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Aquatic fitness is not just for older adults or those with physical limitations. Water exercise is a proven fitness activity that is challenging and fun for all age groups and abilities. It offers reduced-impact options for group exercise, small-group fitness, and personal training. As the primary preparation resource for the certification exam of the Aquatic Exercise Association (AEA), Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition, is the most comprehensive resource to help you design and lead effective exercise sessions in the pool.
With contributions from 17 industry experts, you will learn how to energize your teaching with techniques and programs based on many popular fitness formats, such as kickboxing, yoga, body sculpting, Pilates, walking and jogging, circuits, intervals, and sport-specific training. You'll also find updated research on shallow- and deep-water exercise, as well as new and revised content on the following:
• Specialty equipment such as bikes, treadmills, and gym stations intended for the aquatic environment
• The latest interval training techniques, including HIIT and Tabata
• Water safety guidelines
• Aquatics recommendations from organizations such as the Arthritis Foundation and the National Osteoporosis Foundation
• Nutrition and weight management guidance that reflects the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans
• Business and legal insights on compliance with insurance, music licensing, and the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA)
In addition, the Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual covers basic exercise science concepts, including exercise anatomy and physiology. The text reviews injuries, emergencies, and working with special populations. For those preparing for the AEA Aquatic Fitness Professional Certification exam, you'll find a detailed glossary and index, along with review questions at the conclusion of each chapter, to help you study.
Nowhere else will you find the fitness applications and comprehensive programming you need in one convenient resource. The Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual contains essential foundational information on the components of physical fitness, group fitness teaching techniques, and the AEA Standards and Guidelines. Expand your teaching and career opportunities by cultivating the critical skills for leading safe, enjoyable, and effective aquatic exercise programs.
Part I. Foundations of Fitness and Exercise
Chapter 1. Physical Fitness
Chapter 2. Exercise Anatomy
Chapter 3. Exercise Physiology
Chapter 4. Movement Analysis
Chapter 5. Exercise Motivation and Behavior
Part II. The Aquatic Environment
Chapter 6. Physical Laws as Applied to the Aquatic Environment
Chapter 7. Pool Environment and Design
Part III. Instruction and Programming
Chapter 8. Shallow-Water Exercise
Chapter 9. Deep-Water Exercise
Chapter 10. Aquatic Exercise Leadership
Chapter 11. Aquatic Exercise Programming
Chapter 12. Special Populations and Health Conditions
Part IV. Safety, Scope of Practice, and Legal
Chapter 13. Safety, Emergencies, Injuries, and Instructor Health
Chapter 14. Basic Nutrition and Weight Management
Chapter 15. Business Issues and Legal Considerations
Appendix A. Shallow-Water Exercise
Appendix B. Deep-Water Exercise
Appendix C. Aquatic Fitness Equipment
Appendix D. Answers to Chapter Review Questions
Appendix E. Instructor Worksheets
Appendix F. Sample Class Formats
Glossary
Index
The Aquatic Exercise Association (AEA) is a not-for-profit educational organization committed to the advancement of aquatic fitness worldwide. It has certified more than 45,000 professionals worldwide.
AEA is committed to increasing awareness, education, and networking opportunities to benefit professionals as well as the general public. With AEA, achieving healthy lifestyles through aquatic fitness is a global team effort. AEA embraces cultural diversity in the industry to ensure that individuals worldwide can enjoy and employ the benefits of aquatic fitness programs regardless of age, ability, goals, or interests.
Teaching from the pool deck
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
Advantages
- You are highly visible to participants.
- You can use your whole body to provide visual cues.
- Often, but not always, you can be better heard from on deck.
- You have better visibility of your class. You can see what participants are doing. This is especially important if you are expected to be both lifeguard and instructor.See chapter 13 for AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming - Lifeguard recommendations.
- Some movements, because of their complexity, can be explained and demonstrated only from the deck where participants can see what your whole body is doing.
- Complex choreography is better explained and demonstrated from the deck.
- New participants can usually follow deck instruction best because the instructor is more visible.
- It is easier to change or adjust your music from the deck.
Disadvantages
- You are exposed to the elements (heat, humidity, sun, wind).
- You are leading from a hard surface without the support and buoyancy of the water.
- You increase your risk for injury caused by slipping or impact.
- Your participants might be in prolonged neck hyperextension looking up at you on deck.
- The tempo and execution of movements (air and gravity) must be altered to approximate water conditions (viscosity and buoyancy).
- It can be difficult to demonstrate movements unique to the water, such as suspended training, or high-impact options, including propelled moves.
AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming
Deck Instruction
The AEA recommends deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic classes in most situations. Deck instruction provides the highest level of safety for the participants by allowing better observation and quicker response to emergency situations. Deck instruction also provides greater visibility of the aquatic fitness professional to the participant and the participant to the aquatic fitness professional. The AEA recommends that the aquatic fitness professional remain on deck when there is no additional lifeguard on duty, when there are new participants in the program, or when new movements are being demonstrated.
The safety of the aquatic fitness professional does not have to be compromised if proper precautions are taken. Suggestions for safe deck instruction include the following:
- Avoid high-impact movement demonstration.
- Use a chair for low-impact demonstrations and balance needs.
- Consider non-impact teaching techniques.
- Wear proper footwear for deck instruction.
- When available, use a teaching mat to reduce impact stress.
- Wear appropriate clothing for the environment in which you work.
- Drink sufficient water to stay hydrated and protect your voice.
- Use a microphone when available or incorporate non-verbal cues.
- Position the music source where it provides the least interference with vocal cueing.
- Use caution when utilizing any electrical source, including sound systems, near a pool due to potential hazard of electrical shock.
- Lead the workout rather than participate in the workout.
- Train for endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance within your personal workout program to assure the ability to perform safely on the deck.
Movement Execution and Weight Transfer
Safe and effective demonstration of impact options for various moves and combinations is one of the toughest challenges an instructor faces when teaching from the deck. On deck, the instructor needs to demonstrate grounded, propelled, and level I, II, and III movements at an appropriate tempo with gravity and without the benefits of buoyancy. Needless to say, this requires careful planning as well as the assistance of teaching tools, such as chairs, stools, and walls. Here, we discuss three deck instruction options: full impact, low impact, and non-impact.
Full (high) impact.
Many moves, such as jumping jacks, cross-country skis, jogs, knee lifts, kicks, turns, leaps, and rocks, can be demonstrated with full impact on deck (see figure 10.9). With modification to a slower tempo, full impact is most similar to the actual mechanics of the movement as it is to be performed in the water.
Figure 10.9 If a slower tempo is used, full impact instruction most closely resembles the actual exercise being taught.
Deck demonstration provides challenges that make full-impact instruction precarious. Most pool decks are made of a hard surface, such as concrete or tile, and might be slippery, especially when wet. Leading a class with full impact increases your risk for overuse and acute injuries. Most aquatic fitness professionals choose low-impact or non-impact demonstrations to save wear and tear on their musculoskeletal system. You can reduce slipping and impact stress by wearing a supportive pair of shoes and using a nonskid cushioned mat on deck. Full impact should be used only sparingly to demonstrate the first few repetitions of a movement, set a pace, or motivate the class.
Reduced (low) impact.
Reduced impact demonstration protects your musculoskeletal system when leading from the pool deck. It is often the preferred method of deck instruction for most movements because of its versatility and safety (figure 10.10). However, reduced impact demonstrations are not without challenges.
Figure 10.10 Reduced impact instructing from the deck is often the preferred method.
Since your actual demonstration might not show the intended impact level, you must otherwise cue participants immersed in the water to perform the desired impact. Consider the use of clear vocal cues, hand signals, or even printed signs (e.g., "jump", "propel", or, "tuck"). You might also refer to a participant in the pool with proper mechanics for others to observe and imitate.
Low-impact demonstrations can also challenge your balance skills. The use of a pole, wall, or chair for support can help with balance on deck. Maintaining a wide base of support (feet at shoulder width or slightly wider) and lowering your center of gravity (slight squat position) improves stability and balance and makes many movements easier to perform on deck at the appropriate tempo.
If you march on deck, participants will generally march in the pool. However, if you wanted them to jog in the water, your visual cue was not successful. The problem lies with your demonstration of weight transfer. Adjust your teaching technique while still keeping a low-impact option by quickly shifting the weight from one foot to the other, while enhancing your demonstration with exaggerated visual cues. Plantar flexing at the ankle and rolling from the ball of the foot to the heel to quickly shift weight from one foot to the next gives more of the appearance of jumping from foot to foot to perform a jogging motion. This technique helps motivate participants to perform the desired movement with proper intensity.
You may also incorporate a chair or stool for a low-impact teaching alternative. While seated, you can demonstrate one-footed and two-footed moves with less impact because most of your body weight is supported by the chair or stool, yet the feet do contact the pool deck with each move. The drawback is that participants may assume that the movement is at level II, even if the exercise should be performed at level I in the water. To make this more effective, add a verbal cue, a hand signal, or possibly even a cue card to clarify.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Benefits and considerations of aquatic exercise for older adults
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities.
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities. Although many countries have accepted the World Health Organization's definition for the terms elderly or older person as a person with a chronological age of 65 years or more, it is important to understand that the rate of physical decline will vary from person to person (figure 12.1). Functional age is the level of physical independence, while chronological age is measured in years. Although both are relevant to programming, chronological and functional ages do not always align. Many older adults might have an advanced chronological age but a young functional age, and the reverse is possible as well.
Figure 12.1 Many adults may be chronologically older, but they function like people much younger than themselves.
General Characteristics
The American Medical Association's Committee on Aging (www.ama-assn.org) found that it was almost impossible to distinguish between the effects of aging and the effects of physical inactivity. Low energy, weakness, poor muscular strength, stress and tension, high cholesterol, diabetes, stiffness, constipation, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, insomnia, back problems, and decreased range of motion are all common issues associated with both aging and physical inactivity. The good news is that research shows that participation in regular exercise at any age can help improve many of these conditions and reduce the risk for developing them.
Physical changes occur as part of the aging process. The degree to which these changes occur varies from person to person, and may be influenced by lifestyle choices.
Sensory Changes
- Decreased visual sharpness and perception, smaller visual field, and impaired judgment of the speed of moving objects
- Decreased hearing sharpness and reduced ability to discriminate among different sounds
- Reduced sensitivity to touch
- Decreased communication between muscles and nerves and decreased reaction time, leading to altered mobility, response time, spatial awareness, and balance
Physical Changes
- Decreased height, partially due to spinal compression
- Decreased bone density, with increased risk of fractures
- Decreased fitness levels (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility)
Physiological Changes
- Enlarged heart with reduced function, decreased ability to contract, reduced pumping capacity, and reduced maximum attainable heart rate
- Reduced elasticity and diameter of blood vessels; increased blood pressure
- Decreased response of the immune system and ability to fight infection
- Decreased function of the respiratory system and reduced breathing capacity
Psychological Changes
Although psychological changes are harder to document, many older adults experience depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological conditions.
Exercise Guidelines
The ACSM guidelines for older adults are similar to the general recommendations provided in chapter 11, with additional suggestions regarding the time and intensity of training. Older adults will benefit more by using perceived exertion to monitor exercise intensity (ACSM 2018). Instructors should select aerobic activities that do not create orthopedic stress, choose weight training or weight-bearing movements to target muscular fitness, and employ slow movements that pause in a sustained stretch to enhance flexibility. Programs should also include neuromotor exercises to both improve balance and reduce the risk of falling.
Exercise programs for older adults should focus on the physiological and psychological changes associated with the aging process, while also respecting the individual needs of the participants. A specific class for seniors should do the following:
- Promotemusculoskeletal health, joint function, bone strength, muscular strength and endurance, posture
- Improve physical fitness and physical function: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, power, coordination, and agility
- Assist with fall prevention: lower-body strength, balance, and walking skills
- Improve mental health: self-esteem, social interaction, sense of achievement and productivity, memory, and motivation
Programming Considerations
Safety.
Five minutes spent before class acclimating new students to the pool surroundings can prevent accidents and alleviate the need for rescue or emergency assistance. Make sure participants are familiar with pool lifts, ramps, and accessible ladders for the shallow and deep ends as well as for changes in pool depths. Because of possible limitations with balance and reaction time, vision, and hearing, deliver instructions in a manner that is easy for participants to hear, see, and understand.
Programming.
Many of the aquatic program formats discussed in chapter 11 can be adapted for an older adult population, including continuous, interval, and circuit training for both shallow and deep water. Offer low-impact options for participants who cannot safely or comfortably perform high-impact activities, even in the aquatic environment. Use all three planes for movement to encourage increased range of motion and better enhance performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). Include movements that change direction to improve balance and coordination. Transitional moves allow time to readjust body alignment during changes in movement planes or directions of travel. Plan movements that target muscular balance in both strength and flexibility, focusing on common areas of misalignment, such as rounded shoulders (scapular protraction) and forward head posture.
Leadership skills.
Incorporate both audible and visual cues to accommodate participants with sensory limitations. Older adults benefit from eye contact and instructor interaction, both of which also allow you to monitor student comfort (e.g., becoming chilled, overheated, fatigued) and understanding of exercise technique. Encourage socialization and interaction among participants through planned activities. This can help maintain control of the class and minimize unwanted talking during times when the focus needs to be directed to intensity, form, alignment, and safety. Consider the pool acoustics when determining music use; participants must be able to hear your audible cues during class. If you incorporate music, choose an appropriate tempo for the population, class format, and water depth. Base the music style on the preferences of the participants.
Equipment.
Upper-body drag equipment, especially gloves or mitts that do not require gripping, can be easier for older adults to use safely and effectively. The resistance level can be individualized and based on the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. Gloves should fit loosely to prevent a reduction in blood circulation. When using buoyancy equipment, remember that older adults may have a lower body density and a high level of buoyancy due to body composition. Choose buoyancy equipment that does not compromise body alignment and stability or the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. People who are not completely comfortable in the aquatic environment, as well as those with balance issues or limitations with walking, may benefit from using equipment for support, such as holding a noodle or kickboard on the surface of the water.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Review some of the most common aquatic formats
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants.
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants. This section discusses some of the most common aquatic formats, many of which can be modified for shallow, deep, or transitional water depths.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is often referred to as station training. The stations can be cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, flexibility, neuromotor, or any combination. The circuit format can be instructor guided, where everyone in the class is performing each station at the same time. You lead the group as each participant performs the same moves and uses the same equipment (if being incorporated) at the same time. The circuit can also be self-guided, with individuals or small groups rotating from station to station. A combination circuit combines these two options into one class; you lead the class in a cardiorespiratory segment and then the participants move individually or in small groups to various stations. Circuit training is very versatile, and is limited only by your creativity with the equipment available, your pool design, and your participants (figure 11.1). See appendix F for a sample shallow-water circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.1 Circuit training in the water, as on land, is only limited by your creativity with equipment and space.
Interval Training
Interval training is composed of a series of training cycles that include high-intensity (work) and low-intensity (rest) segments. Both work and rest are planned and functional. The work - rest ratio sets the foundation for interval training. Intervals can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature, resulting in different fitness outcomes for your class participants or clients.
Aerobic intervals would be arranged in a 1:1 (equal work and rest) or 12 (where work is shorter than rest). During anaerobic intervals, cue participants to work at or near maximal effort. Recovery can include light activity or total rest. During both aerobic and anaerobic intervals, heart rates will undulate, going up with the work interval and down during the rest interval.
Some very specific interval ratios include HIIT and Tabata. HIIT, or high-intensity interval training, is designed for participants to exercise at or above their maximal capacity; rest periods vary depending on the goals of the class. Tabata is a very specific set of eight intervals (20 seconds of maximal effort followed by 10 seconds of complete rest) completed in rapid succession. See appendix F for a sample deep-water HIIT workout. Examples of various types of intervals are included in table 11.4.
Dance-Oriented Programs
Some aquatic programs are geared to more highly developed choreography sequences of dance-oriented movements. The class components remain similar; the difference is found in the level of complexity in choreography, which challenges the participants both physically and mentally. A variety of dance-oriented classes target specific styles of dance, such as ballroom, ballet, and hip-hop, or various ethnic rhythms, such as African and Latin. All of these styles can be mixed and incorporated into your classes as appropriate for your participants. When introducing this type of class, more simplistic choreography patterns are recommended. Once your participants begin to look and feel confident in the movements and transitions, greater complexity can be added. It is also helpful to teach segments of the combinations during the warm-up to prepare participants for what is ahead. This prevents unwanted decreases in intensity levels during the cardiorespiratory segment of class. Using choreography styles such as pyramid or add-on can help ensure that your participants understand the pattern as you progress.
Striding (Walk and Jog)
Striding can be incorporated as a warm-up or cool-down for other class programs, or the entire class format may be designed around striding patterns. This format easily adapts to all water depths and pool shapes and sizes (figure 11.2). The choreography or movement patterns are typically simple, making the choreography easy to follow and easy to instruct. These classes can provide a great opportunity to work on walking patterns, proficiency, balance, and range of motion. Striding programs can encourage social interaction among participants while providing a chance to improve fitness. With simple modifications of intensity and impact, this format can be designed for all levels of participants. Underwater treadmills offer more options for classes that center around walking and jogging activities. See appendix F for a sample shallow-water striding workout.
