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- Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools
Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools is ideal for those who want to promote healthy, active lifestyles in schools—not just during physical education classes, but throughout the school day. This book presents a holistic perspective on physical activity, exposing teachers to a broad spectrum of curricular and noncurricular opportunities to enhance their pupils’ engagement with physical activity, as well as the tools and resources to do it.
Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools offers research-informed, evidence-based practices (built on health-related studies from around the world) that will help teachers broaden their physical activity promotion in school-based environments. Through this text, teachers will receive the following:
• Tried-and-true practical learning activities that help pupils of all ages lead healthy, active lifestyles
• Clear explanations of the current thinking and evidence underpinning the practical ideas and activities, helping teachers fully grasp the content and depth of the material
• Developmentally appropriate procedures to monitor children’s health, activity and fitness in school, both as individuals and within a cohort (thus helping teachers quantify progress made)
• Best practices, illustrated through a diverse range of case studies, to help teachers connect with the information and help their pupils apply it in real life
Web Resource to Aid Learning and Implementation
Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools comes with web resource materials, including quizzes, worksheets, case studies and assessment measures for monitoring children and school-based initiatives on individual, cohort and schoolwide levels. These tools, which are printable and can be used as is or adapted, will help teachers gain a broader understanding of their pupils’ levels of health and physical activity—from both short-term and long-term perspectives—and assist them in implementing activity-promoting practices.
Activity Throughout the Curriculum
The text intentionally addresses curriculum requirements—not just in physical education classes, but in other subjects as well—and presents whole-school and cross-curricular recommendations and expectations. It also explores extracurricular opportunities and offers ideas for connecting with parents, caregivers and community physical activity providers.
Activities in School and Beyond
Keeping with its holistic approach, Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools supplies a diverse range of activities that can be undertaken both within and beyond school buildings. These community-based activities will be of particular interest to schools that would like to take advantage of resources in their surrounding environment. The book presents activities and school models that suit a range of contexts, and the case studies help teachers conceptualize how they can implement the activities.
Promoting and Monitoring Activity
Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools is presented in three parts. Part I explains why the promotion of healthy, active lifestyles is important in schools and clarifies the role that educators in general, and in physical education in partiicular, have here. Part II focuses on how children’s health, activity and fitness can be monitored in schools and how this can help pupils learn the importance of being healthy, active and fit in their everyday lives. Part III addresses how all children can have healthy, active lifestyles, including pupils with varying abilities and those with health conditions such as asthma, diabetes and obesity. This part of the book presents a range of health-related learning activities for pupils of different ages that are developmentally appropriate, inclusive and progressive.
Making a Positive Difference
The practical ideas and activities in Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools will help teachers make a positive difference in the health, well-being and quality of life of their pupils by equipping them with the knowledge, skills, competence and confidence to engage in physically active lifestyles. Schools can use the book to incorporate this important element into the curriculum in a planned and progressive manner that is accessible to all pupils.
