skills is more important than acquiring a depth of mastery in a very narrow range of skills.
For example, early-maturing children who are taller and stronger than peers may be encouraged to play the center position on a high school basketball team. However, even if they succeed, they risk developing only a finite number of movement competencies that are specific to that position if they engage only in sport- and position-specific practice sessions and competitive basketball matches from an early age. In addition, they will typically be at a heightened risk of developing muscular imbalances and asynchronous movement discrepancies, which, in the absence of targeted training programs to address neuromuscular deficiencies, will fail to prepare them for the demands of sport practice and competition. In such cases, though they may develop proficiency in basketball-specific skills, their athleticism and ability to use transferable motor skills in different positions, different sport environments, and different physical activities will likely be reduced, both on the playground and in sport settings.
We also find a need for sampling when we take a global health perspective on helping young people develop a broad range of movement skills in order to promote a satisfactory level of physical literacy. This notion is supported by research showing that children who possess, or perceive themselves as possessing, competent fundamental movement skills are more likely to engage in sport and physical activity, both throughout childhood (Fransen et al., 2014; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012) and into adulthood (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Stodden, Langendorfer, & Roberton, 2009). In addition, motor skill competence has been shown to be inversely associated with overweight and obesity during childhood (D'Hondt et al., 2013; D'Hondt et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2012; Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012). Moreover, motor skill competence appears to decline over time (D'Hondt et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2015; Rodrigues, Stodden, & Lopes, 2016; Stodden, True, Langendorfer, & Gao, 2013), thus highlighting the critical importance of early engagement in appropriate training for long-term athletic development.
Empirical data have shown that specializing later and being exposed to lower volumes of deliberate practice early in life act as significant determinants of elite performance in adulthood (Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). Specifically, the authors collected retrospective data about the careers of a sample of 243 Danish athletes from sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds (e.g., track and field, weightlifting, swimming). The data showed that elite athletes (those who achieved a top-10 finish in a world championship or medaled at the European level) accumulated fewer hours of practice in their “main sport” during childhood and adolescence than did near-elite athletes (see figure 4.2). In the study, age at the time of first competition was about 14.5 years for elite athletes and 12.4 years for non-elite athletes. Overall, the study indicates that athletes who accumulate more hours of specialized practice and focus on competitions at an earlier age may initially experience relative success yet be unable to maintain it as they grow older. The study also showed that elite athletes intensified their training toward the end of adolescence, which resulted in a higher accumulation of training hours around the time of early adulthood (Moesch et al., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Comparison of accumulated hours of practice during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood between elite and near-elite athletes.
Based on data from Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011).
Research also shows that greater sport diversification in early years and later specialization leads to improved physical fitness performance and superior gross motor coordination in 6- to 12-year-old boys (Fransen et al., 2012). In a sample of 735 boys, individuals were categorized as either single-sport or multisport participants. Across all three age groups (6-8, 8-10, and 10-12 years), boys involved in multiple sports spent more time on sport per week (on average, one or two additional hours). More specifically, the research reported two key findings for the 10- to 12-year-olds: Those who participated in more hours of sport per week performed better than those who participated only periodically, and those who specialized in a single sport performed significantly worse in terms of gross motor coordination and standing broad jump tests (see figure 4.3). Combined, these findings suggest that youth benefit from greater exposure to a variety of sport and physical activities (tempered with appropriate rest and preparatory conditioning) and that early specialization can lead to reduced physical performance and a blunting of motor coordination.
Figure 4.3 Performance in the standing broad jump (a) and motor skill quotient (b) for 10- to 12-year-old boys classified within either a specialization or a sampling cohort.
*Significant at P < 0.05
Data from Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012).
Aside from the potential benefits for physical performance, research has also shown that later specialization leads to reduced injury risk in adolescent females (Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, & Myer, 2015). Hall and colleagues (2015) showed that in a sample of 546 female youth athletes (comprising middle and high school years), early specialization increased the relative risk of knee-related injury by a factor of 1.5. Diagnoses included patellar tendinopathy and Osgood-Schlatter disease, the latter of which showed a fourfold increase in relative risk in single-sport specialized athletes versus multiple-sport athletes. These data show that diversification appears to be beneficial not only for physical performance but also for reducing the relative risk of injury in youth. Consequently, it would seem prudent for any long-term athletic development model to accommodate a diversification approach that enables children to sample a range of activities and sports before specializing in a single sport or activity at a later stage of development.