Figure 11.2 A practical benefit of water walking is that it can easily adapt to all depths and sizes of pools.
Cycling
Stationary bikes designed specifically for the pool have become a popular training option for group exercise, personal training, and rehabilitation (see figure 11.3). With proper instruction, aquatic cycling can be a safe and effective option for all ability levels. Although similar to stationary cycling on land, pedaling while immersed takes advantage of the benefits of the aquatic environment. Resistance is determined by the unique design of the bike that increases drag resistance when pedaled; this resistance is adjustable on most styles of aquatic bikes. Resistance is also influenced by pedaling speed or revolutions per minute and by altering the body position on the bike. Aquatic cycling can achieve cardiorespiratory goals with continuous or interval training, or the goals may be more focused on muscular endurance or even strength. If your facility has a limited number of bikes, they can be set up as part of a circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.3 Stationary bikes designed for the aquatic environment have become popular.
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Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Teaching from the pool deck
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
Advantages
- You are highly visible to participants.
- You can use your whole body to provide visual cues.
- Often, but not always, you can be better heard from on deck.
- You have better visibility of your class. You can see what participants are doing. This is especially important if you are expected to be both lifeguard and instructor.See chapter 13 for AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming - Lifeguard recommendations.
- Some movements, because of their complexity, can be explained and demonstrated only from the deck where participants can see what your whole body is doing.
- Complex choreography is better explained and demonstrated from the deck.
- New participants can usually follow deck instruction best because the instructor is more visible.
- It is easier to change or adjust your music from the deck.
Disadvantages
- You are exposed to the elements (heat, humidity, sun, wind).
- You are leading from a hard surface without the support and buoyancy of the water.
- You increase your risk for injury caused by slipping or impact.
- Your participants might be in prolonged neck hyperextension looking up at you on deck.
- The tempo and execution of movements (air and gravity) must be altered to approximate water conditions (viscosity and buoyancy).
- It can be difficult to demonstrate movements unique to the water, such as suspended training, or high-impact options, including propelled moves.
AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming
Deck Instruction
The AEA recommends deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic classes in most situations. Deck instruction provides the highest level of safety for the participants by allowing better observation and quicker response to emergency situations. Deck instruction also provides greater visibility of the aquatic fitness professional to the participant and the participant to the aquatic fitness professional. The AEA recommends that the aquatic fitness professional remain on deck when there is no additional lifeguard on duty, when there are new participants in the program, or when new movements are being demonstrated.
The safety of the aquatic fitness professional does not have to be compromised if proper precautions are taken. Suggestions for safe deck instruction include the following:
- Avoid high-impact movement demonstration.
- Use a chair for low-impact demonstrations and balance needs.
- Consider non-impact teaching techniques.
- Wear proper footwear for deck instruction.
- When available, use a teaching mat to reduce impact stress.
- Wear appropriate clothing for the environment in which you work.
- Drink sufficient water to stay hydrated and protect your voice.
- Use a microphone when available or incorporate non-verbal cues.
- Position the music source where it provides the least interference with vocal cueing.
- Use caution when utilizing any electrical source, including sound systems, near a pool due to potential hazard of electrical shock.
- Lead the workout rather than participate in the workout.
- Train for endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance within your personal workout program to assure the ability to perform safely on the deck.
Movement Execution and Weight Transfer
Safe and effective demonstration of impact options for various moves and combinations is one of the toughest challenges an instructor faces when teaching from the deck. On deck, the instructor needs to demonstrate grounded, propelled, and level I, II, and III movements at an appropriate tempo with gravity and without the benefits of buoyancy. Needless to say, this requires careful planning as well as the assistance of teaching tools, such as chairs, stools, and walls. Here, we discuss three deck instruction options: full impact, low impact, and non-impact.
Full (high) impact.
Many moves, such as jumping jacks, cross-country skis, jogs, knee lifts, kicks, turns, leaps, and rocks, can be demonstrated with full impact on deck (see figure 10.9). With modification to a slower tempo, full impact is most similar to the actual mechanics of the movement as it is to be performed in the water.
Figure 10.9 If a slower tempo is used, full impact instruction most closely resembles the actual exercise being taught.
Deck demonstration provides challenges that make full-impact instruction precarious. Most pool decks are made of a hard surface, such as concrete or tile, and might be slippery, especially when wet. Leading a class with full impact increases your risk for overuse and acute injuries. Most aquatic fitness professionals choose low-impact or non-impact demonstrations to save wear and tear on their musculoskeletal system. You can reduce slipping and impact stress by wearing a supportive pair of shoes and using a nonskid cushioned mat on deck. Full impact should be used only sparingly to demonstrate the first few repetitions of a movement, set a pace, or motivate the class.
Reduced (low) impact.
Reduced impact demonstration protects your musculoskeletal system when leading from the pool deck. It is often the preferred method of deck instruction for most movements because of its versatility and safety (figure 10.10). However, reduced impact demonstrations are not without challenges.
Figure 10.10 Reduced impact instructing from the deck is often the preferred method.
Since your actual demonstration might not show the intended impact level, you must otherwise cue participants immersed in the water to perform the desired impact. Consider the use of clear vocal cues, hand signals, or even printed signs (e.g., "jump", "propel", or, "tuck"). You might also refer to a participant in the pool with proper mechanics for others to observe and imitate.
Low-impact demonstrations can also challenge your balance skills. The use of a pole, wall, or chair for support can help with balance on deck. Maintaining a wide base of support (feet at shoulder width or slightly wider) and lowering your center of gravity (slight squat position) improves stability and balance and makes many movements easier to perform on deck at the appropriate tempo.
If you march on deck, participants will generally march in the pool. However, if you wanted them to jog in the water, your visual cue was not successful. The problem lies with your demonstration of weight transfer. Adjust your teaching technique while still keeping a low-impact option by quickly shifting the weight from one foot to the other, while enhancing your demonstration with exaggerated visual cues. Plantar flexing at the ankle and rolling from the ball of the foot to the heel to quickly shift weight from one foot to the next gives more of the appearance of jumping from foot to foot to perform a jogging motion. This technique helps motivate participants to perform the desired movement with proper intensity.
You may also incorporate a chair or stool for a low-impact teaching alternative. While seated, you can demonstrate one-footed and two-footed moves with less impact because most of your body weight is supported by the chair or stool, yet the feet do contact the pool deck with each move. The drawback is that participants may assume that the movement is at level II, even if the exercise should be performed at level I in the water. To make this more effective, add a verbal cue, a hand signal, or possibly even a cue card to clarify.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Benefits and considerations of aquatic exercise for older adults
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities.
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities. Although many countries have accepted the World Health Organization's definition for the terms elderly or older person as a person with a chronological age of 65 years or more, it is important to understand that the rate of physical decline will vary from person to person (figure 12.1). Functional age is the level of physical independence, while chronological age is measured in years. Although both are relevant to programming, chronological and functional ages do not always align. Many older adults might have an advanced chronological age but a young functional age, and the reverse is possible as well.
Figure 12.1 Many adults may be chronologically older, but they function like people much younger than themselves.
General Characteristics
The American Medical Association's Committee on Aging (www.ama-assn.org) found that it was almost impossible to distinguish between the effects of aging and the effects of physical inactivity. Low energy, weakness, poor muscular strength, stress and tension, high cholesterol, diabetes, stiffness, constipation, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, insomnia, back problems, and decreased range of motion are all common issues associated with both aging and physical inactivity. The good news is that research shows that participation in regular exercise at any age can help improve many of these conditions and reduce the risk for developing them.
Physical changes occur as part of the aging process. The degree to which these changes occur varies from person to person, and may be influenced by lifestyle choices.
Sensory Changes
- Decreased visual sharpness and perception, smaller visual field, and impaired judgment of the speed of moving objects
- Decreased hearing sharpness and reduced ability to discriminate among different sounds
- Reduced sensitivity to touch
- Decreased communication between muscles and nerves and decreased reaction time, leading to altered mobility, response time, spatial awareness, and balance
Physical Changes
- Decreased height, partially due to spinal compression
- Decreased bone density, with increased risk of fractures
- Decreased fitness levels (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility)
Physiological Changes
- Enlarged heart with reduced function, decreased ability to contract, reduced pumping capacity, and reduced maximum attainable heart rate
- Reduced elasticity and diameter of blood vessels; increased blood pressure
- Decreased response of the immune system and ability to fight infection
- Decreased function of the respiratory system and reduced breathing capacity
Psychological Changes
Although psychological changes are harder to document, many older adults experience depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological conditions.
Exercise Guidelines
The ACSM guidelines for older adults are similar to the general recommendations provided in chapter 11, with additional suggestions regarding the time and intensity of training. Older adults will benefit more by using perceived exertion to monitor exercise intensity (ACSM 2018). Instructors should select aerobic activities that do not create orthopedic stress, choose weight training or weight-bearing movements to target muscular fitness, and employ slow movements that pause in a sustained stretch to enhance flexibility. Programs should also include neuromotor exercises to both improve balance and reduce the risk of falling.
Exercise programs for older adults should focus on the physiological and psychological changes associated with the aging process, while also respecting the individual needs of the participants. A specific class for seniors should do the following:
- Promotemusculoskeletal health, joint function, bone strength, muscular strength and endurance, posture
- Improve physical fitness and physical function: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, power, coordination, and agility
- Assist with fall prevention: lower-body strength, balance, and walking skills
- Improve mental health: self-esteem, social interaction, sense of achievement and productivity, memory, and motivation
Programming Considerations
Safety.
Five minutes spent before class acclimating new students to the pool surroundings can prevent accidents and alleviate the need for rescue or emergency assistance. Make sure participants are familiar with pool lifts, ramps, and accessible ladders for the shallow and deep ends as well as for changes in pool depths. Because of possible limitations with balance and reaction time, vision, and hearing, deliver instructions in a manner that is easy for participants to hear, see, and understand.
Programming.
Many of the aquatic program formats discussed in chapter 11 can be adapted for an older adult population, including continuous, interval, and circuit training for both shallow and deep water. Offer low-impact options for participants who cannot safely or comfortably perform high-impact activities, even in the aquatic environment. Use all three planes for movement to encourage increased range of motion and better enhance performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). Include movements that change direction to improve balance and coordination. Transitional moves allow time to readjust body alignment during changes in movement planes or directions of travel. Plan movements that target muscular balance in both strength and flexibility, focusing on common areas of misalignment, such as rounded shoulders (scapular protraction) and forward head posture.
Leadership skills.
Incorporate both audible and visual cues to accommodate participants with sensory limitations. Older adults benefit from eye contact and instructor interaction, both of which also allow you to monitor student comfort (e.g., becoming chilled, overheated, fatigued) and understanding of exercise technique. Encourage socialization and interaction among participants through planned activities. This can help maintain control of the class and minimize unwanted talking during times when the focus needs to be directed to intensity, form, alignment, and safety. Consider the pool acoustics when determining music use; participants must be able to hear your audible cues during class. If you incorporate music, choose an appropriate tempo for the population, class format, and water depth. Base the music style on the preferences of the participants.
Equipment.
Upper-body drag equipment, especially gloves or mitts that do not require gripping, can be easier for older adults to use safely and effectively. The resistance level can be individualized and based on the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. Gloves should fit loosely to prevent a reduction in blood circulation. When using buoyancy equipment, remember that older adults may have a lower body density and a high level of buoyancy due to body composition. Choose buoyancy equipment that does not compromise body alignment and stability or the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. People who are not completely comfortable in the aquatic environment, as well as those with balance issues or limitations with walking, may benefit from using equipment for support, such as holding a noodle or kickboard on the surface of the water.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Review some of the most common aquatic formats
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants.
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants. This section discusses some of the most common aquatic formats, many of which can be modified for shallow, deep, or transitional water depths.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is often referred to as station training. The stations can be cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, flexibility, neuromotor, or any combination. The circuit format can be instructor guided, where everyone in the class is performing each station at the same time. You lead the group as each participant performs the same moves and uses the same equipment (if being incorporated) at the same time. The circuit can also be self-guided, with individuals or small groups rotating from station to station. A combination circuit combines these two options into one class; you lead the class in a cardiorespiratory segment and then the participants move individually or in small groups to various stations. Circuit training is very versatile, and is limited only by your creativity with the equipment available, your pool design, and your participants (figure 11.1). See appendix F for a sample shallow-water circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.1 Circuit training in the water, as on land, is only limited by your creativity with equipment and space.
Interval Training
Interval training is composed of a series of training cycles that include high-intensity (work) and low-intensity (rest) segments. Both work and rest are planned and functional. The work - rest ratio sets the foundation for interval training. Intervals can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature, resulting in different fitness outcomes for your class participants or clients.
Aerobic intervals would be arranged in a 1:1 (equal work and rest) or 12 (where work is shorter than rest). During anaerobic intervals, cue participants to work at or near maximal effort. Recovery can include light activity or total rest. During both aerobic and anaerobic intervals, heart rates will undulate, going up with the work interval and down during the rest interval.
Some very specific interval ratios include HIIT and Tabata. HIIT, or high-intensity interval training, is designed for participants to exercise at or above their maximal capacity; rest periods vary depending on the goals of the class. Tabata is a very specific set of eight intervals (20 seconds of maximal effort followed by 10 seconds of complete rest) completed in rapid succession. See appendix F for a sample deep-water HIIT workout. Examples of various types of intervals are included in table 11.4.
Dance-Oriented Programs
Some aquatic programs are geared to more highly developed choreography sequences of dance-oriented movements. The class components remain similar; the difference is found in the level of complexity in choreography, which challenges the participants both physically and mentally. A variety of dance-oriented classes target specific styles of dance, such as ballroom, ballet, and hip-hop, or various ethnic rhythms, such as African and Latin. All of these styles can be mixed and incorporated into your classes as appropriate for your participants. When introducing this type of class, more simplistic choreography patterns are recommended. Once your participants begin to look and feel confident in the movements and transitions, greater complexity can be added. It is also helpful to teach segments of the combinations during the warm-up to prepare participants for what is ahead. This prevents unwanted decreases in intensity levels during the cardiorespiratory segment of class. Using choreography styles such as pyramid or add-on can help ensure that your participants understand the pattern as you progress.
Striding (Walk and Jog)
Striding can be incorporated as a warm-up or cool-down for other class programs, or the entire class format may be designed around striding patterns. This format easily adapts to all water depths and pool shapes and sizes (figure 11.2). The choreography or movement patterns are typically simple, making the choreography easy to follow and easy to instruct. These classes can provide a great opportunity to work on walking patterns, proficiency, balance, and range of motion. Striding programs can encourage social interaction among participants while providing a chance to improve fitness. With simple modifications of intensity and impact, this format can be designed for all levels of participants. Underwater treadmills offer more options for classes that center around walking and jogging activities. See appendix F for a sample shallow-water striding workout.
Figure 11.2 A practical benefit of water walking is that it can easily adapt to all depths and sizes of pools.
Cycling
Stationary bikes designed specifically for the pool have become a popular training option for group exercise, personal training, and rehabilitation (see figure 11.3). With proper instruction, aquatic cycling can be a safe and effective option for all ability levels. Although similar to stationary cycling on land, pedaling while immersed takes advantage of the benefits of the aquatic environment. Resistance is determined by the unique design of the bike that increases drag resistance when pedaled; this resistance is adjustable on most styles of aquatic bikes. Resistance is also influenced by pedaling speed or revolutions per minute and by altering the body position on the bike. Aquatic cycling can achieve cardiorespiratory goals with continuous or interval training, or the goals may be more focused on muscular endurance or even strength. If your facility has a limited number of bikes, they can be set up as part of a circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.3 Stationary bikes designed for the aquatic environment have become popular.
Save
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Teaching from the pool deck
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
Advantages
- You are highly visible to participants.
- You can use your whole body to provide visual cues.
- Often, but not always, you can be better heard from on deck.
- You have better visibility of your class. You can see what participants are doing. This is especially important if you are expected to be both lifeguard and instructor.See chapter 13 for AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming - Lifeguard recommendations.
- Some movements, because of their complexity, can be explained and demonstrated only from the deck where participants can see what your whole body is doing.
- Complex choreography is better explained and demonstrated from the deck.
- New participants can usually follow deck instruction best because the instructor is more visible.
- It is easier to change or adjust your music from the deck.
Disadvantages
- You are exposed to the elements (heat, humidity, sun, wind).
- You are leading from a hard surface without the support and buoyancy of the water.
- You increase your risk for injury caused by slipping or impact.
- Your participants might be in prolonged neck hyperextension looking up at you on deck.
- The tempo and execution of movements (air and gravity) must be altered to approximate water conditions (viscosity and buoyancy).
- It can be difficult to demonstrate movements unique to the water, such as suspended training, or high-impact options, including propelled moves.
AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming
Deck Instruction
The AEA recommends deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic classes in most situations. Deck instruction provides the highest level of safety for the participants by allowing better observation and quicker response to emergency situations. Deck instruction also provides greater visibility of the aquatic fitness professional to the participant and the participant to the aquatic fitness professional. The AEA recommends that the aquatic fitness professional remain on deck when there is no additional lifeguard on duty, when there are new participants in the program, or when new movements are being demonstrated.