Part I. Promoting Healthy, Active Lifestyles in UK Schools
Chapter 1. Recommendations for Nurturing Healthy, Active Children
Benefits of Regular Physical Activity
Risks of Inactivity
Schools’ Effectiveness in Promoting Active Lifestyles
Common Misconceptions About Children’s Health, Activity and Fitness
Summary
Chapter 2. Whole-School Approaches to Promoting Healthy Lifestyles
Creating a Healthy School
Health Education Models and Approaches
Active Schools Models and Approaches
Increasing Activity Levels in All Lessons
Working With Parents to Promote Active Lifestyles
Summary
Chapter 3. Physical Education’s Contribution to Promoting Healthy Lifestyles
Promoting Active Lifestyles in Curriculum Physical Education
Physical Education and Public Health
Activity-Promoting Models and Principles in Physical Education
Health-Related Learning Outcomes
Health-Related Learning Contexts
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-Related Learning Support
Summary
Part II. Monitoring Health, Activity and Fitness in Schools
Chapter 4. Monitoring Health in Schools
Defining Health
Rationale for Monitoring Children’s Health
Methods of Monitoring Children’s Health
Learning Through Monitoring Children’s Health
Applying What You Learn From Monitoring Health
Summary
Chapter 5. Monitoring Physical Activity in Schools
Defining Physical Activity
Rationale for Monitoring Children’s Physical Activity
Methods of Monitoring Children’s Physical Activity
Learning Through Monitoring Children’s Physical Activity
Applying What You Learn From Monitoring Physical Activity
Summary
Chapter 6. Monitoring Physical Fitness in Schools
Defining Physical Fitness
Rationale for Monitoring Children’s Physical Fitness
Methods of Monitoring Children’s Physical Fitness
Learning Through Monitoring Children’s Physical Fitness
Applying What You Learn From Monitoring Physical Fitness
Summary
Part III. Health-Related Learning in Physical Education
Chapter 7. Involving All Children in Healthy, Active Lifestyles
Rationale for Involving All Children in Healthy, Active Lifestyles
Strategies for Involving All Children in Healthy, Active Lifestyles
Involving Children With Common Health Conditions in Physical Activity
Recommendations for Involving Children With Asthma, Diabetes and Obesity in Physical Activity
Summary
Chapter 8. Health-Related Learning for 5- to 7-Year-Olds
Health-Related Learning Outcomes and Contexts
Assessing Health-Related Learning
Monitoring Health, Activity and Fitness
Health-Related Learning Plans for 5- to 7-Year-Olds
Summary
Chapter 9. Health-Related Learning for 7- to 11-Year-Olds
Health-Related Learning Outcomes and Contexts
Assessing Health-Related Learning
Monitoring Health, Activity and Fitness
Health-Related Learning Plans for 7- to 11-Year-Olds
Summary
Chapter 10. Health-Related Learning for 11- to 14-Year-Olds
Health-Related Learning Outcomes and Contexts
Assessing Health-Related Learning
Monitoring Health, Activity and Fitness
Health-Related Learning Plans for 11- to 14-Year-Olds
Summary
Chapter 11. Health-Related Learning for 14- to 16-Year-Olds
Health-Related Learning Outcomes and Contexts
Assessing Health-Related Learning
Monitoring Health, Activity and Fitness
Health-Related Learning Plans for 14- to 16-Year-Olds
Summary
Jo Harris, PhD, is director of teacher education and a reader in physical education and sport pedagogy in the School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences at Loughborough University in Loughborough, England. She has 12 years of teaching experience and 29 years of teacher training experience, and she was honoured in 2015 as a principal fellow of the Higher Education Academy for her significant and sustained contribution to excellence and leadership in the field. Harris has received many other awards for her teaching and contributions to the profession. She previously served as both vice president and president of the Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom, and she has authored resources and books for teachers and teacher educators. In her leisure time, she enjoys travelling, reading and recreational exercise.
Lorraine Cale, PhD, is associate dean and a professor in physical education and sport pedagogy in the School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences at Loughborough University. She has worked in the areas of physical education and teacher education and been actively engaged in research on the promotion of physical activity and healthy lifestyles in schools, both within and beyond the curriculum, for many years. Cale has been published in academic and professional journals and has presented at numerous national and international conferences. She has also edited or authored three other books and numerous book chapters, and she has produced resources and training courses for teachers. Cale has twice been an elected member of the executive committee for the Association for Physical Education. She enjoys jogging, skiing, theatre and learning French.
Common Misconceptions about Children's Health, Activity and Fitness
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness.
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994; Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keating et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O'Shea & Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell & Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003). For example, children tend to consider health almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense (predominantly in terms of body shape and size) and view food and exercise as the main moderators of health. They also tend to describe health from a negative perspective, stating what they should avoiddoing in order to stay healthy (e.g., eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for long periods) rather than what they should do. These findings suggest that children tend to have a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on what it means to be healthy.
These studies also provide evidence of worrying gaps, and some confusion, in young people's knowledge and understanding of health, fitness and physical activity. For example, many young people
- think that fitness is about being thin and looking good,
- think that exercise must be hard in order to be good,
- fail to make informed links between exercise or energy expenditure and being overweight or obese and
- have only a superficial understanding of the relationship between health and exercise.