Youth coach's dozen
Effective pedagogy lies at the heart of any successful youth program. Although knowledge of pediatric exercise science and developmental psychology remain necessary as prerequisites for effective teaching, youth fitness specialists ultimately need to design and implement instructional methods that enhance the process of learning and discovery. Research has enhanced our understanding of effective instructional practices in the classroom, but it is up to us to adapt these fundamental principles to the practice of pediatric exercise science. We can find a useful framework for discussing the characteristics of successful exercise and sport professionals in the 5 Cs perspective on positive youth development—namely, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, 2011; Lerner et al., 2005).
The coach's dozen is a list of 12 principles that youth fitness professionals should consider when teaching children and adolescents (Faigenbaum & Meadors, 2016). Some of these principles are well supported by research (Ames, 1995; Bulger, Mohr, & Walls, 2002; Schickedanz, Schickedanz, Forsyth, & Forsyth, 2000), whereas others are based on practical experience in working with school-age youth in schools, fitness centers, and sport programs. The list is not meant to be definitive or comprehensive; rather, it is a collection of principles to help youth fitness specialists promote learning through safe, effective, and enjoyable instructional methods.
1. Ensure a safe exercise environment.
The exercise area must be spacious, uncluttered, well ventilated, and well lit. Exercise equipment should be in good working order and appropriate for the smaller body size of children and adolescents; participants should not use broken or malfunctioning equipment. Loose equipment such as dumbbells, weight plates, and medicine balls should be stored in proper locations. Participants should dress appropriately for the session, and practitioners should periodically review safety rules.
2. Stay connected.
The success of any exercise class or sport program depends largely on the leadership provided by instructors and coaches, who should stay connected to the participants in the program. Take the time to learn every child's name, address individual concerns, and show genuine interest in every participant. A child who makes friends, plays fair, and feels connected to the instructor or coach cannot at the same time be a child who routinely disrupts the program or engages in negative behavior. Encourage participants to ask questions; never use sarcasm. Just like substitute teachers in the classroom, substitute coaches who do not form partnerships with participants will have a very difficult time teaching youth and inspiring them to achieve personal goals. The best approach is for professionals to develop a positive rapport with participants and show that they care.
3. Be enthusiastic.
Youth fitness specialists should be positive and passionate about exercise, fitness, and sport. If coaches are not enthusiastic about teaching, then children will not be enthusiastic about learning. Enthusiasm is contagious and contributes to a positive learning environment. In turn, a positive learning environment contributes to participants' success, which is a powerful motivator for engaging in the desired activities with energy and vigor. Inspiring practitioners generally possess content knowledge, instructional experience, and genuine interest in helping all participants perform to the best of their abilities.
4. Foster creativity.
Youth exercise programs should be both stimulating and engaging while providing an opportunity for participants to develop a positive sense of self. Creativity is associated with physical fitness in children (Latorre Román, Pinillos, Pantoja Vallejo, & Berrios Aguayo, 2017), and efforts to encourage creativity are needed in order to reclaim opportunities for children and adolescents to use their imagination, collaborate with peers, and release their creative energy. Sadly, creative thinking appears to be declining in children (Kim, 2011), which is all the more reason that participants should be given opportunities to create new games and exercises that are safe, stimulating, and fun. Notwithstanding the importance of education and instruction, the creation of new games and exercises contributes to a mastery-oriented climate in which participants control the type of task engagement and overcome self-determined challenges as they apply learned skills in novel situations. For example, participants might create a new exercise with medicine balls or modify a game of tag that requires speed and agility. This type of instruction can enhance the learning experience and promote physical engagement during exercise classes and sport programs.
5. Understand the process.
In addition to teaching participants about the quantitative aspects of the program (e.g., sets, repetitions, training intensity), youth fitness specialists should also engage participants in activities that are both physically and mentally challenging (Collins et al., 2016). That is to say, both the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the movement experience should be considered when implementing and evaluating youth programs (Faigenbaum & Rial, 2018; Pesce, Faigenbaum, Goudas, & Tomporowski, 2018). Highly effective youth fitness specialists use instructional strategies that engage participants repeatedly throughout the practice session. When participants do something right, the practitioner should praise them; and if they do something wrong, the practitioner should help them understand that they are still liked as a person. The most important motives for youth are to demonstrate physical competence, gain social acceptance, and have fun.