The safety of the aquatic fitness professional does not have to be compromised if proper precautions are taken. Suggestions for safe deck instruction include the following:
- Avoid high-impact movement demonstration.
- Use a chair for low-impact demonstrations and balance needs.
- Consider non-impact teaching techniques.
- Wear proper footwear for deck instruction.
- When available, use a teaching mat to reduce impact stress.
- Wear appropriate clothing for the environment in which you work.
- Drink sufficient water to stay hydrated and protect your voice.
- Use a microphone when available or incorporate non-verbal cues.
- Position the music source where it provides the least interference with vocal cueing.
- Use caution when utilizing any electrical source, including sound systems, near a pool due to potential hazard of electrical shock.
- Lead the workout rather than participate in the workout.
- Train for endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance within your personal workout program to assure the ability to perform safely on the deck.
Movement Execution and Weight Transfer
Safe and effective demonstration of impact options for various moves and combinations is one of the toughest challenges an instructor faces when teaching from the deck. On deck, the instructor needs to demonstrate grounded, propelled, and level I, II, and III movements at an appropriate tempo with gravity and without the benefits of buoyancy. Needless to say, this requires careful planning as well as the assistance of teaching tools, such as chairs, stools, and walls. Here, we discuss three deck instruction options: full impact, low impact, and non-impact.
Full (high) impact.
Many moves, such as jumping jacks, cross-country skis, jogs, knee lifts, kicks, turns, leaps, and rocks, can be demonstrated with full impact on deck (see figure 10.9). With modification to a slower tempo, full impact is most similar to the actual mechanics of the movement as it is to be performed in the water.
Figure 10.9 If a slower tempo is used, full impact instruction most closely resembles the actual exercise being taught.
Deck demonstration provides challenges that make full-impact instruction precarious. Most pool decks are made of a hard surface, such as concrete or tile, and might be slippery, especially when wet. Leading a class with full impact increases your risk for overuse and acute injuries. Most aquatic fitness professionals choose low-impact or non-impact demonstrations to save wear and tear on their musculoskeletal system. You can reduce slipping and impact stress by wearing a supportive pair of shoes and using a nonskid cushioned mat on deck. Full impact should be used only sparingly to demonstrate the first few repetitions of a movement, set a pace, or motivate the class.
Reduced (low) impact.
Reduced impact demonstration protects your musculoskeletal system when leading from the pool deck. It is often the preferred method of deck instruction for most movements because of its versatility and safety (figure 10.10). However, reduced impact demonstrations are not without challenges.
Figure 10.10 Reduced impact instructing from the deck is often the preferred method.
Since your actual demonstration might not show the intended impact level, you must otherwise cue participants immersed in the water to perform the desired impact. Consider the use of clear vocal cues, hand signals, or even printed signs (e.g., "jump", "propel", or, "tuck"). You might also refer to a participant in the pool with proper mechanics for others to observe and imitate.
Low-impact demonstrations can also challenge your balance skills. The use of a pole, wall, or chair for support can help with balance on deck. Maintaining a wide base of support (feet at shoulder width or slightly wider) and lowering your center of gravity (slight squat position) improves stability and balance and makes many movements easier to perform on deck at the appropriate tempo.
If you march on deck, participants will generally march in the pool. However, if you wanted them to jog in the water, your visual cue was not successful. The problem lies with your demonstration of weight transfer. Adjust your teaching technique while still keeping a low-impact option by quickly shifting the weight from one foot to the other, while enhancing your demonstration with exaggerated visual cues. Plantar flexing at the ankle and rolling from the ball of the foot to the heel to quickly shift weight from one foot to the next gives more of the appearance of jumping from foot to foot to perform a jogging motion. This technique helps motivate participants to perform the desired movement with proper intensity.
You may also incorporate a chair or stool for a low-impact teaching alternative. While seated, you can demonstrate one-footed and two-footed moves with less impact because most of your body weight is supported by the chair or stool, yet the feet do contact the pool deck with each move. The drawback is that participants may assume that the movement is at level II, even if the exercise should be performed at level I in the water. To make this more effective, add a verbal cue, a hand signal, or possibly even a cue card to clarify.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Benefits and considerations of aquatic exercise for older adults
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities.
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities. Although many countries have accepted the World Health Organization's definition for the terms elderly or older person as a person with a chronological age of 65 years or more, it is important to understand that the rate of physical decline will vary from person to person (figure 12.1). Functional age is the level of physical independence, while chronological age is measured in years. Although both are relevant to programming, chronological and functional ages do not always align. Many older adults might have an advanced chronological age but a young functional age, and the reverse is possible as well.
Figure 12.1 Many adults may be chronologically older, but they function like people much younger than themselves.
General Characteristics
The American Medical Association's Committee on Aging (www.ama-assn.org) found that it was almost impossible to distinguish between the effects of aging and the effects of physical inactivity. Low energy, weakness, poor muscular strength, stress and tension, high cholesterol, diabetes, stiffness, constipation, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, insomnia, back problems, and decreased range of motion are all common issues associated with both aging and physical inactivity. The good news is that research shows that participation in regular exercise at any age can help improve many of these conditions and reduce the risk for developing them.
Physical changes occur as part of the aging process. The degree to which these changes occur varies from person to person, and may be influenced by lifestyle choices.
Sensory Changes
- Decreased visual sharpness and perception, smaller visual field, and impaired judgment of the speed of moving objects
- Decreased hearing sharpness and reduced ability to discriminate among different sounds
- Reduced sensitivity to touch
- Decreased communication between muscles and nerves and decreased reaction time, leading to altered mobility, response time, spatial awareness, and balance
Physical Changes
- Decreased height, partially due to spinal compression
- Decreased bone density, with increased risk of fractures
- Decreased fitness levels (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility)
Physiological Changes
- Enlarged heart with reduced function, decreased ability to contract, reduced pumping capacity, and reduced maximum attainable heart rate
- Reduced elasticity and diameter of blood vessels; increased blood pressure
- Decreased response of the immune system and ability to fight infection
- Decreased function of the respiratory system and reduced breathing capacity
Psychological Changes
Although psychological changes are harder to document, many older adults experience depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological conditions.
Exercise Guidelines
The ACSM guidelines for older adults are similar to the general recommendations provided in chapter 11, with additional suggestions regarding the time and intensity of training. Older adults will benefit more by using perceived exertion to monitor exercise intensity (ACSM 2018). Instructors should select aerobic activities that do not create orthopedic stress, choose weight training or weight-bearing movements to target muscular fitness, and employ slow movements that pause in a sustained stretch to enhance flexibility. Programs should also include neuromotor exercises to both improve balance and reduce the risk of falling.
Exercise programs for older adults should focus on the physiological and psychological changes associated with the aging process, while also respecting the individual needs of the participants. A specific class for seniors should do the following:
- Promotemusculoskeletal health, joint function, bone strength, muscular strength and endurance, posture
- Improve physical fitness and physical function: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, power, coordination, and agility
- Assist with fall prevention: lower-body strength, balance, and walking skills
- Improve mental health: self-esteem, social interaction, sense of achievement and productivity, memory, and motivation
Programming Considerations
Safety.
Five minutes spent before class acclimating new students to the pool surroundings can prevent accidents and alleviate the need for rescue or emergency assistance. Make sure participants are familiar with pool lifts, ramps, and accessible ladders for the shallow and deep ends as well as for changes in pool depths. Because of possible limitations with balance and reaction time, vision, and hearing, deliver instructions in a manner that is easy for participants to hear, see, and understand.
Programming.
Many of the aquatic program formats discussed in chapter 11 can be adapted for an older adult population, including continuous, interval, and circuit training for both shallow and deep water. Offer low-impact options for participants who cannot safely or comfortably perform high-impact activities, even in the aquatic environment. Use all three planes for movement to encourage increased range of motion and better enhance performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). Include movements that change direction to improve balance and coordination. Transitional moves allow time to readjust body alignment during changes in movement planes or directions of travel. Plan movements that target muscular balance in both strength and flexibility, focusing on common areas of misalignment, such as rounded shoulders (scapular protraction) and forward head posture.
Leadership skills.
Incorporate both audible and visual cues to accommodate participants with sensory limitations. Older adults benefit from eye contact and instructor interaction, both of which also allow you to monitor student comfort (e.g., becoming chilled, overheated, fatigued) and understanding of exercise technique. Encourage socialization and interaction among participants through planned activities. This can help maintain control of the class and minimize unwanted talking during times when the focus needs to be directed to intensity, form, alignment, and safety. Consider the pool acoustics when determining music use; participants must be able to hear your audible cues during class. If you incorporate music, choose an appropriate tempo for the population, class format, and water depth. Base the music style on the preferences of the participants.
Equipment.
Upper-body drag equipment, especially gloves or mitts that do not require gripping, can be easier for older adults to use safely and effectively. The resistance level can be individualized and based on the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. Gloves should fit loosely to prevent a reduction in blood circulation. When using buoyancy equipment, remember that older adults may have a lower body density and a high level of buoyancy due to body composition. Choose buoyancy equipment that does not compromise body alignment and stability or the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. People who are not completely comfortable in the aquatic environment, as well as those with balance issues or limitations with walking, may benefit from using equipment for support, such as holding a noodle or kickboard on the surface of the water.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Review some of the most common aquatic formats
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants.
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants. This section discusses some of the most common aquatic formats, many of which can be modified for shallow, deep, or transitional water depths.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is often referred to as station training. The stations can be cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, flexibility, neuromotor, or any combination. The circuit format can be instructor guided, where everyone in the class is performing each station at the same time. You lead the group as each participant performs the same moves and uses the same equipment (if being incorporated) at the same time. The circuit can also be self-guided, with individuals or small groups rotating from station to station. A combination circuit combines these two options into one class; you lead the class in a cardiorespiratory segment and then the participants move individually or in small groups to various stations. Circuit training is very versatile, and is limited only by your creativity with the equipment available, your pool design, and your participants (figure 11.1). See appendix F for a sample shallow-water circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.1 Circuit training in the water, as on land, is only limited by your creativity with equipment and space.
Interval Training
Interval training is composed of a series of training cycles that include high-intensity (work) and low-intensity (rest) segments. Both work and rest are planned and functional. The work - rest ratio sets the foundation for interval training. Intervals can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature, resulting in different fitness outcomes for your class participants or clients.
Aerobic intervals would be arranged in a 1:1 (equal work and rest) or 12 (where work is shorter than rest). During anaerobic intervals, cue participants to work at or near maximal effort. Recovery can include light activity or total rest. During both aerobic and anaerobic intervals, heart rates will undulate, going up with the work interval and down during the rest interval.
Some very specific interval ratios include HIIT and Tabata. HIIT, or high-intensity interval training, is designed for participants to exercise at or above their maximal capacity; rest periods vary depending on the goals of the class. Tabata is a very specific set of eight intervals (20 seconds of maximal effort followed by 10 seconds of complete rest) completed in rapid succession. See appendix F for a sample deep-water HIIT workout. Examples of various types of intervals are included in table 11.4.
Dance-Oriented Programs
Some aquatic programs are geared to more highly developed choreography sequences of dance-oriented movements. The class components remain similar; the difference is found in the level of complexity in choreography, which challenges the participants both physically and mentally. A variety of dance-oriented classes target specific styles of dance, such as ballroom, ballet, and hip-hop, or various ethnic rhythms, such as African and Latin. All of these styles can be mixed and incorporated into your classes as appropriate for your participants. When introducing this type of class, more simplistic choreography patterns are recommended. Once your participants begin to look and feel confident in the movements and transitions, greater complexity can be added. It is also helpful to teach segments of the combinations during the warm-up to prepare participants for what is ahead. This prevents unwanted decreases in intensity levels during the cardiorespiratory segment of class. Using choreography styles such as pyramid or add-on can help ensure that your participants understand the pattern as you progress.
Striding (Walk and Jog)
Striding can be incorporated as a warm-up or cool-down for other class programs, or the entire class format may be designed around striding patterns. This format easily adapts to all water depths and pool shapes and sizes (figure 11.2). The choreography or movement patterns are typically simple, making the choreography easy to follow and easy to instruct. These classes can provide a great opportunity to work on walking patterns, proficiency, balance, and range of motion. Striding programs can encourage social interaction among participants while providing a chance to improve fitness. With simple modifications of intensity and impact, this format can be designed for all levels of participants. Underwater treadmills offer more options for classes that center around walking and jogging activities. See appendix F for a sample shallow-water striding workout.
Figure 11.2 A practical benefit of water walking is that it can easily adapt to all depths and sizes of pools.
Cycling
Stationary bikes designed specifically for the pool have become a popular training option for group exercise, personal training, and rehabilitation (see figure 11.3). With proper instruction, aquatic cycling can be a safe and effective option for all ability levels. Although similar to stationary cycling on land, pedaling while immersed takes advantage of the benefits of the aquatic environment. Resistance is determined by the unique design of the bike that increases drag resistance when pedaled; this resistance is adjustable on most styles of aquatic bikes. Resistance is also influenced by pedaling speed or revolutions per minute and by altering the body position on the bike. Aquatic cycling can achieve cardiorespiratory goals with continuous or interval training, or the goals may be more focused on muscular endurance or even strength. If your facility has a limited number of bikes, they can be set up as part of a circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.3 Stationary bikes designed for the aquatic environment have become popular.
Save
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Teaching from the pool deck
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
Advantages
- You are highly visible to participants.
- You can use your whole body to provide visual cues.
- Often, but not always, you can be better heard from on deck.
- You have better visibility of your class. You can see what participants are doing. This is especially important if you are expected to be both lifeguard and instructor.See chapter 13 for AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming - Lifeguard recommendations.
- Some movements, because of their complexity, can be explained and demonstrated only from the deck where participants can see what your whole body is doing.
- Complex choreography is better explained and demonstrated from the deck.
- New participants can usually follow deck instruction best because the instructor is more visible.
- It is easier to change or adjust your music from the deck.
Disadvantages
- You are exposed to the elements (heat, humidity, sun, wind).
- You are leading from a hard surface without the support and buoyancy of the water.
- You increase your risk for injury caused by slipping or impact.
- Your participants might be in prolonged neck hyperextension looking up at you on deck.
- The tempo and execution of movements (air and gravity) must be altered to approximate water conditions (viscosity and buoyancy).
- It can be difficult to demonstrate movements unique to the water, such as suspended training, or high-impact options, including propelled moves.
AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming
Deck Instruction
The AEA recommends deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic classes in most situations. Deck instruction provides the highest level of safety for the participants by allowing better observation and quicker response to emergency situations. Deck instruction also provides greater visibility of the aquatic fitness professional to the participant and the participant to the aquatic fitness professional. The AEA recommends that the aquatic fitness professional remain on deck when there is no additional lifeguard on duty, when there are new participants in the program, or when new movements are being demonstrated.
The safety of the aquatic fitness professional does not have to be compromised if proper precautions are taken. Suggestions for safe deck instruction include the following:
- Avoid high-impact movement demonstration.
- Use a chair for low-impact demonstrations and balance needs.
- Consider non-impact teaching techniques.
- Wear proper footwear for deck instruction.
- When available, use a teaching mat to reduce impact stress.
- Wear appropriate clothing for the environment in which you work.
- Drink sufficient water to stay hydrated and protect your voice.
- Use a microphone when available or incorporate non-verbal cues.
- Position the music source where it provides the least interference with vocal cueing.
- Use caution when utilizing any electrical source, including sound systems, near a pool due to potential hazard of electrical shock.
- Lead the workout rather than participate in the workout.
- Train for endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance within your personal workout program to assure the ability to perform safely on the deck.
Movement Execution and Weight Transfer
Safe and effective demonstration of impact options for various moves and combinations is one of the toughest challenges an instructor faces when teaching from the deck. On deck, the instructor needs to demonstrate grounded, propelled, and level I, II, and III movements at an appropriate tempo with gravity and without the benefits of buoyancy. Needless to say, this requires careful planning as well as the assistance of teaching tools, such as chairs, stools, and walls. Here, we discuss three deck instruction options: full impact, low impact, and non-impact.
Full (high) impact.
Many moves, such as jumping jacks, cross-country skis, jogs, knee lifts, kicks, turns, leaps, and rocks, can be demonstrated with full impact on deck (see figure 10.9). With modification to a slower tempo, full impact is most similar to the actual mechanics of the movement as it is to be performed in the water.
Figure 10.9 If a slower tempo is used, full impact instruction most closely resembles the actual exercise being taught.
Deck demonstration provides challenges that make full-impact instruction precarious. Most pool decks are made of a hard surface, such as concrete or tile, and might be slippery, especially when wet. Leading a class with full impact increases your risk for overuse and acute injuries. Most aquatic fitness professionals choose low-impact or non-impact demonstrations to save wear and tear on their musculoskeletal system. You can reduce slipping and impact stress by wearing a supportive pair of shoes and using a nonskid cushioned mat on deck. Full impact should be used only sparingly to demonstrate the first few repetitions of a movement, set a pace, or motivate the class.