It has been suggested that young people's inadequate or inaccurate understandings of health, fitness and physical activity may result from how these subjects are taught in schools and addressed in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). This may be true, for instance, of approaches steeped in ‘healthism' discourse, which is based on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unproblematically through individual effort and discipline, directed mainly at regulating the size and shape of the body' (Crawford, cited in Kirk and Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may lead young people to develop reductive, limited and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows, Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover, young people's engagement with healthism discourses may be facilitated by well-meaning but inadequately prepared teachers who themselves hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result in schools falling well short of their potential to promote healthy, active lifestyles.
This danger implies an urgent need to increase the breadth, depth and relevance of young people's learning about health in schools. Specifically, a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching health would help young people connect learning across a range of subjects. In addition, we can adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate their learning to themselves and their everyday lives. In PE, in particular, learning should challenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and misconceptions that many young people hold concerning health, fitness and physical activity. Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop alternative approaches, both in initial teacher education and in professional development related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches that address pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this book. You can also visit the web resource for a printable handout titled Debunking Myths and Misconceptions About Children's Health, Activity and Fitness.
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Route 2 Good Health: Promoting Healthy Behaviours in Schools
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school.
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8 (i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school's personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by pupils and through information provided on the school's website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and walking or cycling to school).
- Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2 Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
- Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children's eating, drinking and activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school - for example, consuming or purchasing healthy meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions - were rewarded with a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure centres.
- Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping' these behaviours.
- Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the programme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing. Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be assessed through question-and-answer episodes (e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and through practical and active tasks (e.g., demonstrating a range of aerobic activities, performing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter includes two sample assessmentsthat you may use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly appropriate for health-related learning as they directly involve pupils in making judgements and decisions about their own learning and that of their peers, which helps them take ownership of their health. Active assessment tasks are also encouraged, as they help increase pupils' activity levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of methods for assessing health-related learning:
Focused Questions
- How do you feel when you are active?
- What happens to your breathing when you exercise?
- Why does your heart rate change when you exercise?
- Which muscles are working hard when you run?
- What is one reason that being active is good for your health? What else can you say about that? What is another reason?(Continue prompting to ensure inclusion of physical, psychological and social health benefits.)
- Talk to a partner about how being active helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for volunteers to share their ideas with another group or with the whole class, or ask specific pairs or pupils for their responses.)
- Why is it important to stretch muscles after you have worked them hard?
- How much activity should young people do?
- Explain to a partner how stronger upper-body muscles help you throw further.
- What are some of the main reasons that some young people are not active?
Practical Tasks
- Show me an exercise that makes your heart pump faster.
- Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the back of your leg.
- Perform an exercise that strengthens your tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
- With a partner, design a warm-up for the long jump; include activities to mobilise joints in the legs and to warm your major leg muscles, followed by stretches of the main muscles used in jumping.
- Observe another group's cool-down for sprinting and decide how effective it is in reducing heart and breathing rates and stretching out the main muscles that are worked hard when sprinting.
- For next week's lesson, make a list of places in the local area where you can be active (other than at school).
- Keep an activity diary for one school day; include in it all activity that you do, such as walking, cycling or scooting to and from school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes; playing sport, exercising or dancing in school or outside of school; and performing any active jobs you do at home, such as cleaning, gardening or going to and from the shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you have done in one day. Does it amount to at least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Common Misconceptions about Children's Health, Activity and Fitness
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness.
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994; Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keating et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O'Shea & Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell & Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003). For example, children tend to consider health almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense (predominantly in terms of body shape and size) and view food and exercise as the main moderators of health. They also tend to describe health from a negative perspective, stating what they should avoiddoing in order to stay healthy (e.g., eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for long periods) rather than what they should do. These findings suggest that children tend to have a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on what it means to be healthy.