6. Deliver clear instructions.
Successful youth fitness specialists are good listeners and exceptional communicators who understand individual needs and learning styles. In order to teach effectively, practitioners need to be concerned with how they deliver content to participants and how the participants react to that delivery. To help explain an exercise or game, a practitioner can use aids such as analogies, demonstrations, and coaching cues. The practitioner's tone, pronunciation, and choice of words can also influence participants' ability to understand lesson content. In some cases, it may be helpful to provide participants with an agenda for the activity period. Combining instructions with clear demonstrations and an organized lesson plan will likely yield the highest physical, cognitive, and affective benefits for participants (Tomporowski et al., 2011).
7. Diversify the portfolio.
The most stimulating youth programs encompass a variety of skills and activities that are developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fun. The outcome of a youth exercise program is determined by systematic and sensible progression of program variables over time, along with enthusiastic instruction. Most children find prolonged periods of monotonousaerobicexercise to be boring. Instead, youth should be exposed to an assortment of exercises and sport activities in a variety of settings with different people so that they can discover what they enjoy while maximizing their physical, psychological, and social development (Lloyd et al., 2014; Pesce et al., 2018).
8. Learn from mistakes.
Youth will inevitably make mistakes when they learn a new exercise or perform a complex skill. Instead of being viewed in a negative light, mistakes should be recognized as valuable parts of the learning process that provide opportunities for participants to become aware of what they know and what they need to improve. When participants correct their own mistakes or offer constructive feedback to a peer, they become engaged learners who are able to think for themselves. Consequently, instead of merely recognizing the strongest participants, or those who perform a complex movement correctly, practitioners should also acknowledge participants who learn from their mistakes, ask for advice, and offer meaningful assistance to others. Collaborative learning provides an opportunity for youth fitness specialists and participants alike to share ideas, learn from each other, and work toward a common goal. This type of engagement can facilitate the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve long-term objectives.
9. Be patient.
Although it may be tempting to look for quick fixes and rapidly advance youth through exercise protocols, sustained participation in exercise and sport is built on a solid foundation of general preparation (Haff, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2016). Therefore, youth fitness specialists need to be patient in their practice so that participants have time to develop basic movement patterns before progressing to more complex skills and advanced training techniques. Practitioners should also recognize individual differences and realize that progression or regression should be based on skill proficiency, disposition, and understanding of training principles. Patience is needed in order to correct technical errors and develop physical skills that properly prepare youth for the enduring demands of exercise and sport. In contrast, an impatient approach to teaching and training increases the risk of injury and limits participants' long-term potential.
10. Maximize recovery.
Designing programs foryouth of any age involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation) (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although any practitioner can make a child tired, successful youth fitness specialists understand and value the importance of developing high-quality movement patterns and enhancing the learning experience through less intense training sessions and appropriate recovery strategies. A training and recovery schedule that is well planned and well balanced improves participants' learning and the program's overall effectiveness. Practitioners need to attend to what is done between sessions as well as what is done during them. The importance of adequate recovery needs to be reinforced regularly because a ‘‘more is better'' attitude is counterproductive. Related factors such as adequate hydration, proper nutrition, and sufficient sleep also promote well-being, which in turn enhances learning and on-task behavior during exercise sessions and sport practices (Oliver et al., 2011).
11. Think long-term.
Physical activity is a learned behavior; therefore, children and adolescents should be given ongoing opportunities to participate in exercise and sport programs. Without a long-term approach to physical development, boys and girls are less likely to reach their performance potential (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although some practitioners may want immediate results and quick-fix solutions to problems they encounter, a long-term approach is needed in order to optimize training adaptations and enhance the holistic development of all youth (Oliver et al., 2011). If the health-enhancing benefits of daily physical activity early in life are to be realized later in life, youth fitness specialists must know when to progress an activity and how to modify or even regress an exercise due to poor technique or inappropriate behavior. When practitioners help participants connect new information with what they already know, they encourage participants to think long-term about their education and training.
12. Enjoy the game.
The importance of having fun should not be underestimated when engaging youth in fitness, sport, and clinical exercise programs (Dishman et al., 2005; Visek et al., 2015; Watson, Baker, & Chadwick, 2016). When participants see others having fun and learning new skills, they are more likely to participate and become or remain engaged learners. Although encouragement and support from youth fitness specialists can influence exercise habits, the sheer enjoyment that a child experiences during an exercise session can facilitate sustainment of desired behaviors. In this vein, it is sometimes helpful for practitioners to remember what types of fitness activities they enjoyed as children. The most successful professionals maintain a balance between skill and challenge so that exercises and sport activities remain enjoyable. Participants who become proficient and perceive themselves as skilled are more likely to respond to effective teaching with a higher level of engagement and enjoyment.