Reduced (low) impact.
Reduced impact demonstration protects your musculoskeletal system when leading from the pool deck. It is often the preferred method of deck instruction for most movements because of its versatility and safety (figure 10.10). However, reduced impact demonstrations are not without challenges.
Figure 10.10 Reduced impact instructing from the deck is often the preferred method.
Since your actual demonstration might not show the intended impact level, you must otherwise cue participants immersed in the water to perform the desired impact. Consider the use of clear vocal cues, hand signals, or even printed signs (e.g., "jump", "propel", or, "tuck"). You might also refer to a participant in the pool with proper mechanics for others to observe and imitate.
Low-impact demonstrations can also challenge your balance skills. The use of a pole, wall, or chair for support can help with balance on deck. Maintaining a wide base of support (feet at shoulder width or slightly wider) and lowering your center of gravity (slight squat position) improves stability and balance and makes many movements easier to perform on deck at the appropriate tempo.
If you march on deck, participants will generally march in the pool. However, if you wanted them to jog in the water, your visual cue was not successful. The problem lies with your demonstration of weight transfer. Adjust your teaching technique while still keeping a low-impact option by quickly shifting the weight from one foot to the other, while enhancing your demonstration with exaggerated visual cues. Plantar flexing at the ankle and rolling from the ball of the foot to the heel to quickly shift weight from one foot to the next gives more of the appearance of jumping from foot to foot to perform a jogging motion. This technique helps motivate participants to perform the desired movement with proper intensity.
You may also incorporate a chair or stool for a low-impact teaching alternative. While seated, you can demonstrate one-footed and two-footed moves with less impact because most of your body weight is supported by the chair or stool, yet the feet do contact the pool deck with each move. The drawback is that participants may assume that the movement is at level II, even if the exercise should be performed at level I in the water. To make this more effective, add a verbal cue, a hand signal, or possibly even a cue card to clarify.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Benefits and considerations of aquatic exercise for older adults
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities.
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities. Although many countries have accepted the World Health Organization's definition for the terms elderly or older person as a person with a chronological age of 65 years or more, it is important to understand that the rate of physical decline will vary from person to person (figure 12.1). Functional age is the level of physical independence, while chronological age is measured in years. Although both are relevant to programming, chronological and functional ages do not always align. Many older adults might have an advanced chronological age but a young functional age, and the reverse is possible as well.
Figure 12.1 Many adults may be chronologically older, but they function like people much younger than themselves.
General Characteristics
The American Medical Association's Committee on Aging (www.ama-assn.org) found that it was almost impossible to distinguish between the effects of aging and the effects of physical inactivity. Low energy, weakness, poor muscular strength, stress and tension, high cholesterol, diabetes, stiffness, constipation, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, insomnia, back problems, and decreased range of motion are all common issues associated with both aging and physical inactivity. The good news is that research shows that participation in regular exercise at any age can help improve many of these conditions and reduce the risk for developing them.
Physical changes occur as part of the aging process. The degree to which these changes occur varies from person to person, and may be influenced by lifestyle choices.
Sensory Changes
- Decreased visual sharpness and perception, smaller visual field, and impaired judgment of the speed of moving objects
- Decreased hearing sharpness and reduced ability to discriminate among different sounds
- Reduced sensitivity to touch
- Decreased communication between muscles and nerves and decreased reaction time, leading to altered mobility, response time, spatial awareness, and balance
Physical Changes
- Decreased height, partially due to spinal compression
- Decreased bone density, with increased risk of fractures
- Decreased fitness levels (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility)
Physiological Changes
- Enlarged heart with reduced function, decreased ability to contract, reduced pumping capacity, and reduced maximum attainable heart rate
- Reduced elasticity and diameter of blood vessels; increased blood pressure
- Decreased response of the immune system and ability to fight infection
- Decreased function of the respiratory system and reduced breathing capacity
Psychological Changes
Although psychological changes are harder to document, many older adults experience depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological conditions.
Exercise Guidelines
The ACSM guidelines for older adults are similar to the general recommendations provided in chapter 11, with additional suggestions regarding the time and intensity of training. Older adults will benefit more by using perceived exertion to monitor exercise intensity (ACSM 2018). Instructors should select aerobic activities that do not create orthopedic stress, choose weight training or weight-bearing movements to target muscular fitness, and employ slow movements that pause in a sustained stretch to enhance flexibility. Programs should also include neuromotor exercises to both improve balance and reduce the risk of falling.
Exercise programs for older adults should focus on the physiological and psychological changes associated with the aging process, while also respecting the individual needs of the participants. A specific class for seniors should do the following:
- Promotemusculoskeletal health, joint function, bone strength, muscular strength and endurance, posture
- Improve physical fitness and physical function: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, power, coordination, and agility
- Assist with fall prevention: lower-body strength, balance, and walking skills
- Improve mental health: self-esteem, social interaction, sense of achievement and productivity, memory, and motivation
Programming Considerations
Safety.
Five minutes spent before class acclimating new students to the pool surroundings can prevent accidents and alleviate the need for rescue or emergency assistance. Make sure participants are familiar with pool lifts, ramps, and accessible ladders for the shallow and deep ends as well as for changes in pool depths. Because of possible limitations with balance and reaction time, vision, and hearing, deliver instructions in a manner that is easy for participants to hear, see, and understand.
Programming.
Many of the aquatic program formats discussed in chapter 11 can be adapted for an older adult population, including continuous, interval, and circuit training for both shallow and deep water. Offer low-impact options for participants who cannot safely or comfortably perform high-impact activities, even in the aquatic environment. Use all three planes for movement to encourage increased range of motion and better enhance performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). Include movements that change direction to improve balance and coordination. Transitional moves allow time to readjust body alignment during changes in movement planes or directions of travel. Plan movements that target muscular balance in both strength and flexibility, focusing on common areas of misalignment, such as rounded shoulders (scapular protraction) and forward head posture.
Leadership skills.
Incorporate both audible and visual cues to accommodate participants with sensory limitations. Older adults benefit from eye contact and instructor interaction, both of which also allow you to monitor student comfort (e.g., becoming chilled, overheated, fatigued) and understanding of exercise technique. Encourage socialization and interaction among participants through planned activities. This can help maintain control of the class and minimize unwanted talking during times when the focus needs to be directed to intensity, form, alignment, and safety. Consider the pool acoustics when determining music use; participants must be able to hear your audible cues during class. If you incorporate music, choose an appropriate tempo for the population, class format, and water depth. Base the music style on the preferences of the participants.
Equipment.
Upper-body drag equipment, especially gloves or mitts that do not require gripping, can be easier for older adults to use safely and effectively. The resistance level can be individualized and based on the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. Gloves should fit loosely to prevent a reduction in blood circulation. When using buoyancy equipment, remember that older adults may have a lower body density and a high level of buoyancy due to body composition. Choose buoyancy equipment that does not compromise body alignment and stability or the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. People who are not completely comfortable in the aquatic environment, as well as those with balance issues or limitations with walking, may benefit from using equipment for support, such as holding a noodle or kickboard on the surface of the water.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Review some of the most common aquatic formats
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants.
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants. This section discusses some of the most common aquatic formats, many of which can be modified for shallow, deep, or transitional water depths.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is often referred to as station training. The stations can be cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, flexibility, neuromotor, or any combination. The circuit format can be instructor guided, where everyone in the class is performing each station at the same time. You lead the group as each participant performs the same moves and uses the same equipment (if being incorporated) at the same time. The circuit can also be self-guided, with individuals or small groups rotating from station to station. A combination circuit combines these two options into one class; you lead the class in a cardiorespiratory segment and then the participants move individually or in small groups to various stations. Circuit training is very versatile, and is limited only by your creativity with the equipment available, your pool design, and your participants (figure 11.1). See appendix F for a sample shallow-water circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.1 Circuit training in the water, as on land, is only limited by your creativity with equipment and space.
Interval Training
Interval training is composed of a series of training cycles that include high-intensity (work) and low-intensity (rest) segments. Both work and rest are planned and functional. The work - rest ratio sets the foundation for interval training. Intervals can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature, resulting in different fitness outcomes for your class participants or clients.
Aerobic intervals would be arranged in a 1:1 (equal work and rest) or 12 (where work is shorter than rest). During anaerobic intervals, cue participants to work at or near maximal effort. Recovery can include light activity or total rest. During both aerobic and anaerobic intervals, heart rates will undulate, going up with the work interval and down during the rest interval.
Some very specific interval ratios include HIIT and Tabata. HIIT, or high-intensity interval training, is designed for participants to exercise at or above their maximal capacity; rest periods vary depending on the goals of the class. Tabata is a very specific set of eight intervals (20 seconds of maximal effort followed by 10 seconds of complete rest) completed in rapid succession. See appendix F for a sample deep-water HIIT workout. Examples of various types of intervals are included in table 11.4.
Dance-Oriented Programs
Some aquatic programs are geared to more highly developed choreography sequences of dance-oriented movements. The class components remain similar; the difference is found in the level of complexity in choreography, which challenges the participants both physically and mentally. A variety of dance-oriented classes target specific styles of dance, such as ballroom, ballet, and hip-hop, or various ethnic rhythms, such as African and Latin. All of these styles can be mixed and incorporated into your classes as appropriate for your participants. When introducing this type of class, more simplistic choreography patterns are recommended. Once your participants begin to look and feel confident in the movements and transitions, greater complexity can be added. It is also helpful to teach segments of the combinations during the warm-up to prepare participants for what is ahead. This prevents unwanted decreases in intensity levels during the cardiorespiratory segment of class. Using choreography styles such as pyramid or add-on can help ensure that your participants understand the pattern as you progress.
Striding (Walk and Jog)
Striding can be incorporated as a warm-up or cool-down for other class programs, or the entire class format may be designed around striding patterns. This format easily adapts to all water depths and pool shapes and sizes (figure 11.2). The choreography or movement patterns are typically simple, making the choreography easy to follow and easy to instruct. These classes can provide a great opportunity to work on walking patterns, proficiency, balance, and range of motion. Striding programs can encourage social interaction among participants while providing a chance to improve fitness. With simple modifications of intensity and impact, this format can be designed for all levels of participants. Underwater treadmills offer more options for classes that center around walking and jogging activities. See appendix F for a sample shallow-water striding workout.
Figure 11.2 A practical benefit of water walking is that it can easily adapt to all depths and sizes of pools.
Cycling
Stationary bikes designed specifically for the pool have become a popular training option for group exercise, personal training, and rehabilitation (see figure 11.3). With proper instruction, aquatic cycling can be a safe and effective option for all ability levels. Although similar to stationary cycling on land, pedaling while immersed takes advantage of the benefits of the aquatic environment. Resistance is determined by the unique design of the bike that increases drag resistance when pedaled; this resistance is adjustable on most styles of aquatic bikes. Resistance is also influenced by pedaling speed or revolutions per minute and by altering the body position on the bike. Aquatic cycling can achieve cardiorespiratory goals with continuous or interval training, or the goals may be more focused on muscular endurance or even strength. If your facility has a limited number of bikes, they can be set up as part of a circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.3 Stationary bikes designed for the aquatic environment have become popular.
Save
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Teaching from the pool deck
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
Advantages
- You are highly visible to participants.
- You can use your whole body to provide visual cues.
- Often, but not always, you can be better heard from on deck.
- You have better visibility of your class. You can see what participants are doing. This is especially important if you are expected to be both lifeguard and instructor.See chapter 13 for AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming - Lifeguard recommendations.
- Some movements, because of their complexity, can be explained and demonstrated only from the deck where participants can see what your whole body is doing.
- Complex choreography is better explained and demonstrated from the deck.
- New participants can usually follow deck instruction best because the instructor is more visible.
- It is easier to change or adjust your music from the deck.
Disadvantages
- You are exposed to the elements (heat, humidity, sun, wind).
- You are leading from a hard surface without the support and buoyancy of the water.
- You increase your risk for injury caused by slipping or impact.
- Your participants might be in prolonged neck hyperextension looking up at you on deck.
- The tempo and execution of movements (air and gravity) must be altered to approximate water conditions (viscosity and buoyancy).
- It can be difficult to demonstrate movements unique to the water, such as suspended training, or high-impact options, including propelled moves.
AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming
Deck Instruction
The AEA recommends deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic classes in most situations. Deck instruction provides the highest level of safety for the participants by allowing better observation and quicker response to emergency situations. Deck instruction also provides greater visibility of the aquatic fitness professional to the participant and the participant to the aquatic fitness professional. The AEA recommends that the aquatic fitness professional remain on deck when there is no additional lifeguard on duty, when there are new participants in the program, or when new movements are being demonstrated.
The safety of the aquatic fitness professional does not have to be compromised if proper precautions are taken. Suggestions for safe deck instruction include the following:
- Avoid high-impact movement demonstration.
- Use a chair for low-impact demonstrations and balance needs.
- Consider non-impact teaching techniques.
- Wear proper footwear for deck instruction.
- When available, use a teaching mat to reduce impact stress.
- Wear appropriate clothing for the environment in which you work.
- Drink sufficient water to stay hydrated and protect your voice.
- Use a microphone when available or incorporate non-verbal cues.
- Position the music source where it provides the least interference with vocal cueing.
- Use caution when utilizing any electrical source, including sound systems, near a pool due to potential hazard of electrical shock.
- Lead the workout rather than participate in the workout.
- Train for endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance within your personal workout program to assure the ability to perform safely on the deck.
Movement Execution and Weight Transfer
Safe and effective demonstration of impact options for various moves and combinations is one of the toughest challenges an instructor faces when teaching from the deck. On deck, the instructor needs to demonstrate grounded, propelled, and level I, II, and III movements at an appropriate tempo with gravity and without the benefits of buoyancy. Needless to say, this requires careful planning as well as the assistance of teaching tools, such as chairs, stools, and walls. Here, we discuss three deck instruction options: full impact, low impact, and non-impact.
Full (high) impact.
Many moves, such as jumping jacks, cross-country skis, jogs, knee lifts, kicks, turns, leaps, and rocks, can be demonstrated with full impact on deck (see figure 10.9). With modification to a slower tempo, full impact is most similar to the actual mechanics of the movement as it is to be performed in the water.
Figure 10.9 If a slower tempo is used, full impact instruction most closely resembles the actual exercise being taught.
Deck demonstration provides challenges that make full-impact instruction precarious. Most pool decks are made of a hard surface, such as concrete or tile, and might be slippery, especially when wet. Leading a class with full impact increases your risk for overuse and acute injuries. Most aquatic fitness professionals choose low-impact or non-impact demonstrations to save wear and tear on their musculoskeletal system. You can reduce slipping and impact stress by wearing a supportive pair of shoes and using a nonskid cushioned mat on deck. Full impact should be used only sparingly to demonstrate the first few repetitions of a movement, set a pace, or motivate the class.
Reduced (low) impact.
Reduced impact demonstration protects your musculoskeletal system when leading from the pool deck. It is often the preferred method of deck instruction for most movements because of its versatility and safety (figure 10.10). However, reduced impact demonstrations are not without challenges.
Figure 10.10 Reduced impact instructing from the deck is often the preferred method.
Since your actual demonstration might not show the intended impact level, you must otherwise cue participants immersed in the water to perform the desired impact. Consider the use of clear vocal cues, hand signals, or even printed signs (e.g., "jump", "propel", or, "tuck"). You might also refer to a participant in the pool with proper mechanics for others to observe and imitate.
Low-impact demonstrations can also challenge your balance skills. The use of a pole, wall, or chair for support can help with balance on deck. Maintaining a wide base of support (feet at shoulder width or slightly wider) and lowering your center of gravity (slight squat position) improves stability and balance and makes many movements easier to perform on deck at the appropriate tempo.
If you march on deck, participants will generally march in the pool. However, if you wanted them to jog in the water, your visual cue was not successful. The problem lies with your demonstration of weight transfer. Adjust your teaching technique while still keeping a low-impact option by quickly shifting the weight from one foot to the other, while enhancing your demonstration with exaggerated visual cues. Plantar flexing at the ankle and rolling from the ball of the foot to the heel to quickly shift weight from one foot to the next gives more of the appearance of jumping from foot to foot to perform a jogging motion. This technique helps motivate participants to perform the desired movement with proper intensity.
You may also incorporate a chair or stool for a low-impact teaching alternative. While seated, you can demonstrate one-footed and two-footed moves with less impact because most of your body weight is supported by the chair or stool, yet the feet do contact the pool deck with each move. The drawback is that participants may assume that the movement is at level II, even if the exercise should be performed at level I in the water. To make this more effective, add a verbal cue, a hand signal, or possibly even a cue card to clarify.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Benefits and considerations of aquatic exercise for older adults
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities.
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities. Although many countries have accepted the World Health Organization's definition for the terms elderly or older person as a person with a chronological age of 65 years or more, it is important to understand that the rate of physical decline will vary from person to person (figure 12.1). Functional age is the level of physical independence, while chronological age is measured in years. Although both are relevant to programming, chronological and functional ages do not always align. Many older adults might have an advanced chronological age but a young functional age, and the reverse is possible as well.