These studies also provide evidence of worrying gaps, and some confusion, in young people's knowledge and understanding of health, fitness and physical activity. For example, many young people
- think that fitness is about being thin and looking good,
- think that exercise must be hard in order to be good,
- fail to make informed links between exercise or energy expenditure and being overweight or obese and
- have only a superficial understanding of the relationship between health and exercise.
It has been suggested that young people's inadequate or inaccurate understandings of health, fitness and physical activity may result from how these subjects are taught in schools and addressed in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). This may be true, for instance, of approaches steeped in ‘healthism' discourse, which is based on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unproblematically through individual effort and discipline, directed mainly at regulating the size and shape of the body' (Crawford, cited in Kirk and Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may lead young people to develop reductive, limited and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows, Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover, young people's engagement with healthism discourses may be facilitated by well-meaning but inadequately prepared teachers who themselves hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result in schools falling well short of their potential to promote healthy, active lifestyles.
This danger implies an urgent need to increase the breadth, depth and relevance of young people's learning about health in schools. Specifically, a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching health would help young people connect learning across a range of subjects. In addition, we can adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate their learning to themselves and their everyday lives. In PE, in particular, learning should challenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and misconceptions that many young people hold concerning health, fitness and physical activity. Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop alternative approaches, both in initial teacher education and in professional development related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches that address pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this book. You can also visit the web resource for a printable handout titled Debunking Myths and Misconceptions About Children's Health, Activity and Fitness.
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Route 2 Good Health: Promoting Healthy Behaviours in Schools
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school.
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8 (i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school's personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by pupils and through information provided on the school's website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and walking or cycling to school).
- Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2 Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
- Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children's eating, drinking and activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school - for example, consuming or purchasing healthy meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions - were rewarded with a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure centres.
- Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping' these behaviours.
- Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the programme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing. Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be assessed through question-and-answer episodes (e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and through practical and active tasks (e.g., demonstrating a range of aerobic activities, performing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter includes two sample assessmentsthat you may use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly appropriate for health-related learning as they directly involve pupils in making judgements and decisions about their own learning and that of their peers, which helps them take ownership of their health. Active assessment tasks are also encouraged, as they help increase pupils' activity levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of methods for assessing health-related learning:
Focused Questions
- How do you feel when you are active?
- What happens to your breathing when you exercise?
- Why does your heart rate change when you exercise?
- Which muscles are working hard when you run?
- What is one reason that being active is good for your health? What else can you say about that? What is another reason?(Continue prompting to ensure inclusion of physical, psychological and social health benefits.)
- Talk to a partner about how being active helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for volunteers to share their ideas with another group or with the whole class, or ask specific pairs or pupils for their responses.)
- Why is it important to stretch muscles after you have worked them hard?
- How much activity should young people do?
- Explain to a partner how stronger upper-body muscles help you throw further.
- What are some of the main reasons that some young people are not active?
Practical Tasks
- Show me an exercise that makes your heart pump faster.
- Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the back of your leg.
- Perform an exercise that strengthens your tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
- With a partner, design a warm-up for the long jump; include activities to mobilise joints in the legs and to warm your major leg muscles, followed by stretches of the main muscles used in jumping.
- Observe another group's cool-down for sprinting and decide how effective it is in reducing heart and breathing rates and stretching out the main muscles that are worked hard when sprinting.
- For next week's lesson, make a list of places in the local area where you can be active (other than at school).
- Keep an activity diary for one school day; include in it all activity that you do, such as walking, cycling or scooting to and from school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes; playing sport, exercising or dancing in school or outside of school; and performing any active jobs you do at home, such as cleaning, gardening or going to and from the shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you have done in one day. Does it amount to at least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Common Misconceptions about Children's Health, Activity and Fitness
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness.
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994; Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keating et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O'Shea & Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell & Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003). For example, children tend to consider health almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense (predominantly in terms of body shape and size) and view food and exercise as the main moderators of health. They also tend to describe health from a negative perspective, stating what they should avoiddoing in order to stay healthy (e.g., eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for long periods) rather than what they should do. These findings suggest that children tend to have a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on what it means to be healthy.