The language of movement
Although children require opportunities for experiential learning and exposure to free play in order to refine motor skill patterns, it is often mistakenly thought that children will innately develop motor skill proficiency simply as a result of growth and development. In reality, existing data show that many children are not competent in a range of motor skills (Bryant et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2013), which increases their likelihood of living in a sedentary manner. Thus it is clear that motor skills need to be taught, and teaching effectively means using appropriate pedagogy (Logan, Robinson, Wilson, & Lucas, 2012; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2017). Although multiple factors play a role in the process of learning new skills, we should not underestimate the importance of providing developmentally appropriate instruction during childhood (Foulkes et al., 2015; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). Much in the same way that children require support and guidance from teachers in order to learn to read or play a musical instrument, they also need youth fitness specialists to teach them to move correctly. Indeed, developing a vocabulary of rudimentary and fundamental motor skills early in life should be viewed as the foundation for more specialized motor skills at a later stage of development. Pedagogically, the crucial skill of the youth fitness specialist is to say the right thing to the right individual at the right time in order to foster a positive learning environment for the child, which helps guide the child toward competence in a range of motor skills.
Achievement goal theory describes the goals and attributions that individuals embrace in the learning process and that ultimately influence the way in which they approach and engage with their learning environment (Palmer et al., 2017). The literature indicates that learners typically assume either a mastery orientation or a performance orientation in regard to the process of learning (Ames, 1992; Palmer et al., 2017; Robinson, 2011a). Fostering a mastery-oriented climate to learning encourages youth to engage in learning for intrinsic value and to judge improvement against self-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is one's motor skill performance now than it was in the previous session). In contrast, a task-oriented climate leads the child to try to prove competence, avoid failure, and judge successful learning against norm-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is a child's motor skill performance than that of others in the group).
Within the education literature, research shows that adopting a mastery-oriented learning climate leads to greater intrinsic interest and more time spent on task (Butler, 1987; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988), belief in the notion that effort leads to success (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985), positive attitudes toward learning (Ames, 1992), and greater resilience in the face of challenges (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). In addition, recent systematic review data have shown that adopting a mastery-oriented climate leads to improved motor skill competence in young children (Palmer et al., 2017); more specifically, studies have shown enhanced competence in object control (Robinson, 2011a; Robinson, Palmer, & Bub, 2016; L.E. Robinson, Veldman, Palmer, & Okely, 2017) and locomotive skills (L.E. Robinson et al., 2016; Robinson, Webster, Logan, Lucas, & Barber, 2012). From a holistic perspective, practitioners should promote intrinsic motivation in youth in order to encourage children and adolescents to participate, improve, and develop skills while also reducing the risk of being driven solely by external rewards such as trophies.
Should youth sample or specialize?
Sampling can be defined as an approach that encourages children to experience a number of different sports or activities with qualified instruction, or a number of different positions within a sport. Arguments in favor of sampling note that it does not restrict elite development in sports where peak performance is typically witnessed after maturation; it is associated with longer sporting careers and facilitates long-term participation in sport; it positively affects youth development; and deliberate play serves as a foundation for intrinsic motivation and provides a range of motor and cognitive experiences (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). In contrast, early specialization involves intensive year-round training in a single sport from a young age, which likely limits the child's exposure to a breadth of sporting activities (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016). Although researchers and youth fitness specialists have debated the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches for youth development, concerns are now growing about the inherent risks associated with early specialization (see figure 4.1) (LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2015b; Myer et al., 2015).
Figure 4.1 Potential negative consequences of early sport specialization.
Based on data from Jayanthi et al. (2011); Fleisig, Andrews, Cutter, et al. (2011); Barynina and Vaitsekhoskii (1992); Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, and Myer (2015); Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011); Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012); Law et al. (2007); Gould et al. (1996); and Wall and Cote (2007).