Figure 12.1 Many adults may be chronologically older, but they function like people much younger than themselves.
General Characteristics
The American Medical Association's Committee on Aging (www.ama-assn.org) found that it was almost impossible to distinguish between the effects of aging and the effects of physical inactivity. Low energy, weakness, poor muscular strength, stress and tension, high cholesterol, diabetes, stiffness, constipation, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, insomnia, back problems, and decreased range of motion are all common issues associated with both aging and physical inactivity. The good news is that research shows that participation in regular exercise at any age can help improve many of these conditions and reduce the risk for developing them.
Physical changes occur as part of the aging process. The degree to which these changes occur varies from person to person, and may be influenced by lifestyle choices.
Sensory Changes
- Decreased visual sharpness and perception, smaller visual field, and impaired judgment of the speed of moving objects
- Decreased hearing sharpness and reduced ability to discriminate among different sounds
- Reduced sensitivity to touch
- Decreased communication between muscles and nerves and decreased reaction time, leading to altered mobility, response time, spatial awareness, and balance
Physical Changes
- Decreased height, partially due to spinal compression
- Decreased bone density, with increased risk of fractures
- Decreased fitness levels (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility)
Physiological Changes
- Enlarged heart with reduced function, decreased ability to contract, reduced pumping capacity, and reduced maximum attainable heart rate
- Reduced elasticity and diameter of blood vessels; increased blood pressure
- Decreased response of the immune system and ability to fight infection
- Decreased function of the respiratory system and reduced breathing capacity
Psychological Changes
Although psychological changes are harder to document, many older adults experience depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological conditions.
Exercise Guidelines
The ACSM guidelines for older adults are similar to the general recommendations provided in chapter 11, with additional suggestions regarding the time and intensity of training. Older adults will benefit more by using perceived exertion to monitor exercise intensity (ACSM 2018). Instructors should select aerobic activities that do not create orthopedic stress, choose weight training or weight-bearing movements to target muscular fitness, and employ slow movements that pause in a sustained stretch to enhance flexibility. Programs should also include neuromotor exercises to both improve balance and reduce the risk of falling.
Exercise programs for older adults should focus on the physiological and psychological changes associated with the aging process, while also respecting the individual needs of the participants. A specific class for seniors should do the following:
- Promotemusculoskeletal health, joint function, bone strength, muscular strength and endurance, posture
- Improve physical fitness and physical function: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, power, coordination, and agility
- Assist with fall prevention: lower-body strength, balance, and walking skills
- Improve mental health: self-esteem, social interaction, sense of achievement and productivity, memory, and motivation
Programming Considerations
Safety.
Five minutes spent before class acclimating new students to the pool surroundings can prevent accidents and alleviate the need for rescue or emergency assistance. Make sure participants are familiar with pool lifts, ramps, and accessible ladders for the shallow and deep ends as well as for changes in pool depths. Because of possible limitations with balance and reaction time, vision, and hearing, deliver instructions in a manner that is easy for participants to hear, see, and understand.
Programming.
Many of the aquatic program formats discussed in chapter 11 can be adapted for an older adult population, including continuous, interval, and circuit training for both shallow and deep water. Offer low-impact options for participants who cannot safely or comfortably perform high-impact activities, even in the aquatic environment. Use all three planes for movement to encourage increased range of motion and better enhance performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). Include movements that change direction to improve balance and coordination. Transitional moves allow time to readjust body alignment during changes in movement planes or directions of travel. Plan movements that target muscular balance in both strength and flexibility, focusing on common areas of misalignment, such as rounded shoulders (scapular protraction) and forward head posture.
Leadership skills.
Incorporate both audible and visual cues to accommodate participants with sensory limitations. Older adults benefit from eye contact and instructor interaction, both of which also allow you to monitor student comfort (e.g., becoming chilled, overheated, fatigued) and understanding of exercise technique. Encourage socialization and interaction among participants through planned activities. This can help maintain control of the class and minimize unwanted talking during times when the focus needs to be directed to intensity, form, alignment, and safety. Consider the pool acoustics when determining music use; participants must be able to hear your audible cues during class. If you incorporate music, choose an appropriate tempo for the population, class format, and water depth. Base the music style on the preferences of the participants.
Equipment.
Upper-body drag equipment, especially gloves or mitts that do not require gripping, can be easier for older adults to use safely and effectively. The resistance level can be individualized and based on the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. Gloves should fit loosely to prevent a reduction in blood circulation. When using buoyancy equipment, remember that older adults may have a lower body density and a high level of buoyancy due to body composition. Choose buoyancy equipment that does not compromise body alignment and stability or the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. People who are not completely comfortable in the aquatic environment, as well as those with balance issues or limitations with walking, may benefit from using equipment for support, such as holding a noodle or kickboard on the surface of the water.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Review some of the most common aquatic formats
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants.
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants. This section discusses some of the most common aquatic formats, many of which can be modified for shallow, deep, or transitional water depths.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is often referred to as station training. The stations can be cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, flexibility, neuromotor, or any combination. The circuit format can be instructor guided, where everyone in the class is performing each station at the same time. You lead the group as each participant performs the same moves and uses the same equipment (if being incorporated) at the same time. The circuit can also be self-guided, with individuals or small groups rotating from station to station. A combination circuit combines these two options into one class; you lead the class in a cardiorespiratory segment and then the participants move individually or in small groups to various stations. Circuit training is very versatile, and is limited only by your creativity with the equipment available, your pool design, and your participants (figure 11.1). See appendix F for a sample shallow-water circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.1 Circuit training in the water, as on land, is only limited by your creativity with equipment and space.
Interval Training
Interval training is composed of a series of training cycles that include high-intensity (work) and low-intensity (rest) segments. Both work and rest are planned and functional. The work - rest ratio sets the foundation for interval training. Intervals can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature, resulting in different fitness outcomes for your class participants or clients.
Aerobic intervals would be arranged in a 1:1 (equal work and rest) or 12 (where work is shorter than rest). During anaerobic intervals, cue participants to work at or near maximal effort. Recovery can include light activity or total rest. During both aerobic and anaerobic intervals, heart rates will undulate, going up with the work interval and down during the rest interval.
Some very specific interval ratios include HIIT and Tabata. HIIT, or high-intensity interval training, is designed for participants to exercise at or above their maximal capacity; rest periods vary depending on the goals of the class. Tabata is a very specific set of eight intervals (20 seconds of maximal effort followed by 10 seconds of complete rest) completed in rapid succession. See appendix F for a sample deep-water HIIT workout. Examples of various types of intervals are included in table 11.4.
Dance-Oriented Programs
Some aquatic programs are geared to more highly developed choreography sequences of dance-oriented movements. The class components remain similar; the difference is found in the level of complexity in choreography, which challenges the participants both physically and mentally. A variety of dance-oriented classes target specific styles of dance, such as ballroom, ballet, and hip-hop, or various ethnic rhythms, such as African and Latin. All of these styles can be mixed and incorporated into your classes as appropriate for your participants. When introducing this type of class, more simplistic choreography patterns are recommended. Once your participants begin to look and feel confident in the movements and transitions, greater complexity can be added. It is also helpful to teach segments of the combinations during the warm-up to prepare participants for what is ahead. This prevents unwanted decreases in intensity levels during the cardiorespiratory segment of class. Using choreography styles such as pyramid or add-on can help ensure that your participants understand the pattern as you progress.
Striding (Walk and Jog)
Striding can be incorporated as a warm-up or cool-down for other class programs, or the entire class format may be designed around striding patterns. This format easily adapts to all water depths and pool shapes and sizes (figure 11.2). The choreography or movement patterns are typically simple, making the choreography easy to follow and easy to instruct. These classes can provide a great opportunity to work on walking patterns, proficiency, balance, and range of motion. Striding programs can encourage social interaction among participants while providing a chance to improve fitness. With simple modifications of intensity and impact, this format can be designed for all levels of participants. Underwater treadmills offer more options for classes that center around walking and jogging activities. See appendix F for a sample shallow-water striding workout.
Figure 11.2 A practical benefit of water walking is that it can easily adapt to all depths and sizes of pools.
Cycling
Stationary bikes designed specifically for the pool have become a popular training option for group exercise, personal training, and rehabilitation (see figure 11.3). With proper instruction, aquatic cycling can be a safe and effective option for all ability levels. Although similar to stationary cycling on land, pedaling while immersed takes advantage of the benefits of the aquatic environment. Resistance is determined by the unique design of the bike that increases drag resistance when pedaled; this resistance is adjustable on most styles of aquatic bikes. Resistance is also influenced by pedaling speed or revolutions per minute and by altering the body position on the bike. Aquatic cycling can achieve cardiorespiratory goals with continuous or interval training, or the goals may be more focused on muscular endurance or even strength. If your facility has a limited number of bikes, they can be set up as part of a circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.3 Stationary bikes designed for the aquatic environment have become popular.
Save
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Teaching from the pool deck
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
Advantages
- You are highly visible to participants.
- You can use your whole body to provide visual cues.
- Often, but not always, you can be better heard from on deck.
- You have better visibility of your class. You can see what participants are doing. This is especially important if you are expected to be both lifeguard and instructor.See chapter 13 for AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming - Lifeguard recommendations.
- Some movements, because of their complexity, can be explained and demonstrated only from the deck where participants can see what your whole body is doing.
- Complex choreography is better explained and demonstrated from the deck.
- New participants can usually follow deck instruction best because the instructor is more visible.
- It is easier to change or adjust your music from the deck.
Disadvantages
- You are exposed to the elements (heat, humidity, sun, wind).
- You are leading from a hard surface without the support and buoyancy of the water.
- You increase your risk for injury caused by slipping or impact.
- Your participants might be in prolonged neck hyperextension looking up at you on deck.
- The tempo and execution of movements (air and gravity) must be altered to approximate water conditions (viscosity and buoyancy).
- It can be difficult to demonstrate movements unique to the water, such as suspended training, or high-impact options, including propelled moves.
AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming
Deck Instruction
The AEA recommends deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic classes in most situations. Deck instruction provides the highest level of safety for the participants by allowing better observation and quicker response to emergency situations. Deck instruction also provides greater visibility of the aquatic fitness professional to the participant and the participant to the aquatic fitness professional. The AEA recommends that the aquatic fitness professional remain on deck when there is no additional lifeguard on duty, when there are new participants in the program, or when new movements are being demonstrated.
The safety of the aquatic fitness professional does not have to be compromised if proper precautions are taken. Suggestions for safe deck instruction include the following:
- Avoid high-impact movement demonstration.
- Use a chair for low-impact demonstrations and balance needs.
- Consider non-impact teaching techniques.
- Wear proper footwear for deck instruction.
- When available, use a teaching mat to reduce impact stress.
- Wear appropriate clothing for the environment in which you work.
- Drink sufficient water to stay hydrated and protect your voice.
- Use a microphone when available or incorporate non-verbal cues.
- Position the music source where it provides the least interference with vocal cueing.
- Use caution when utilizing any electrical source, including sound systems, near a pool due to potential hazard of electrical shock.
- Lead the workout rather than participate in the workout.
- Train for endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance within your personal workout program to assure the ability to perform safely on the deck.
Movement Execution and Weight Transfer
Safe and effective demonstration of impact options for various moves and combinations is one of the toughest challenges an instructor faces when teaching from the deck. On deck, the instructor needs to demonstrate grounded, propelled, and level I, II, and III movements at an appropriate tempo with gravity and without the benefits of buoyancy. Needless to say, this requires careful planning as well as the assistance of teaching tools, such as chairs, stools, and walls. Here, we discuss three deck instruction options: full impact, low impact, and non-impact.
Full (high) impact.
Many moves, such as jumping jacks, cross-country skis, jogs, knee lifts, kicks, turns, leaps, and rocks, can be demonstrated with full impact on deck (see figure 10.9). With modification to a slower tempo, full impact is most similar to the actual mechanics of the movement as it is to be performed in the water.
Figure 10.9 If a slower tempo is used, full impact instruction most closely resembles the actual exercise being taught.
Deck demonstration provides challenges that make full-impact instruction precarious. Most pool decks are made of a hard surface, such as concrete or tile, and might be slippery, especially when wet. Leading a class with full impact increases your risk for overuse and acute injuries. Most aquatic fitness professionals choose low-impact or non-impact demonstrations to save wear and tear on their musculoskeletal system. You can reduce slipping and impact stress by wearing a supportive pair of shoes and using a nonskid cushioned mat on deck. Full impact should be used only sparingly to demonstrate the first few repetitions of a movement, set a pace, or motivate the class.
Reduced (low) impact.
Reduced impact demonstration protects your musculoskeletal system when leading from the pool deck. It is often the preferred method of deck instruction for most movements because of its versatility and safety (figure 10.10). However, reduced impact demonstrations are not without challenges.
Figure 10.10 Reduced impact instructing from the deck is often the preferred method.
Since your actual demonstration might not show the intended impact level, you must otherwise cue participants immersed in the water to perform the desired impact. Consider the use of clear vocal cues, hand signals, or even printed signs (e.g., "jump", "propel", or, "tuck"). You might also refer to a participant in the pool with proper mechanics for others to observe and imitate.
Low-impact demonstrations can also challenge your balance skills. The use of a pole, wall, or chair for support can help with balance on deck. Maintaining a wide base of support (feet at shoulder width or slightly wider) and lowering your center of gravity (slight squat position) improves stability and balance and makes many movements easier to perform on deck at the appropriate tempo.
If you march on deck, participants will generally march in the pool. However, if you wanted them to jog in the water, your visual cue was not successful. The problem lies with your demonstration of weight transfer. Adjust your teaching technique while still keeping a low-impact option by quickly shifting the weight from one foot to the other, while enhancing your demonstration with exaggerated visual cues. Plantar flexing at the ankle and rolling from the ball of the foot to the heel to quickly shift weight from one foot to the next gives more of the appearance of jumping from foot to foot to perform a jogging motion. This technique helps motivate participants to perform the desired movement with proper intensity.
You may also incorporate a chair or stool for a low-impact teaching alternative. While seated, you can demonstrate one-footed and two-footed moves with less impact because most of your body weight is supported by the chair or stool, yet the feet do contact the pool deck with each move. The drawback is that participants may assume that the movement is at level II, even if the exercise should be performed at level I in the water. To make this more effective, add a verbal cue, a hand signal, or possibly even a cue card to clarify.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Benefits and considerations of aquatic exercise for older adults
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities.
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities. Although many countries have accepted the World Health Organization's definition for the terms elderly or older person as a person with a chronological age of 65 years or more, it is important to understand that the rate of physical decline will vary from person to person (figure 12.1). Functional age is the level of physical independence, while chronological age is measured in years. Although both are relevant to programming, chronological and functional ages do not always align. Many older adults might have an advanced chronological age but a young functional age, and the reverse is possible as well.
Figure 12.1 Many adults may be chronologically older, but they function like people much younger than themselves.
General Characteristics
The American Medical Association's Committee on Aging (www.ama-assn.org) found that it was almost impossible to distinguish between the effects of aging and the effects of physical inactivity. Low energy, weakness, poor muscular strength, stress and tension, high cholesterol, diabetes, stiffness, constipation, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, insomnia, back problems, and decreased range of motion are all common issues associated with both aging and physical inactivity. The good news is that research shows that participation in regular exercise at any age can help improve many of these conditions and reduce the risk for developing them.
Physical changes occur as part of the aging process. The degree to which these changes occur varies from person to person, and may be influenced by lifestyle choices.
Sensory Changes
- Decreased visual sharpness and perception, smaller visual field, and impaired judgment of the speed of moving objects
- Decreased hearing sharpness and reduced ability to discriminate among different sounds
- Reduced sensitivity to touch
- Decreased communication between muscles and nerves and decreased reaction time, leading to altered mobility, response time, spatial awareness, and balance
Physical Changes
- Decreased height, partially due to spinal compression
- Decreased bone density, with increased risk of fractures
- Decreased fitness levels (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility)
Physiological Changes
- Enlarged heart with reduced function, decreased ability to contract, reduced pumping capacity, and reduced maximum attainable heart rate
- Reduced elasticity and diameter of blood vessels; increased blood pressure
- Decreased response of the immune system and ability to fight infection
- Decreased function of the respiratory system and reduced breathing capacity
Psychological Changes
Although psychological changes are harder to document, many older adults experience depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological conditions.
Exercise Guidelines
The ACSM guidelines for older adults are similar to the general recommendations provided in chapter 11, with additional suggestions regarding the time and intensity of training. Older adults will benefit more by using perceived exertion to monitor exercise intensity (ACSM 2018). Instructors should select aerobic activities that do not create orthopedic stress, choose weight training or weight-bearing movements to target muscular fitness, and employ slow movements that pause in a sustained stretch to enhance flexibility. Programs should also include neuromotor exercises to both improve balance and reduce the risk of falling.
Exercise programs for older adults should focus on the physiological and psychological changes associated with the aging process, while also respecting the individual needs of the participants. A specific class for seniors should do the following:
- Promotemusculoskeletal health, joint function, bone strength, muscular strength and endurance, posture
- Improve physical fitness and physical function: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, power, coordination, and agility
- Assist with fall prevention: lower-body strength, balance, and walking skills
- Improve mental health: self-esteem, social interaction, sense of achievement and productivity, memory, and motivation
Programming Considerations
Safety.