These studies also provide evidence of worrying gaps, and some confusion, in young people's knowledge and understanding of health, fitness and physical activity. For example, many young people
- think that fitness is about being thin and looking good,
- think that exercise must be hard in order to be good,
- fail to make informed links between exercise or energy expenditure and being overweight or obese and
- have only a superficial understanding of the relationship between health and exercise.
It has been suggested that young people's inadequate or inaccurate understandings of health, fitness and physical activity may result from how these subjects are taught in schools and addressed in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). This may be true, for instance, of approaches steeped in ‘healthism' discourse, which is based on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unproblematically through individual effort and discipline, directed mainly at regulating the size and shape of the body' (Crawford, cited in Kirk and Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may lead young people to develop reductive, limited and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows, Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover, young people's engagement with healthism discourses may be facilitated by well-meaning but inadequately prepared teachers who themselves hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result in schools falling well short of their potential to promote healthy, active lifestyles.
This danger implies an urgent need to increase the breadth, depth and relevance of young people's learning about health in schools. Specifically, a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching health would help young people connect learning across a range of subjects. In addition, we can adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate their learning to themselves and their everyday lives. In PE, in particular, learning should challenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and misconceptions that many young people hold concerning health, fitness and physical activity. Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop alternative approaches, both in initial teacher education and in professional development related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches that address pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this book. You can also visit the web resource for a printable handout titled Debunking Myths and Misconceptions About Children's Health, Activity and Fitness.
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Route 2 Good Health: Promoting Healthy Behaviours in Schools
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school.
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8 (i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school's personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by pupils and through information provided on the school's website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and walking or cycling to school).
- Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2 Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
- Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children's eating, drinking and activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school - for example, consuming or purchasing healthy meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions - were rewarded with a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure centres.
- Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping' these behaviours.
- Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the programme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing. Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be assessed through question-and-answer episodes (e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and through practical and active tasks (e.g., demonstrating a range of aerobic activities, performing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter includes two sample assessmentsthat you may use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly appropriate for health-related learning as they directly involve pupils in making judgements and decisions about their own learning and that of their peers, which helps them take ownership of their health. Active assessment tasks are also encouraged, as they help increase pupils' activity levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of methods for assessing health-related learning:
Focused Questions
- How do you feel when you are active?
- What happens to your breathing when you exercise?
- Why does your heart rate change when you exercise?
- Which muscles are working hard when you run?
- What is one reason that being active is good for your health? What else can you say about that? What is another reason?(Continue prompting to ensure inclusion of physical, psychological and social health benefits.)
- Talk to a partner about how being active helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for volunteers to share their ideas with another group or with the whole class, or ask specific pairs or pupils for their responses.)
- Why is it important to stretch muscles after you have worked them hard?
- How much activity should young people do?
- Explain to a partner how stronger upper-body muscles help you throw further.
- What are some of the main reasons that some young people are not active?
Practical Tasks
- Show me an exercise that makes your heart pump faster.
- Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the back of your leg.
- Perform an exercise that strengthens your tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
- With a partner, design a warm-up for the long jump; include activities to mobilise joints in the legs and to warm your major leg muscles, followed by stretches of the main muscles used in jumping.
- Observe another group's cool-down for sprinting and decide how effective it is in reducing heart and breathing rates and stretching out the main muscles that are worked hard when sprinting.
- For next week's lesson, make a list of places in the local area where you can be active (other than at school).
- Keep an activity diary for one school day; include in it all activity that you do, such as walking, cycling or scooting to and from school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes; playing sport, exercising or dancing in school or outside of school; and performing any active jobs you do at home, such as cleaning, gardening or going to and from the shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you have done in one day. Does it amount to at least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Common Misconceptions about Children's Health, Activity and Fitness
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness.
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994; Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keating et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O'Shea & Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell & Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003). For example, children tend to consider health almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense (predominantly in terms of body shape and size) and view food and exercise as the main moderators of health. They also tend to describe health from a negative perspective, stating what they should avoiddoing in order to stay healthy (e.g., eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for long periods) rather than what they should do. These findings suggest that children tend to have a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on what it means to be healthy.