Despite support for sampling, it is not uncommon for youth to specialize in a single sport from an early age (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016) where apparent benefits of early specialization are promoted. It is now acknowledged, however, that early specialization potentially increases injury rates, likelihood of burnout, and eventual disengagement from sport and physical activity (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; DiFiori et al., 2014; Feeley, Agel, & LaPrade, 2016). One particular concern focuses on the increasing incidence of overuse injuries related to participation in a single sport or a single position in a sport (DiFiori et al., 2014; LaPrade et al., 2016; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Specialization subjects children to high volumes of repetitive training that promote the monotonous development of a narrow range of movement patterns and provides insufficient opportunities for rest, recovery, and adaptation. Such an approach to physical development can lead to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system, which may result in overuse injury (Brenner & Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2016; DiFiori et al., 2014; Stein & Micheli, 2010). For example, research indicates that when a high volume of baseball pitching is completed in the absence of developmentally appropriate preparatory physical conditioning, the risk of overuse injury in the shoulder or elbow is likely to increase in young athletes (Fleisig et al., 2011; Iyer, Thapa, Khanna, & Chew, 2012; Olsen, Fleisig, Dun, Loftice, & Andrews, 2006).
Beyond the importance of sampling with qualified instruction to reduce the risks of overuse injury, sampling is also central to the development of athleticism. Fundamental movement skills and requisite levels of muscular strength serve as the building blocks for global, more complex movements at a later stage of development (Cattuzzo et al., 2016; Deli, Bakle, & Zachopoulou, 2006; Hulteen, Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018; Lloyd, Cronin, et al., 2016). Therefore, for all children, possessing competence in a breadth of movement skills is more important than acquiring a depth of mastery in a very narrow range of skills.
For example, early-maturing children who are taller and stronger than peers may be encouraged to play the center position on a high school basketball team. However, even if they succeed, they risk developing only a finite number of movement competencies that are specific to that position if they engage only in sport- and position-specific practice sessions and competitive basketball matches from an early age. In addition, they will typically be at a heightened risk of developing muscular imbalances and asynchronous movement discrepancies, which, in the absence of targeted training programs to address neuromuscular deficiencies, will fail to prepare them for the demands of sport practice and competition. In such cases, though they may develop proficiency in basketball-specific skills, their athleticism and ability to use transferable motor skills in different positions, different sport environments, and different physical activities will likely be reduced, both on the playground and in sport settings.
We also find a need for sampling when we take a global health perspective on helping young people develop a broad range of movement skills in order to promote a satisfactory level of physical literacy. This notion is supported by research showing that children who possess, or perceive themselves as possessing, competent fundamental movement skills are more likely to engage in sport and physical activity, both throughout childhood (Fransen et al., 2014; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012) and into adulthood (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Stodden, Langendorfer, & Roberton, 2009). In addition, motor skill competence has been shown to be inversely associated with overweight and obesity during childhood (D'Hondt et al., 2013; D'Hondt et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2012; Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012). Moreover, motor skill competence appears to decline over time (D'Hondt et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2015; Rodrigues, Stodden, & Lopes, 2016; Stodden, True, Langendorfer, & Gao, 2013), thus highlighting the critical importance of early engagement in appropriate training for long-term athletic development.
Empirical data have shown that specializing later and being exposed to lower volumes of deliberate practice early in life act as significant determinants of elite performance in adulthood (Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). Specifically, the authors collected retrospective data about the careers of a sample of 243 Danish athletes from sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds (e.g., track and field, weightlifting, swimming). The data showed that elite athletes (those who achieved a top-10 finish in a world championship or medaled at the European level) accumulated fewer hours of practice in their “main sport” during childhood and adolescence than did near-elite athletes (see figure 4.2). In the study, age at the time of first competition was about 14.5 years for elite athletes and 12.4 years for non-elite athletes. Overall, the study indicates that athletes who accumulate more hours of specialized practice and focus on competitions at an earlier age may initially experience relative success yet be unable to maintain it as they grow older. The study also showed that elite athletes intensified their training toward the end of adolescence, which resulted in a higher accumulation of training hours around the time of early adulthood (Moesch et al., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Comparison of accumulated hours of practice during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood between elite and near-elite athletes.
Based on data from Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, and Wikman (2011).
Research also shows that greater sport diversification in early years and later specialization leads to improved physical fitness performance and superior gross motor coordination in 6- to 12-year-old boys (Fransen et al., 2012). In a sample of 735 boys, individuals were categorized as either single-sport or multisport participants. Across all three age groups (6-8, 8-10, and 10-12 years), boys involved in multiple sports spent more time on sport per week (on average, one or two additional hours). More specifically, the research reported two key findings for the 10- to 12-year-olds: Those who participated in more hours of sport per week performed better than those who participated only periodically, and those who specialized in a single sport performed significantly worse in terms of gross motor coordination and standing broad jump tests (see figure 4.3). Combined, these findings suggest that youth benefit from greater exposure to a variety of sport and physical activities (tempered with appropriate rest and preparatory conditioning) and that early specialization can lead to reduced physical performance and a blunting of motor coordination.