Five minutes spent before class acclimating new students to the pool surroundings can prevent accidents and alleviate the need for rescue or emergency assistance. Make sure participants are familiar with pool lifts, ramps, and accessible ladders for the shallow and deep ends as well as for changes in pool depths. Because of possible limitations with balance and reaction time, vision, and hearing, deliver instructions in a manner that is easy for participants to hear, see, and understand.
Programming.
Many of the aquatic program formats discussed in chapter 11 can be adapted for an older adult population, including continuous, interval, and circuit training for both shallow and deep water. Offer low-impact options for participants who cannot safely or comfortably perform high-impact activities, even in the aquatic environment. Use all three planes for movement to encourage increased range of motion and better enhance performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). Include movements that change direction to improve balance and coordination. Transitional moves allow time to readjust body alignment during changes in movement planes or directions of travel. Plan movements that target muscular balance in both strength and flexibility, focusing on common areas of misalignment, such as rounded shoulders (scapular protraction) and forward head posture.
Leadership skills.
Incorporate both audible and visual cues to accommodate participants with sensory limitations. Older adults benefit from eye contact and instructor interaction, both of which also allow you to monitor student comfort (e.g., becoming chilled, overheated, fatigued) and understanding of exercise technique. Encourage socialization and interaction among participants through planned activities. This can help maintain control of the class and minimize unwanted talking during times when the focus needs to be directed to intensity, form, alignment, and safety. Consider the pool acoustics when determining music use; participants must be able to hear your audible cues during class. If you incorporate music, choose an appropriate tempo for the population, class format, and water depth. Base the music style on the preferences of the participants.
Equipment.
Upper-body drag equipment, especially gloves or mitts that do not require gripping, can be easier for older adults to use safely and effectively. The resistance level can be individualized and based on the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. Gloves should fit loosely to prevent a reduction in blood circulation. When using buoyancy equipment, remember that older adults may have a lower body density and a high level of buoyancy due to body composition. Choose buoyancy equipment that does not compromise body alignment and stability or the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. People who are not completely comfortable in the aquatic environment, as well as those with balance issues or limitations with walking, may benefit from using equipment for support, such as holding a noodle or kickboard on the surface of the water.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Review some of the most common aquatic formats
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants.
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants. This section discusses some of the most common aquatic formats, many of which can be modified for shallow, deep, or transitional water depths.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is often referred to as station training. The stations can be cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, flexibility, neuromotor, or any combination. The circuit format can be instructor guided, where everyone in the class is performing each station at the same time. You lead the group as each participant performs the same moves and uses the same equipment (if being incorporated) at the same time. The circuit can also be self-guided, with individuals or small groups rotating from station to station. A combination circuit combines these two options into one class; you lead the class in a cardiorespiratory segment and then the participants move individually or in small groups to various stations. Circuit training is very versatile, and is limited only by your creativity with the equipment available, your pool design, and your participants (figure 11.1). See appendix F for a sample shallow-water circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.1 Circuit training in the water, as on land, is only limited by your creativity with equipment and space.
Interval Training
Interval training is composed of a series of training cycles that include high-intensity (work) and low-intensity (rest) segments. Both work and rest are planned and functional. The work - rest ratio sets the foundation for interval training. Intervals can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature, resulting in different fitness outcomes for your class participants or clients.
Aerobic intervals would be arranged in a 1:1 (equal work and rest) or 12 (where work is shorter than rest). During anaerobic intervals, cue participants to work at or near maximal effort. Recovery can include light activity or total rest. During both aerobic and anaerobic intervals, heart rates will undulate, going up with the work interval and down during the rest interval.
Some very specific interval ratios include HIIT and Tabata. HIIT, or high-intensity interval training, is designed for participants to exercise at or above their maximal capacity; rest periods vary depending on the goals of the class. Tabata is a very specific set of eight intervals (20 seconds of maximal effort followed by 10 seconds of complete rest) completed in rapid succession. See appendix F for a sample deep-water HIIT workout. Examples of various types of intervals are included in table 11.4.
Dance-Oriented Programs
Some aquatic programs are geared to more highly developed choreography sequences of dance-oriented movements. The class components remain similar; the difference is found in the level of complexity in choreography, which challenges the participants both physically and mentally. A variety of dance-oriented classes target specific styles of dance, such as ballroom, ballet, and hip-hop, or various ethnic rhythms, such as African and Latin. All of these styles can be mixed and incorporated into your classes as appropriate for your participants. When introducing this type of class, more simplistic choreography patterns are recommended. Once your participants begin to look and feel confident in the movements and transitions, greater complexity can be added. It is also helpful to teach segments of the combinations during the warm-up to prepare participants for what is ahead. This prevents unwanted decreases in intensity levels during the cardiorespiratory segment of class. Using choreography styles such as pyramid or add-on can help ensure that your participants understand the pattern as you progress.
Striding (Walk and Jog)
Striding can be incorporated as a warm-up or cool-down for other class programs, or the entire class format may be designed around striding patterns. This format easily adapts to all water depths and pool shapes and sizes (figure 11.2). The choreography or movement patterns are typically simple, making the choreography easy to follow and easy to instruct. These classes can provide a great opportunity to work on walking patterns, proficiency, balance, and range of motion. Striding programs can encourage social interaction among participants while providing a chance to improve fitness. With simple modifications of intensity and impact, this format can be designed for all levels of participants. Underwater treadmills offer more options for classes that center around walking and jogging activities. See appendix F for a sample shallow-water striding workout.
Figure 11.2 A practical benefit of water walking is that it can easily adapt to all depths and sizes of pools.
Cycling
Stationary bikes designed specifically for the pool have become a popular training option for group exercise, personal training, and rehabilitation (see figure 11.3). With proper instruction, aquatic cycling can be a safe and effective option for all ability levels. Although similar to stationary cycling on land, pedaling while immersed takes advantage of the benefits of the aquatic environment. Resistance is determined by the unique design of the bike that increases drag resistance when pedaled; this resistance is adjustable on most styles of aquatic bikes. Resistance is also influenced by pedaling speed or revolutions per minute and by altering the body position on the bike. Aquatic cycling can achieve cardiorespiratory goals with continuous or interval training, or the goals may be more focused on muscular endurance or even strength. If your facility has a limited number of bikes, they can be set up as part of a circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.3 Stationary bikes designed for the aquatic environment have become popular.
Save
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Teaching from the pool deck
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
Advantages
- You are highly visible to participants.
- You can use your whole body to provide visual cues.
- Often, but not always, you can be better heard from on deck.
- You have better visibility of your class. You can see what participants are doing. This is especially important if you are expected to be both lifeguard and instructor.See chapter 13 for AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming - Lifeguard recommendations.
- Some movements, because of their complexity, can be explained and demonstrated only from the deck where participants can see what your whole body is doing.
- Complex choreography is better explained and demonstrated from the deck.
- New participants can usually follow deck instruction best because the instructor is more visible.
- It is easier to change or adjust your music from the deck.
Disadvantages
- You are exposed to the elements (heat, humidity, sun, wind).
- You are leading from a hard surface without the support and buoyancy of the water.
- You increase your risk for injury caused by slipping or impact.
- Your participants might be in prolonged neck hyperextension looking up at you on deck.
- The tempo and execution of movements (air and gravity) must be altered to approximate water conditions (viscosity and buoyancy).
- It can be difficult to demonstrate movements unique to the water, such as suspended training, or high-impact options, including propelled moves.
AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming
Deck Instruction
The AEA recommends deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic classes in most situations. Deck instruction provides the highest level of safety for the participants by allowing better observation and quicker response to emergency situations. Deck instruction also provides greater visibility of the aquatic fitness professional to the participant and the participant to the aquatic fitness professional. The AEA recommends that the aquatic fitness professional remain on deck when there is no additional lifeguard on duty, when there are new participants in the program, or when new movements are being demonstrated.
The safety of the aquatic fitness professional does not have to be compromised if proper precautions are taken. Suggestions for safe deck instruction include the following:
- Avoid high-impact movement demonstration.
- Use a chair for low-impact demonstrations and balance needs.
- Consider non-impact teaching techniques.
- Wear proper footwear for deck instruction.
- When available, use a teaching mat to reduce impact stress.
- Wear appropriate clothing for the environment in which you work.
- Drink sufficient water to stay hydrated and protect your voice.
- Use a microphone when available or incorporate non-verbal cues.
- Position the music source where it provides the least interference with vocal cueing.
- Use caution when utilizing any electrical source, including sound systems, near a pool due to potential hazard of electrical shock.
- Lead the workout rather than participate in the workout.
- Train for endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance within your personal workout program to assure the ability to perform safely on the deck.
Movement Execution and Weight Transfer
Safe and effective demonstration of impact options for various moves and combinations is one of the toughest challenges an instructor faces when teaching from the deck. On deck, the instructor needs to demonstrate grounded, propelled, and level I, II, and III movements at an appropriate tempo with gravity and without the benefits of buoyancy. Needless to say, this requires careful planning as well as the assistance of teaching tools, such as chairs, stools, and walls. Here, we discuss three deck instruction options: full impact, low impact, and non-impact.
Full (high) impact.
Many moves, such as jumping jacks, cross-country skis, jogs, knee lifts, kicks, turns, leaps, and rocks, can be demonstrated with full impact on deck (see figure 10.9). With modification to a slower tempo, full impact is most similar to the actual mechanics of the movement as it is to be performed in the water.
Figure 10.9 If a slower tempo is used, full impact instruction most closely resembles the actual exercise being taught.
Deck demonstration provides challenges that make full-impact instruction precarious. Most pool decks are made of a hard surface, such as concrete or tile, and might be slippery, especially when wet. Leading a class with full impact increases your risk for overuse and acute injuries. Most aquatic fitness professionals choose low-impact or non-impact demonstrations to save wear and tear on their musculoskeletal system. You can reduce slipping and impact stress by wearing a supportive pair of shoes and using a nonskid cushioned mat on deck. Full impact should be used only sparingly to demonstrate the first few repetitions of a movement, set a pace, or motivate the class.
Reduced (low) impact.
Reduced impact demonstration protects your musculoskeletal system when leading from the pool deck. It is often the preferred method of deck instruction for most movements because of its versatility and safety (figure 10.10). However, reduced impact demonstrations are not without challenges.
Figure 10.10 Reduced impact instructing from the deck is often the preferred method.
Since your actual demonstration might not show the intended impact level, you must otherwise cue participants immersed in the water to perform the desired impact. Consider the use of clear vocal cues, hand signals, or even printed signs (e.g., "jump", "propel", or, "tuck"). You might also refer to a participant in the pool with proper mechanics for others to observe and imitate.
Low-impact demonstrations can also challenge your balance skills. The use of a pole, wall, or chair for support can help with balance on deck. Maintaining a wide base of support (feet at shoulder width or slightly wider) and lowering your center of gravity (slight squat position) improves stability and balance and makes many movements easier to perform on deck at the appropriate tempo.
If you march on deck, participants will generally march in the pool. However, if you wanted them to jog in the water, your visual cue was not successful. The problem lies with your demonstration of weight transfer. Adjust your teaching technique while still keeping a low-impact option by quickly shifting the weight from one foot to the other, while enhancing your demonstration with exaggerated visual cues. Plantar flexing at the ankle and rolling from the ball of the foot to the heel to quickly shift weight from one foot to the next gives more of the appearance of jumping from foot to foot to perform a jogging motion. This technique helps motivate participants to perform the desired movement with proper intensity.
You may also incorporate a chair or stool for a low-impact teaching alternative. While seated, you can demonstrate one-footed and two-footed moves with less impact because most of your body weight is supported by the chair or stool, yet the feet do contact the pool deck with each move. The drawback is that participants may assume that the movement is at level II, even if the exercise should be performed at level I in the water. To make this more effective, add a verbal cue, a hand signal, or possibly even a cue card to clarify.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Benefits and considerations of aquatic exercise for older adults
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities.
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities. Although many countries have accepted the World Health Organization's definition for the terms elderly or older person as a person with a chronological age of 65 years or more, it is important to understand that the rate of physical decline will vary from person to person (figure 12.1). Functional age is the level of physical independence, while chronological age is measured in years. Although both are relevant to programming, chronological and functional ages do not always align. Many older adults might have an advanced chronological age but a young functional age, and the reverse is possible as well.
Figure 12.1 Many adults may be chronologically older, but they function like people much younger than themselves.
General Characteristics
The American Medical Association's Committee on Aging (www.ama-assn.org) found that it was almost impossible to distinguish between the effects of aging and the effects of physical inactivity. Low energy, weakness, poor muscular strength, stress and tension, high cholesterol, diabetes, stiffness, constipation, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, insomnia, back problems, and decreased range of motion are all common issues associated with both aging and physical inactivity. The good news is that research shows that participation in regular exercise at any age can help improve many of these conditions and reduce the risk for developing them.
Physical changes occur as part of the aging process. The degree to which these changes occur varies from person to person, and may be influenced by lifestyle choices.
Sensory Changes
- Decreased visual sharpness and perception, smaller visual field, and impaired judgment of the speed of moving objects
- Decreased hearing sharpness and reduced ability to discriminate among different sounds
- Reduced sensitivity to touch
- Decreased communication between muscles and nerves and decreased reaction time, leading to altered mobility, response time, spatial awareness, and balance
Physical Changes
- Decreased height, partially due to spinal compression
- Decreased bone density, with increased risk of fractures
- Decreased fitness levels (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility)
Physiological Changes
- Enlarged heart with reduced function, decreased ability to contract, reduced pumping capacity, and reduced maximum attainable heart rate
- Reduced elasticity and diameter of blood vessels; increased blood pressure
- Decreased response of the immune system and ability to fight infection
- Decreased function of the respiratory system and reduced breathing capacity
Psychological Changes
Although psychological changes are harder to document, many older adults experience depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological conditions.
Exercise Guidelines
The ACSM guidelines for older adults are similar to the general recommendations provided in chapter 11, with additional suggestions regarding the time and intensity of training. Older adults will benefit more by using perceived exertion to monitor exercise intensity (ACSM 2018). Instructors should select aerobic activities that do not create orthopedic stress, choose weight training or weight-bearing movements to target muscular fitness, and employ slow movements that pause in a sustained stretch to enhance flexibility. Programs should also include neuromotor exercises to both improve balance and reduce the risk of falling.
Exercise programs for older adults should focus on the physiological and psychological changes associated with the aging process, while also respecting the individual needs of the participants. A specific class for seniors should do the following:
- Promotemusculoskeletal health, joint function, bone strength, muscular strength and endurance, posture
- Improve physical fitness and physical function: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, power, coordination, and agility
- Assist with fall prevention: lower-body strength, balance, and walking skills
- Improve mental health: self-esteem, social interaction, sense of achievement and productivity, memory, and motivation
Programming Considerations
Safety.
Five minutes spent before class acclimating new students to the pool surroundings can prevent accidents and alleviate the need for rescue or emergency assistance. Make sure participants are familiar with pool lifts, ramps, and accessible ladders for the shallow and deep ends as well as for changes in pool depths. Because of possible limitations with balance and reaction time, vision, and hearing, deliver instructions in a manner that is easy for participants to hear, see, and understand.
Programming.
Many of the aquatic program formats discussed in chapter 11 can be adapted for an older adult population, including continuous, interval, and circuit training for both shallow and deep water. Offer low-impact options for participants who cannot safely or comfortably perform high-impact activities, even in the aquatic environment. Use all three planes for movement to encourage increased range of motion and better enhance performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). Include movements that change direction to improve balance and coordination. Transitional moves allow time to readjust body alignment during changes in movement planes or directions of travel. Plan movements that target muscular balance in both strength and flexibility, focusing on common areas of misalignment, such as rounded shoulders (scapular protraction) and forward head posture.
Leadership skills.
Incorporate both audible and visual cues to accommodate participants with sensory limitations. Older adults benefit from eye contact and instructor interaction, both of which also allow you to monitor student comfort (e.g., becoming chilled, overheated, fatigued) and understanding of exercise technique. Encourage socialization and interaction among participants through planned activities. This can help maintain control of the class and minimize unwanted talking during times when the focus needs to be directed to intensity, form, alignment, and safety. Consider the pool acoustics when determining music use; participants must be able to hear your audible cues during class. If you incorporate music, choose an appropriate tempo for the population, class format, and water depth. Base the music style on the preferences of the participants.
Equipment.
Upper-body drag equipment, especially gloves or mitts that do not require gripping, can be easier for older adults to use safely and effectively. The resistance level can be individualized and based on the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. Gloves should fit loosely to prevent a reduction in blood circulation. When using buoyancy equipment, remember that older adults may have a lower body density and a high level of buoyancy due to body composition. Choose buoyancy equipment that does not compromise body alignment and stability or the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. People who are not completely comfortable in the aquatic environment, as well as those with balance issues or limitations with walking, may benefit from using equipment for support, such as holding a noodle or kickboard on the surface of the water.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Review some of the most common aquatic formats
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants.