These studies also provide evidence of worrying gaps, and some confusion, in young people's knowledge and understanding of health, fitness and physical activity. For example, many young people
- think that fitness is about being thin and looking good,
- think that exercise must be hard in order to be good,
- fail to make informed links between exercise or energy expenditure and being overweight or obese and
- have only a superficial understanding of the relationship between health and exercise.
It has been suggested that young people's inadequate or inaccurate understandings of health, fitness and physical activity may result from how these subjects are taught in schools and addressed in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). This may be true, for instance, of approaches steeped in ‘healthism' discourse, which is based on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unproblematically through individual effort and discipline, directed mainly at regulating the size and shape of the body' (Crawford, cited in Kirk and Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may lead young people to develop reductive, limited and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows, Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover, young people's engagement with healthism discourses may be facilitated by well-meaning but inadequately prepared teachers who themselves hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result in schools falling well short of their potential to promote healthy, active lifestyles.
This danger implies an urgent need to increase the breadth, depth and relevance of young people's learning about health in schools. Specifically, a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching health would help young people connect learning across a range of subjects. In addition, we can adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate their learning to themselves and their everyday lives. In PE, in particular, learning should challenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and misconceptions that many young people hold concerning health, fitness and physical activity. Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop alternative approaches, both in initial teacher education and in professional development related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches that address pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this book. You can also visit the web resource for a printable handout titled Debunking Myths and Misconceptions About Children's Health, Activity and Fitness.
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Route 2 Good Health: Promoting Healthy Behaviours in Schools
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school.
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8 (i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school's personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by pupils and through information provided on the school's website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and walking or cycling to school).
- Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2 Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
- Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children's eating, drinking and activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school - for example, consuming or purchasing healthy meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions - were rewarded with a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure centres.
- Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping' these behaviours.
- Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the programme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing. Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be assessed through question-and-answer episodes (e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and through practical and active tasks (e.g., demonstrating a range of aerobic activities, performing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter includes two sample assessmentsthat you may use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly appropriate for health-related learning as they directly involve pupils in making judgements and decisions about their own learning and that of their peers, which helps them take ownership of their health. Active assessment tasks are also encouraged, as they help increase pupils' activity levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of methods for assessing health-related learning:
Focused Questions
- How do you feel when you are active?
- What happens to your breathing when you exercise?
- Why does your heart rate change when you exercise?
- Which muscles are working hard when you run?
- What is one reason that being active is good for your health? What else can you say about that? What is another reason?(Continue prompting to ensure inclusion of physical, psychological and social health benefits.)
- Talk to a partner about how being active helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for volunteers to share their ideas with another group or with the whole class, or ask specific pairs or pupils for their responses.)
- Why is it important to stretch muscles after you have worked them hard?
- How much activity should young people do?
- Explain to a partner how stronger upper-body muscles help you throw further.
- What are some of the main reasons that some young people are not active?
Practical Tasks
- Show me an exercise that makes your heart pump faster.
- Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the back of your leg.
- Perform an exercise that strengthens your tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
- With a partner, design a warm-up for the long jump; include activities to mobilise joints in the legs and to warm your major leg muscles, followed by stretches of the main muscles used in jumping.
- Observe another group's cool-down for sprinting and decide how effective it is in reducing heart and breathing rates and stretching out the main muscles that are worked hard when sprinting.
- For next week's lesson, make a list of places in the local area where you can be active (other than at school).
- Keep an activity diary for one school day; include in it all activity that you do, such as walking, cycling or scooting to and from school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes; playing sport, exercising or dancing in school or outside of school; and performing any active jobs you do at home, such as cleaning, gardening or going to and from the shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you have done in one day. Does it amount to at least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Common Misconceptions about Children's Health, Activity and Fitness
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness.
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994; Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keating et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O'Shea & Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell & Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003). For example, children tend to consider health almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense (predominantly in terms of body shape and size) and view food and exercise as the main moderators of health. They also tend to describe health from a negative perspective, stating what they should avoiddoing in order to stay healthy (e.g., eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for long periods) rather than what they should do. These findings suggest that children tend to have a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on what it means to be healthy.