Figure 4.3 Performance in the standing broad jump (a) and motor skill quotient (b) for 10- to 12-year-old boys classified within either a specialization or a sampling cohort.
*Significant at P < 0.05
Data from Fransen, Pion, Vandendriessche, et al. (2012).
Aside from the potential benefits for physical performance, research has also shown that later specialization leads to reduced injury risk in adolescent females (Hall, Barber Foss, Hewett, & Myer, 2015). Hall and colleagues (2015) showed that in a sample of 546 female youth athletes (comprising middle and high school years), early specialization increased the relative risk of knee-related injury by a factor of 1.5. Diagnoses included patellar tendinopathy and Osgood-Schlatter disease, the latter of which showed a fourfold increase in relative risk in single-sport specialized athletes versus multiple-sport athletes. These data show that diversification appears to be beneficial not only for physical performance but also for reducing the relative risk of injury in youth. Consequently, it would seem prudent for any long-term athletic development model to accommodate a diversification approach that enables children to sample a range of activities and sports before specializing in a single sport or activity at a later stage of development.
Youth coach's dozen
Effective pedagogy lies at the heart of any successful youth program. Although knowledge of pediatric exercise science and developmental psychology remain necessary as prerequisites for effective teaching, youth fitness specialists ultimately need to design and implement instructional methods that enhance the process of learning and discovery. Research has enhanced our understanding of effective instructional practices in the classroom, but it is up to us to adapt these fundamental principles to the practice of pediatric exercise science. We can find a useful framework for discussing the characteristics of successful exercise and sport professionals in the 5 Cs perspective on positive youth development—namely, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, 2011; Lerner et al., 2005).
The coach's dozen is a list of 12 principles that youth fitness professionals should consider when teaching children and adolescents (Faigenbaum & Meadors, 2016). Some of these principles are well supported by research (Ames, 1995; Bulger, Mohr, & Walls, 2002; Schickedanz, Schickedanz, Forsyth, & Forsyth, 2000), whereas others are based on practical experience in working with school-age youth in schools, fitness centers, and sport programs. The list is not meant to be definitive or comprehensive; rather, it is a collection of principles to help youth fitness specialists promote learning through safe, effective, and enjoyable instructional methods.
1. Ensure a safe exercise environment.
The exercise area must be spacious, uncluttered, well ventilated, and well lit. Exercise equipment should be in good working order and appropriate for the smaller body size of children and adolescents; participants should not use broken or malfunctioning equipment. Loose equipment such as dumbbells, weight plates, and medicine balls should be stored in proper locations. Participants should dress appropriately for the session, and practitioners should periodically review safety rules.
2. Stay connected.
The success of any exercise class or sport program depends largely on the leadership provided by instructors and coaches, who should stay connected to the participants in the program. Take the time to learn every child's name, address individual concerns, and show genuine interest in every participant. A child who makes friends, plays fair, and feels connected to the instructor or coach cannot at the same time be a child who routinely disrupts the program or engages in negative behavior. Encourage participants to ask questions; never use sarcasm. Just like substitute teachers in the classroom, substitute coaches who do not form partnerships with participants will have a very difficult time teaching youth and inspiring them to achieve personal goals. The best approach is for professionals to develop a positive rapport with participants and show that they care.
3. Be enthusiastic.
Youth fitness specialists should be positive and passionate about exercise, fitness, and sport. If coaches are not enthusiastic about teaching, then children will not be enthusiastic about learning. Enthusiasm is contagious and contributes to a positive learning environment. In turn, a positive learning environment contributes to participants' success, which is a powerful motivator for engaging in the desired activities with energy and vigor. Inspiring practitioners generally possess content knowledge, instructional experience, and genuine interest in helping all participants perform to the best of their abilities.