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants. This section discusses some of the most common aquatic formats, many of which can be modified for shallow, deep, or transitional water depths.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is often referred to as station training. The stations can be cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, flexibility, neuromotor, or any combination. The circuit format can be instructor guided, where everyone in the class is performing each station at the same time. You lead the group as each participant performs the same moves and uses the same equipment (if being incorporated) at the same time. The circuit can also be self-guided, with individuals or small groups rotating from station to station. A combination circuit combines these two options into one class; you lead the class in a cardiorespiratory segment and then the participants move individually or in small groups to various stations. Circuit training is very versatile, and is limited only by your creativity with the equipment available, your pool design, and your participants (figure 11.1). See appendix F for a sample shallow-water circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.1 Circuit training in the water, as on land, is only limited by your creativity with equipment and space.
Interval Training
Interval training is composed of a series of training cycles that include high-intensity (work) and low-intensity (rest) segments. Both work and rest are planned and functional. The work - rest ratio sets the foundation for interval training. Intervals can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature, resulting in different fitness outcomes for your class participants or clients.
Aerobic intervals would be arranged in a 1:1 (equal work and rest) or 12 (where work is shorter than rest). During anaerobic intervals, cue participants to work at or near maximal effort. Recovery can include light activity or total rest. During both aerobic and anaerobic intervals, heart rates will undulate, going up with the work interval and down during the rest interval.
Some very specific interval ratios include HIIT and Tabata. HIIT, or high-intensity interval training, is designed for participants to exercise at or above their maximal capacity; rest periods vary depending on the goals of the class. Tabata is a very specific set of eight intervals (20 seconds of maximal effort followed by 10 seconds of complete rest) completed in rapid succession. See appendix F for a sample deep-water HIIT workout. Examples of various types of intervals are included in table 11.4.
Dance-Oriented Programs
Some aquatic programs are geared to more highly developed choreography sequences of dance-oriented movements. The class components remain similar; the difference is found in the level of complexity in choreography, which challenges the participants both physically and mentally. A variety of dance-oriented classes target specific styles of dance, such as ballroom, ballet, and hip-hop, or various ethnic rhythms, such as African and Latin. All of these styles can be mixed and incorporated into your classes as appropriate for your participants. When introducing this type of class, more simplistic choreography patterns are recommended. Once your participants begin to look and feel confident in the movements and transitions, greater complexity can be added. It is also helpful to teach segments of the combinations during the warm-up to prepare participants for what is ahead. This prevents unwanted decreases in intensity levels during the cardiorespiratory segment of class. Using choreography styles such as pyramid or add-on can help ensure that your participants understand the pattern as you progress.
Striding (Walk and Jog)
Striding can be incorporated as a warm-up or cool-down for other class programs, or the entire class format may be designed around striding patterns. This format easily adapts to all water depths and pool shapes and sizes (figure 11.2). The choreography or movement patterns are typically simple, making the choreography easy to follow and easy to instruct. These classes can provide a great opportunity to work on walking patterns, proficiency, balance, and range of motion. Striding programs can encourage social interaction among participants while providing a chance to improve fitness. With simple modifications of intensity and impact, this format can be designed for all levels of participants. Underwater treadmills offer more options for classes that center around walking and jogging activities. See appendix F for a sample shallow-water striding workout.
Figure 11.2 A practical benefit of water walking is that it can easily adapt to all depths and sizes of pools.
Cycling
Stationary bikes designed specifically for the pool have become a popular training option for group exercise, personal training, and rehabilitation (see figure 11.3). With proper instruction, aquatic cycling can be a safe and effective option for all ability levels. Although similar to stationary cycling on land, pedaling while immersed takes advantage of the benefits of the aquatic environment. Resistance is determined by the unique design of the bike that increases drag resistance when pedaled; this resistance is adjustable on most styles of aquatic bikes. Resistance is also influenced by pedaling speed or revolutions per minute and by altering the body position on the bike. Aquatic cycling can achieve cardiorespiratory goals with continuous or interval training, or the goals may be more focused on muscular endurance or even strength. If your facility has a limited number of bikes, they can be set up as part of a circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.3 Stationary bikes designed for the aquatic environment have become popular.
Save
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Teaching from the pool deck
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
Advantages
- You are highly visible to participants.
- You can use your whole body to provide visual cues.
- Often, but not always, you can be better heard from on deck.
- You have better visibility of your class. You can see what participants are doing. This is especially important if you are expected to be both lifeguard and instructor.See chapter 13 for AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming - Lifeguard recommendations.
- Some movements, because of their complexity, can be explained and demonstrated only from the deck where participants can see what your whole body is doing.
- Complex choreography is better explained and demonstrated from the deck.
- New participants can usually follow deck instruction best because the instructor is more visible.
- It is easier to change or adjust your music from the deck.
Disadvantages
- You are exposed to the elements (heat, humidity, sun, wind).
- You are leading from a hard surface without the support and buoyancy of the water.
- You increase your risk for injury caused by slipping or impact.
- Your participants might be in prolonged neck hyperextension looking up at you on deck.
- The tempo and execution of movements (air and gravity) must be altered to approximate water conditions (viscosity and buoyancy).
- It can be difficult to demonstrate movements unique to the water, such as suspended training, or high-impact options, including propelled moves.
AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming
Deck Instruction
The AEA recommends deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic classes in most situations. Deck instruction provides the highest level of safety for the participants by allowing better observation and quicker response to emergency situations. Deck instruction also provides greater visibility of the aquatic fitness professional to the participant and the participant to the aquatic fitness professional. The AEA recommends that the aquatic fitness professional remain on deck when there is no additional lifeguard on duty, when there are new participants in the program, or when new movements are being demonstrated.
The safety of the aquatic fitness professional does not have to be compromised if proper precautions are taken. Suggestions for safe deck instruction include the following:
- Avoid high-impact movement demonstration.
- Use a chair for low-impact demonstrations and balance needs.
- Consider non-impact teaching techniques.
- Wear proper footwear for deck instruction.
- When available, use a teaching mat to reduce impact stress.
- Wear appropriate clothing for the environment in which you work.
- Drink sufficient water to stay hydrated and protect your voice.
- Use a microphone when available or incorporate non-verbal cues.
- Position the music source where it provides the least interference with vocal cueing.
- Use caution when utilizing any electrical source, including sound systems, near a pool due to potential hazard of electrical shock.
- Lead the workout rather than participate in the workout.
- Train for endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance within your personal workout program to assure the ability to perform safely on the deck.
Movement Execution and Weight Transfer
Safe and effective demonstration of impact options for various moves and combinations is one of the toughest challenges an instructor faces when teaching from the deck. On deck, the instructor needs to demonstrate grounded, propelled, and level I, II, and III movements at an appropriate tempo with gravity and without the benefits of buoyancy. Needless to say, this requires careful planning as well as the assistance of teaching tools, such as chairs, stools, and walls. Here, we discuss three deck instruction options: full impact, low impact, and non-impact.
Full (high) impact.
Many moves, such as jumping jacks, cross-country skis, jogs, knee lifts, kicks, turns, leaps, and rocks, can be demonstrated with full impact on deck (see figure 10.9). With modification to a slower tempo, full impact is most similar to the actual mechanics of the movement as it is to be performed in the water.
Figure 10.9 If a slower tempo is used, full impact instruction most closely resembles the actual exercise being taught.
Deck demonstration provides challenges that make full-impact instruction precarious. Most pool decks are made of a hard surface, such as concrete or tile, and might be slippery, especially when wet. Leading a class with full impact increases your risk for overuse and acute injuries. Most aquatic fitness professionals choose low-impact or non-impact demonstrations to save wear and tear on their musculoskeletal system. You can reduce slipping and impact stress by wearing a supportive pair of shoes and using a nonskid cushioned mat on deck. Full impact should be used only sparingly to demonstrate the first few repetitions of a movement, set a pace, or motivate the class.
Reduced (low) impact.
Reduced impact demonstration protects your musculoskeletal system when leading from the pool deck. It is often the preferred method of deck instruction for most movements because of its versatility and safety (figure 10.10). However, reduced impact demonstrations are not without challenges.
Figure 10.10 Reduced impact instructing from the deck is often the preferred method.
Since your actual demonstration might not show the intended impact level, you must otherwise cue participants immersed in the water to perform the desired impact. Consider the use of clear vocal cues, hand signals, or even printed signs (e.g., "jump", "propel", or, "tuck"). You might also refer to a participant in the pool with proper mechanics for others to observe and imitate.
Low-impact demonstrations can also challenge your balance skills. The use of a pole, wall, or chair for support can help with balance on deck. Maintaining a wide base of support (feet at shoulder width or slightly wider) and lowering your center of gravity (slight squat position) improves stability and balance and makes many movements easier to perform on deck at the appropriate tempo.
If you march on deck, participants will generally march in the pool. However, if you wanted them to jog in the water, your visual cue was not successful. The problem lies with your demonstration of weight transfer. Adjust your teaching technique while still keeping a low-impact option by quickly shifting the weight from one foot to the other, while enhancing your demonstration with exaggerated visual cues. Plantar flexing at the ankle and rolling from the ball of the foot to the heel to quickly shift weight from one foot to the next gives more of the appearance of jumping from foot to foot to perform a jogging motion. This technique helps motivate participants to perform the desired movement with proper intensity.
You may also incorporate a chair or stool for a low-impact teaching alternative. While seated, you can demonstrate one-footed and two-footed moves with less impact because most of your body weight is supported by the chair or stool, yet the feet do contact the pool deck with each move. The drawback is that participants may assume that the movement is at level II, even if the exercise should be performed at level I in the water. To make this more effective, add a verbal cue, a hand signal, or possibly even a cue card to clarify.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Benefits and considerations of aquatic exercise for older adults
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities.
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities. Although many countries have accepted the World Health Organization's definition for the terms elderly or older person as a person with a chronological age of 65 years or more, it is important to understand that the rate of physical decline will vary from person to person (figure 12.1). Functional age is the level of physical independence, while chronological age is measured in years. Although both are relevant to programming, chronological and functional ages do not always align. Many older adults might have an advanced chronological age but a young functional age, and the reverse is possible as well.
Figure 12.1 Many adults may be chronologically older, but they function like people much younger than themselves.
General Characteristics
The American Medical Association's Committee on Aging (www.ama-assn.org) found that it was almost impossible to distinguish between the effects of aging and the effects of physical inactivity. Low energy, weakness, poor muscular strength, stress and tension, high cholesterol, diabetes, stiffness, constipation, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, insomnia, back problems, and decreased range of motion are all common issues associated with both aging and physical inactivity. The good news is that research shows that participation in regular exercise at any age can help improve many of these conditions and reduce the risk for developing them.
Physical changes occur as part of the aging process. The degree to which these changes occur varies from person to person, and may be influenced by lifestyle choices.
Sensory Changes
- Decreased visual sharpness and perception, smaller visual field, and impaired judgment of the speed of moving objects
- Decreased hearing sharpness and reduced ability to discriminate among different sounds
- Reduced sensitivity to touch
- Decreased communication between muscles and nerves and decreased reaction time, leading to altered mobility, response time, spatial awareness, and balance
Physical Changes
- Decreased height, partially due to spinal compression
- Decreased bone density, with increased risk of fractures
- Decreased fitness levels (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility)
Physiological Changes
- Enlarged heart with reduced function, decreased ability to contract, reduced pumping capacity, and reduced maximum attainable heart rate
- Reduced elasticity and diameter of blood vessels; increased blood pressure
- Decreased response of the immune system and ability to fight infection
- Decreased function of the respiratory system and reduced breathing capacity
Psychological Changes
Although psychological changes are harder to document, many older adults experience depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological conditions.
Exercise Guidelines
The ACSM guidelines for older adults are similar to the general recommendations provided in chapter 11, with additional suggestions regarding the time and intensity of training. Older adults will benefit more by using perceived exertion to monitor exercise intensity (ACSM 2018). Instructors should select aerobic activities that do not create orthopedic stress, choose weight training or weight-bearing movements to target muscular fitness, and employ slow movements that pause in a sustained stretch to enhance flexibility. Programs should also include neuromotor exercises to both improve balance and reduce the risk of falling.
Exercise programs for older adults should focus on the physiological and psychological changes associated with the aging process, while also respecting the individual needs of the participants. A specific class for seniors should do the following:
- Promotemusculoskeletal health, joint function, bone strength, muscular strength and endurance, posture
- Improve physical fitness and physical function: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, power, coordination, and agility
- Assist with fall prevention: lower-body strength, balance, and walking skills
- Improve mental health: self-esteem, social interaction, sense of achievement and productivity, memory, and motivation
Programming Considerations
Safety.
Five minutes spent before class acclimating new students to the pool surroundings can prevent accidents and alleviate the need for rescue or emergency assistance. Make sure participants are familiar with pool lifts, ramps, and accessible ladders for the shallow and deep ends as well as for changes in pool depths. Because of possible limitations with balance and reaction time, vision, and hearing, deliver instructions in a manner that is easy for participants to hear, see, and understand.
Programming.
Many of the aquatic program formats discussed in chapter 11 can be adapted for an older adult population, including continuous, interval, and circuit training for both shallow and deep water. Offer low-impact options for participants who cannot safely or comfortably perform high-impact activities, even in the aquatic environment. Use all three planes for movement to encourage increased range of motion and better enhance performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). Include movements that change direction to improve balance and coordination. Transitional moves allow time to readjust body alignment during changes in movement planes or directions of travel. Plan movements that target muscular balance in both strength and flexibility, focusing on common areas of misalignment, such as rounded shoulders (scapular protraction) and forward head posture.
Leadership skills.
Incorporate both audible and visual cues to accommodate participants with sensory limitations. Older adults benefit from eye contact and instructor interaction, both of which also allow you to monitor student comfort (e.g., becoming chilled, overheated, fatigued) and understanding of exercise technique. Encourage socialization and interaction among participants through planned activities. This can help maintain control of the class and minimize unwanted talking during times when the focus needs to be directed to intensity, form, alignment, and safety. Consider the pool acoustics when determining music use; participants must be able to hear your audible cues during class. If you incorporate music, choose an appropriate tempo for the population, class format, and water depth. Base the music style on the preferences of the participants.
Equipment.
Upper-body drag equipment, especially gloves or mitts that do not require gripping, can be easier for older adults to use safely and effectively. The resistance level can be individualized and based on the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. Gloves should fit loosely to prevent a reduction in blood circulation. When using buoyancy equipment, remember that older adults may have a lower body density and a high level of buoyancy due to body composition. Choose buoyancy equipment that does not compromise body alignment and stability or the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. People who are not completely comfortable in the aquatic environment, as well as those with balance issues or limitations with walking, may benefit from using equipment for support, such as holding a noodle or kickboard on the surface of the water.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Review some of the most common aquatic formats
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants.
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants. This section discusses some of the most common aquatic formats, many of which can be modified for shallow, deep, or transitional water depths.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is often referred to as station training. The stations can be cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, flexibility, neuromotor, or any combination. The circuit format can be instructor guided, where everyone in the class is performing each station at the same time. You lead the group as each participant performs the same moves and uses the same equipment (if being incorporated) at the same time. The circuit can also be self-guided, with individuals or small groups rotating from station to station. A combination circuit combines these two options into one class; you lead the class in a cardiorespiratory segment and then the participants move individually or in small groups to various stations. Circuit training is very versatile, and is limited only by your creativity with the equipment available, your pool design, and your participants (figure 11.1). See appendix F for a sample shallow-water circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.1 Circuit training in the water, as on land, is only limited by your creativity with equipment and space.
Interval Training
Interval training is composed of a series of training cycles that include high-intensity (work) and low-intensity (rest) segments. Both work and rest are planned and functional. The work - rest ratio sets the foundation for interval training. Intervals can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature, resulting in different fitness outcomes for your class participants or clients.
Aerobic intervals would be arranged in a 1:1 (equal work and rest) or 12 (where work is shorter than rest). During anaerobic intervals, cue participants to work at or near maximal effort. Recovery can include light activity or total rest. During both aerobic and anaerobic intervals, heart rates will undulate, going up with the work interval and down during the rest interval.
Some very specific interval ratios include HIIT and Tabata. HIIT, or high-intensity interval training, is designed for participants to exercise at or above their maximal capacity; rest periods vary depending on the goals of the class. Tabata is a very specific set of eight intervals (20 seconds of maximal effort followed by 10 seconds of complete rest) completed in rapid succession. See appendix F for a sample deep-water HIIT workout. Examples of various types of intervals are included in table 11.4.
Dance-Oriented Programs
Some aquatic programs are geared to more highly developed choreography sequences of dance-oriented movements. The class components remain similar; the difference is found in the level of complexity in choreography, which challenges the participants both physically and mentally. A variety of dance-oriented classes target specific styles of dance, such as ballroom, ballet, and hip-hop, or various ethnic rhythms, such as African and Latin. All of these styles can be mixed and incorporated into your classes as appropriate for your participants. When introducing this type of class, more simplistic choreography patterns are recommended. Once your participants begin to look and feel confident in the movements and transitions, greater complexity can be added. It is also helpful to teach segments of the combinations during the warm-up to prepare participants for what is ahead. This prevents unwanted decreases in intensity levels during the cardiorespiratory segment of class. Using choreography styles such as pyramid or add-on can help ensure that your participants understand the pattern as you progress.