4. Foster creativity.
Youth exercise programs should be both stimulating and engaging while providing an opportunity for participants to develop a positive sense of self. Creativity is associated with physical fitness in children (Latorre Román, Pinillos, Pantoja Vallejo, & Berrios Aguayo, 2017), and efforts to encourage creativity are needed in order to reclaim opportunities for children and adolescents to use their imagination, collaborate with peers, and release their creative energy. Sadly, creative thinking appears to be declining in children (Kim, 2011), which is all the more reason that participants should be given opportunities to create new games and exercises that are safe, stimulating, and fun. Notwithstanding the importance of education and instruction, the creation of new games and exercises contributes to a mastery-oriented climate in which participants control the type of task engagement and overcome self-determined challenges as they apply learned skills in novel situations. For example, participants might create a new exercise with medicine balls or modify a game of tag that requires speed and agility. This type of instruction can enhance the learning experience and promote physical engagement during exercise classes and sport programs.
5. Understand the process.
In addition to teaching participants about the quantitative aspects of the program (e.g., sets, repetitions, training intensity), youth fitness specialists should also engage participants in activities that are both physically and mentally challenging (Collins et al., 2016). That is to say, both the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the movement experience should be considered when implementing and evaluating youth programs (Faigenbaum & Rial, 2018; Pesce, Faigenbaum, Goudas, & Tomporowski, 2018). Highly effective youth fitness specialists use instructional strategies that engage participants repeatedly throughout the practice session. When participants do something right, the practitioner should praise them; and if they do something wrong, the practitioner should help them understand that they are still liked as a person. The most important motives for youth are to demonstrate physical competence, gain social acceptance, and have fun.
6. Deliver clear instructions.
Successful youth fitness specialists are good listeners and exceptional communicators who understand individual needs and learning styles. In order to teach effectively, practitioners need to be concerned with how they deliver content to participants and how the participants react to that delivery. To help explain an exercise or game, a practitioner can use aids such as analogies, demonstrations, and coaching cues. The practitioner's tone, pronunciation, and choice of words can also influence participants' ability to understand lesson content. In some cases, it may be helpful to provide participants with an agenda for the activity period. Combining instructions with clear demonstrations and an organized lesson plan will likely yield the highest physical, cognitive, and affective benefits for participants (Tomporowski et al., 2011).
7. Diversify the portfolio.
The most stimulating youth programs encompass a variety of skills and activities that are developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fun. The outcome of a youth exercise program is determined by systematic and sensible progression of program variables over time, along with enthusiastic instruction. Most children find prolonged periods of monotonousaerobicexercise to be boring. Instead, youth should be exposed to an assortment of exercises and sport activities in a variety of settings with different people so that they can discover what they enjoy while maximizing their physical, psychological, and social development (Lloyd et al., 2014; Pesce et al., 2018).
8. Learn from mistakes.
Youth will inevitably make mistakes when they learn a new exercise or perform a complex skill. Instead of being viewed in a negative light, mistakes should be recognized as valuable parts of the learning process that provide opportunities for participants to become aware of what they know and what they need to improve. When participants correct their own mistakes or offer constructive feedback to a peer, they become engaged learners who are able to think for themselves. Consequently, instead of merely recognizing the strongest participants, or those who perform a complex movement correctly, practitioners should also acknowledge participants who learn from their mistakes, ask for advice, and offer meaningful assistance to others. Collaborative learning provides an opportunity for youth fitness specialists and participants alike to share ideas, learn from each other, and work toward a common goal. This type of engagement can facilitate the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve long-term objectives.
9. Be patient.
Although it may be tempting to look for quick fixes and rapidly advance youth through exercise protocols, sustained participation in exercise and sport is built on a solid foundation of general preparation (Haff, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2016). Therefore, youth fitness specialists need to be patient in their practice so that participants have time to develop basic movement patterns before progressing to more complex skills and advanced training techniques. Practitioners should also recognize individual differences and realize that progression or regression should be based on skill proficiency, disposition, and understanding of training principles. Patience is needed in order to correct technical errors and develop physical skills that properly prepare youth for the enduring demands of exercise and sport. In contrast, an impatient approach to teaching and training increases the risk of injury and limits participants' long-term potential.
10. Maximize recovery.
Designing programs foryouth of any age involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation) (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although any practitioner can make a child tired, successful youth fitness specialists understand and value the importance of developing high-quality movement patterns and enhancing the learning experience through less intense training sessions and appropriate recovery strategies. A training and recovery schedule that is well planned and well balanced improves participants' learning and the program's overall effectiveness. Practitioners need to attend to what is done between sessions as well as what is done during them. The importance of adequate recovery needs to be reinforced regularly because a ‘‘more is better'' attitude is counterproductive. Related factors such as adequate hydration, proper nutrition, and sufficient sleep also promote well-being, which in turn enhances learning and on-task behavior during exercise sessions and sport practices (Oliver et al., 2011).
11. Think long-term.
Physical activity is a learned behavior; therefore, children and adolescents should be given ongoing opportunities to participate in exercise and sport programs. Without a long-term approach to physical development, boys and girls are less likely to reach their performance potential (Lloyd et al., 2016). Although some practitioners may want immediate results and quick-fix solutions to problems they encounter, a long-term approach is needed in order to optimize training adaptations and enhance the holistic development of all youth (Oliver et al., 2011). If the health-enhancing benefits of daily physical activity early in life are to be realized later in life, youth fitness specialists must know when to progress an activity and how to modify or even regress an exercise due to poor technique or inappropriate behavior. When practitioners help participants connect new information with what they already know, they encourage participants to think long-term about their education and training.
12. Enjoy the game.
The importance of having fun should not be underestimated when engaging youth in fitness, sport, and clinical exercise programs (Dishman et al., 2005; Visek et al., 2015; Watson, Baker, & Chadwick, 2016). When participants see others having fun and learning new skills, they are more likely to participate and become or remain engaged learners. Although encouragement and support from youth fitness specialists can influence exercise habits, the sheer enjoyment that a child experiences during an exercise session can facilitate sustainment of desired behaviors. In this vein, it is sometimes helpful for practitioners to remember what types of fitness activities they enjoyed as children. The most successful professionals maintain a balance between skill and challenge so that exercises and sport activities remain enjoyable. Participants who become proficient and perceive themselves as skilled are more likely to respond to effective teaching with a higher level of engagement and enjoyment.
The language of movement
Although children require opportunities for experiential learning and exposure to free play in order to refine motor skill patterns, it is often mistakenly thought that children will innately develop motor skill proficiency simply as a result of growth and development. In reality, existing data show that many children are not competent in a range of motor skills (Bryant et al., 2014; Hardy et al., 2013), which increases their likelihood of living in a sedentary manner. Thus it is clear that motor skills need to be taught, and teaching effectively means using appropriate pedagogy (Logan, Robinson, Wilson, & Lucas, 2012; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2017). Although multiple factors play a role in the process of learning new skills, we should not underestimate the importance of providing developmentally appropriate instruction during childhood (Foulkes et al., 2015; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). Much in the same way that children require support and guidance from teachers in order to learn to read or play a musical instrument, they also need youth fitness specialists to teach them to move correctly. Indeed, developing a vocabulary of rudimentary and fundamental motor skills early in life should be viewed as the foundation for more specialized motor skills at a later stage of development. Pedagogically, the crucial skill of the youth fitness specialist is to say the right thing to the right individual at the right time in order to foster a positive learning environment for the child, which helps guide the child toward competence in a range of motor skills.
Achievement goal theory describes the goals and attributions that individuals embrace in the learning process and that ultimately influence the way in which they approach and engage with their learning environment (Palmer et al., 2017). The literature indicates that learners typically assume either a mastery orientation or a performance orientation in regard to the process of learning (Ames, 1992; Palmer et al., 2017; Robinson, 2011a). Fostering a mastery-oriented climate to learning encourages youth to engage in learning for intrinsic value and to judge improvement against self-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is one's motor skill performance now than it was in the previous session). In contrast, a task-oriented climate leads the child to try to prove competence, avoid failure, and judge successful learning against norm-referenced standards (e.g., how much better is a child's motor skill performance than that of others in the group).
Within the education literature, research shows that adopting a mastery-oriented learning climate leads to greater intrinsic interest and more time spent on task (Butler, 1987; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988), belief in the notion that effort leads to success (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985), positive attitudes toward learning (Ames, 1992), and greater resilience in the face of challenges (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). In addition, recent systematic review data have shown that adopting a mastery-oriented climate leads to improved motor skill competence in young children (Palmer et al., 2017); more specifically, studies have shown enhanced competence in object control (Robinson, 2011a; Robinson, Palmer, & Bub, 2016; L.E. Robinson, Veldman, Palmer, & Okely, 2017) and locomotive skills (L.E. Robinson et al., 2016; Robinson, Webster, Logan, Lucas, & Barber, 2012). From a holistic perspective, practitioners should promote intrinsic motivation in youth in order to encourage children and adolescents to participate, improve, and develop skills while also reducing the risk of being driven solely by external rewards such as trophies.