Striding (Walk and Jog)
Striding can be incorporated as a warm-up or cool-down for other class programs, or the entire class format may be designed around striding patterns. This format easily adapts to all water depths and pool shapes and sizes (figure 11.2). The choreography or movement patterns are typically simple, making the choreography easy to follow and easy to instruct. These classes can provide a great opportunity to work on walking patterns, proficiency, balance, and range of motion. Striding programs can encourage social interaction among participants while providing a chance to improve fitness. With simple modifications of intensity and impact, this format can be designed for all levels of participants. Underwater treadmills offer more options for classes that center around walking and jogging activities. See appendix F for a sample shallow-water striding workout.
Figure 11.2 A practical benefit of water walking is that it can easily adapt to all depths and sizes of pools.
Cycling
Stationary bikes designed specifically for the pool have become a popular training option for group exercise, personal training, and rehabilitation (see figure 11.3). With proper instruction, aquatic cycling can be a safe and effective option for all ability levels. Although similar to stationary cycling on land, pedaling while immersed takes advantage of the benefits of the aquatic environment. Resistance is determined by the unique design of the bike that increases drag resistance when pedaled; this resistance is adjustable on most styles of aquatic bikes. Resistance is also influenced by pedaling speed or revolutions per minute and by altering the body position on the bike. Aquatic cycling can achieve cardiorespiratory goals with continuous or interval training, or the goals may be more focused on muscular endurance or even strength. If your facility has a limited number of bikes, they can be set up as part of a circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.3 Stationary bikes designed for the aquatic environment have become popular.
Save
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Teaching from the pool deck
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
The AEA considers deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic fitness in most situations. See the sidebar AEA Standards and Guidelines for Deck Instruction for more information.
Advantages
- You are highly visible to participants.
- You can use your whole body to provide visual cues.
- Often, but not always, you can be better heard from on deck.
- You have better visibility of your class. You can see what participants are doing. This is especially important if you are expected to be both lifeguard and instructor.See chapter 13 for AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming - Lifeguard recommendations.
- Some movements, because of their complexity, can be explained and demonstrated only from the deck where participants can see what your whole body is doing.
- Complex choreography is better explained and demonstrated from the deck.
- New participants can usually follow deck instruction best because the instructor is more visible.
- It is easier to change or adjust your music from the deck.
Disadvantages
- You are exposed to the elements (heat, humidity, sun, wind).
- You are leading from a hard surface without the support and buoyancy of the water.
- You increase your risk for injury caused by slipping or impact.
- Your participants might be in prolonged neck hyperextension looking up at you on deck.
- The tempo and execution of movements (air and gravity) must be altered to approximate water conditions (viscosity and buoyancy).
- It can be difficult to demonstrate movements unique to the water, such as suspended training, or high-impact options, including propelled moves.
AEA Standards and Guidelines for Aquatic Fitness Programming
Deck Instruction
The AEA recommends deck instruction as the preferred method of leading aquatic classes in most situations. Deck instruction provides the highest level of safety for the participants by allowing better observation and quicker response to emergency situations. Deck instruction also provides greater visibility of the aquatic fitness professional to the participant and the participant to the aquatic fitness professional. The AEA recommends that the aquatic fitness professional remain on deck when there is no additional lifeguard on duty, when there are new participants in the program, or when new movements are being demonstrated.
The safety of the aquatic fitness professional does not have to be compromised if proper precautions are taken. Suggestions for safe deck instruction include the following:
- Avoid high-impact movement demonstration.
- Use a chair for low-impact demonstrations and balance needs.
- Consider non-impact teaching techniques.
- Wear proper footwear for deck instruction.
- When available, use a teaching mat to reduce impact stress.
- Wear appropriate clothing for the environment in which you work.
- Drink sufficient water to stay hydrated and protect your voice.
- Use a microphone when available or incorporate non-verbal cues.
- Position the music source where it provides the least interference with vocal cueing.
- Use caution when utilizing any electrical source, including sound systems, near a pool due to potential hazard of electrical shock.
- Lead the workout rather than participate in the workout.
- Train for endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance within your personal workout program to assure the ability to perform safely on the deck.
Movement Execution and Weight Transfer
Safe and effective demonstration of impact options for various moves and combinations is one of the toughest challenges an instructor faces when teaching from the deck. On deck, the instructor needs to demonstrate grounded, propelled, and level I, II, and III movements at an appropriate tempo with gravity and without the benefits of buoyancy. Needless to say, this requires careful planning as well as the assistance of teaching tools, such as chairs, stools, and walls. Here, we discuss three deck instruction options: full impact, low impact, and non-impact.
Full (high) impact.
Many moves, such as jumping jacks, cross-country skis, jogs, knee lifts, kicks, turns, leaps, and rocks, can be demonstrated with full impact on deck (see figure 10.9). With modification to a slower tempo, full impact is most similar to the actual mechanics of the movement as it is to be performed in the water.
Figure 10.9 If a slower tempo is used, full impact instruction most closely resembles the actual exercise being taught.
Deck demonstration provides challenges that make full-impact instruction precarious. Most pool decks are made of a hard surface, such as concrete or tile, and might be slippery, especially when wet. Leading a class with full impact increases your risk for overuse and acute injuries. Most aquatic fitness professionals choose low-impact or non-impact demonstrations to save wear and tear on their musculoskeletal system. You can reduce slipping and impact stress by wearing a supportive pair of shoes and using a nonskid cushioned mat on deck. Full impact should be used only sparingly to demonstrate the first few repetitions of a movement, set a pace, or motivate the class.
Reduced (low) impact.
Reduced impact demonstration protects your musculoskeletal system when leading from the pool deck. It is often the preferred method of deck instruction for most movements because of its versatility and safety (figure 10.10). However, reduced impact demonstrations are not without challenges.
Figure 10.10 Reduced impact instructing from the deck is often the preferred method.
Since your actual demonstration might not show the intended impact level, you must otherwise cue participants immersed in the water to perform the desired impact. Consider the use of clear vocal cues, hand signals, or even printed signs (e.g., "jump", "propel", or, "tuck"). You might also refer to a participant in the pool with proper mechanics for others to observe and imitate.
Low-impact demonstrations can also challenge your balance skills. The use of a pole, wall, or chair for support can help with balance on deck. Maintaining a wide base of support (feet at shoulder width or slightly wider) and lowering your center of gravity (slight squat position) improves stability and balance and makes many movements easier to perform on deck at the appropriate tempo.
If you march on deck, participants will generally march in the pool. However, if you wanted them to jog in the water, your visual cue was not successful. The problem lies with your demonstration of weight transfer. Adjust your teaching technique while still keeping a low-impact option by quickly shifting the weight from one foot to the other, while enhancing your demonstration with exaggerated visual cues. Plantar flexing at the ankle and rolling from the ball of the foot to the heel to quickly shift weight from one foot to the next gives more of the appearance of jumping from foot to foot to perform a jogging motion. This technique helps motivate participants to perform the desired movement with proper intensity.
You may also incorporate a chair or stool for a low-impact teaching alternative. While seated, you can demonstrate one-footed and two-footed moves with less impact because most of your body weight is supported by the chair or stool, yet the feet do contact the pool deck with each move. The drawback is that participants may assume that the movement is at level II, even if the exercise should be performed at level I in the water. To make this more effective, add a verbal cue, a hand signal, or possibly even a cue card to clarify.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Benefits and considerations of aquatic exercise for older adults
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities.
Aging is a natural and gradual physiological process characterized by a decrease in functional capacities. Although many countries have accepted the World Health Organization's definition for the terms elderly or older person as a person with a chronological age of 65 years or more, it is important to understand that the rate of physical decline will vary from person to person (figure 12.1). Functional age is the level of physical independence, while chronological age is measured in years. Although both are relevant to programming, chronological and functional ages do not always align. Many older adults might have an advanced chronological age but a young functional age, and the reverse is possible as well.
Figure 12.1 Many adults may be chronologically older, but they function like people much younger than themselves.
General Characteristics
The American Medical Association's Committee on Aging (www.ama-assn.org) found that it was almost impossible to distinguish between the effects of aging and the effects of physical inactivity. Low energy, weakness, poor muscular strength, stress and tension, high cholesterol, diabetes, stiffness, constipation, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, insomnia, back problems, and decreased range of motion are all common issues associated with both aging and physical inactivity. The good news is that research shows that participation in regular exercise at any age can help improve many of these conditions and reduce the risk for developing them.
Physical changes occur as part of the aging process. The degree to which these changes occur varies from person to person, and may be influenced by lifestyle choices.
Sensory Changes
- Decreased visual sharpness and perception, smaller visual field, and impaired judgment of the speed of moving objects
- Decreased hearing sharpness and reduced ability to discriminate among different sounds
- Reduced sensitivity to touch
- Decreased communication between muscles and nerves and decreased reaction time, leading to altered mobility, response time, spatial awareness, and balance
Physical Changes
- Decreased height, partially due to spinal compression
- Decreased bone density, with increased risk of fractures
- Decreased fitness levels (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility)
Physiological Changes
- Enlarged heart with reduced function, decreased ability to contract, reduced pumping capacity, and reduced maximum attainable heart rate
- Reduced elasticity and diameter of blood vessels; increased blood pressure
- Decreased response of the immune system and ability to fight infection
- Decreased function of the respiratory system and reduced breathing capacity
Psychological Changes
Although psychological changes are harder to document, many older adults experience depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological conditions.
Exercise Guidelines
The ACSM guidelines for older adults are similar to the general recommendations provided in chapter 11, with additional suggestions regarding the time and intensity of training. Older adults will benefit more by using perceived exertion to monitor exercise intensity (ACSM 2018). Instructors should select aerobic activities that do not create orthopedic stress, choose weight training or weight-bearing movements to target muscular fitness, and employ slow movements that pause in a sustained stretch to enhance flexibility. Programs should also include neuromotor exercises to both improve balance and reduce the risk of falling.
Exercise programs for older adults should focus on the physiological and psychological changes associated with the aging process, while also respecting the individual needs of the participants. A specific class for seniors should do the following:
- Promotemusculoskeletal health, joint function, bone strength, muscular strength and endurance, posture
- Improve physical fitness and physical function: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, power, coordination, and agility
- Assist with fall prevention: lower-body strength, balance, and walking skills
- Improve mental health: self-esteem, social interaction, sense of achievement and productivity, memory, and motivation
Programming Considerations
Safety.
Five minutes spent before class acclimating new students to the pool surroundings can prevent accidents and alleviate the need for rescue or emergency assistance. Make sure participants are familiar with pool lifts, ramps, and accessible ladders for the shallow and deep ends as well as for changes in pool depths. Because of possible limitations with balance and reaction time, vision, and hearing, deliver instructions in a manner that is easy for participants to hear, see, and understand.
Programming.
Many of the aquatic program formats discussed in chapter 11 can be adapted for an older adult population, including continuous, interval, and circuit training for both shallow and deep water. Offer low-impact options for participants who cannot safely or comfortably perform high-impact activities, even in the aquatic environment. Use all three planes for movement to encourage increased range of motion and better enhance performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). Include movements that change direction to improve balance and coordination. Transitional moves allow time to readjust body alignment during changes in movement planes or directions of travel. Plan movements that target muscular balance in both strength and flexibility, focusing on common areas of misalignment, such as rounded shoulders (scapular protraction) and forward head posture.
Leadership skills.
Incorporate both audible and visual cues to accommodate participants with sensory limitations. Older adults benefit from eye contact and instructor interaction, both of which also allow you to monitor student comfort (e.g., becoming chilled, overheated, fatigued) and understanding of exercise technique. Encourage socialization and interaction among participants through planned activities. This can help maintain control of the class and minimize unwanted talking during times when the focus needs to be directed to intensity, form, alignment, and safety. Consider the pool acoustics when determining music use; participants must be able to hear your audible cues during class. If you incorporate music, choose an appropriate tempo for the population, class format, and water depth. Base the music style on the preferences of the participants.
Equipment.
Upper-body drag equipment, especially gloves or mitts that do not require gripping, can be easier for older adults to use safely and effectively. The resistance level can be individualized and based on the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. Gloves should fit loosely to prevent a reduction in blood circulation. When using buoyancy equipment, remember that older adults may have a lower body density and a high level of buoyancy due to body composition. Choose buoyancy equipment that does not compromise body alignment and stability or the participant's capacity to apply force against the water. People who are not completely comfortable in the aquatic environment, as well as those with balance issues or limitations with walking, may benefit from using equipment for support, such as holding a noodle or kickboard on the surface of the water.
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
Review some of the most common aquatic formats
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants.
Using the general recommendations for class components, you can design numerous formats to keep aquatic classes engaging, provide training variety, and motivate a wide range of participants. This section discusses some of the most common aquatic formats, many of which can be modified for shallow, deep, or transitional water depths.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is often referred to as station training. The stations can be cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, flexibility, neuromotor, or any combination. The circuit format can be instructor guided, where everyone in the class is performing each station at the same time. You lead the group as each participant performs the same moves and uses the same equipment (if being incorporated) at the same time. The circuit can also be self-guided, with individuals or small groups rotating from station to station. A combination circuit combines these two options into one class; you lead the class in a cardiorespiratory segment and then the participants move individually or in small groups to various stations. Circuit training is very versatile, and is limited only by your creativity with the equipment available, your pool design, and your participants (figure 11.1). See appendix F for a sample shallow-water circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.1 Circuit training in the water, as on land, is only limited by your creativity with equipment and space.
Interval Training
Interval training is composed of a series of training cycles that include high-intensity (work) and low-intensity (rest) segments. Both work and rest are planned and functional. The work - rest ratio sets the foundation for interval training. Intervals can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature, resulting in different fitness outcomes for your class participants or clients.
Aerobic intervals would be arranged in a 1:1 (equal work and rest) or 12 (where work is shorter than rest). During anaerobic intervals, cue participants to work at or near maximal effort. Recovery can include light activity or total rest. During both aerobic and anaerobic intervals, heart rates will undulate, going up with the work interval and down during the rest interval.
Some very specific interval ratios include HIIT and Tabata. HIIT, or high-intensity interval training, is designed for participants to exercise at or above their maximal capacity; rest periods vary depending on the goals of the class. Tabata is a very specific set of eight intervals (20 seconds of maximal effort followed by 10 seconds of complete rest) completed in rapid succession. See appendix F for a sample deep-water HIIT workout. Examples of various types of intervals are included in table 11.4.
Dance-Oriented Programs
Some aquatic programs are geared to more highly developed choreography sequences of dance-oriented movements. The class components remain similar; the difference is found in the level of complexity in choreography, which challenges the participants both physically and mentally. A variety of dance-oriented classes target specific styles of dance, such as ballroom, ballet, and hip-hop, or various ethnic rhythms, such as African and Latin. All of these styles can be mixed and incorporated into your classes as appropriate for your participants. When introducing this type of class, more simplistic choreography patterns are recommended. Once your participants begin to look and feel confident in the movements and transitions, greater complexity can be added. It is also helpful to teach segments of the combinations during the warm-up to prepare participants for what is ahead. This prevents unwanted decreases in intensity levels during the cardiorespiratory segment of class. Using choreography styles such as pyramid or add-on can help ensure that your participants understand the pattern as you progress.
Striding (Walk and Jog)
Striding can be incorporated as a warm-up or cool-down for other class programs, or the entire class format may be designed around striding patterns. This format easily adapts to all water depths and pool shapes and sizes (figure 11.2). The choreography or movement patterns are typically simple, making the choreography easy to follow and easy to instruct. These classes can provide a great opportunity to work on walking patterns, proficiency, balance, and range of motion. Striding programs can encourage social interaction among participants while providing a chance to improve fitness. With simple modifications of intensity and impact, this format can be designed for all levels of participants. Underwater treadmills offer more options for classes that center around walking and jogging activities. See appendix F for a sample shallow-water striding workout.
Figure 11.2 A practical benefit of water walking is that it can easily adapt to all depths and sizes of pools.
Cycling
Stationary bikes designed specifically for the pool have become a popular training option for group exercise, personal training, and rehabilitation (see figure 11.3). With proper instruction, aquatic cycling can be a safe and effective option for all ability levels. Although similar to stationary cycling on land, pedaling while immersed takes advantage of the benefits of the aquatic environment. Resistance is determined by the unique design of the bike that increases drag resistance when pedaled; this resistance is adjustable on most styles of aquatic bikes. Resistance is also influenced by pedaling speed or revolutions per minute and by altering the body position on the bike. Aquatic cycling can achieve cardiorespiratory goals with continuous or interval training, or the goals may be more focused on muscular endurance or even strength. If your facility has a limited number of bikes, they can be set up as part of a circuit-training workout.
Figure 11.3 Stationary bikes designed for the aquatic environment have become popular.
Save
Learn more about Aquatic Fitness Professional Manual, Seventh Edition.
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