These studies also provide evidence of worrying gaps, and some confusion, in young people's knowledge and understanding of health, fitness and physical activity. For example, many young people
- think that fitness is about being thin and looking good,
- think that exercise must be hard in order to be good,
- fail to make informed links between exercise or energy expenditure and being overweight or obese and
- have only a superficial understanding of the relationship between health and exercise.
It has been suggested that young people's inadequate or inaccurate understandings of health, fitness and physical activity may result from how these subjects are taught in schools and addressed in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). This may be true, for instance, of approaches steeped in ‘healthism' discourse, which is based on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unproblematically through individual effort and discipline, directed mainly at regulating the size and shape of the body' (Crawford, cited in Kirk and Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may lead young people to develop reductive, limited and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows, Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover, young people's engagement with healthism discourses may be facilitated by well-meaning but inadequately prepared teachers who themselves hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result in schools falling well short of their potential to promote healthy, active lifestyles.
This danger implies an urgent need to increase the breadth, depth and relevance of young people's learning about health in schools. Specifically, a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching health would help young people connect learning across a range of subjects. In addition, we can adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate their learning to themselves and their everyday lives. In PE, in particular, learning should challenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and misconceptions that many young people hold concerning health, fitness and physical activity. Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop alternative approaches, both in initial teacher education and in professional development related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches that address pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this book. You can also visit the web resource for a printable handout titled Debunking Myths and Misconceptions About Children's Health, Activity and Fitness.
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Route 2 Good Health: Promoting Healthy Behaviours in Schools
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school.
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8 (i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school's personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by pupils and through information provided on the school's website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and walking or cycling to school).
- Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2 Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
- Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children's eating, drinking and activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school - for example, consuming or purchasing healthy meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions - were rewarded with a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure centres.
- Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping' these behaviours.
- Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the programme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing. Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be assessed through question-and-answer episodes (e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and through practical and active tasks (e.g., demonstrating a range of aerobic activities, performing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter includes two sample assessmentsthat you may use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly appropriate for health-related learning as they directly involve pupils in making judgements and decisions about their own learning and that of their peers, which helps them take ownership of their health. Active assessment tasks are also encouraged, as they help increase pupils' activity levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of methods for assessing health-related learning:
Focused Questions
- How do you feel when you are active?
- What happens to your breathing when you exercise?
- Why does your heart rate change when you exercise?
- Which muscles are working hard when you run?
- What is one reason that being active is good for your health? What else can you say about that? What is another reason?(Continue prompting to ensure inclusion of physical, psychological and social health benefits.)
- Talk to a partner about how being active helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for volunteers to share their ideas with another group or with the whole class, or ask specific pairs or pupils for their responses.)
- Why is it important to stretch muscles after you have worked them hard?
- How much activity should young people do?
- Explain to a partner how stronger upper-body muscles help you throw further.
- What are some of the main reasons that some young people are not active?
Practical Tasks
- Show me an exercise that makes your heart pump faster.
- Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the back of your leg.
- Perform an exercise that strengthens your tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
- With a partner, design a warm-up for the long jump; include activities to mobilise joints in the legs and to warm your major leg muscles, followed by stretches of the main muscles used in jumping.
- Observe another group's cool-down for sprinting and decide how effective it is in reducing heart and breathing rates and stretching out the main muscles that are worked hard when sprinting.
- For next week's lesson, make a list of places in the local area where you can be active (other than at school).
- Keep an activity diary for one school day; include in it all activity that you do, such as walking, cycling or scooting to and from school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes; playing sport, exercising or dancing in school or outside of school; and performing any active jobs you do at home, such as cleaning, gardening or going to and from the shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you have done in one day. Does it amount to at least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Common Misconceptions about Children's Health, Activity and Fitness
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness.
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994; Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keating et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O'Shea & Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell & Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003). For example, children tend to consider health almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense (predominantly in terms of body shape and size) and view food and exercise as the main moderators of health. They also tend to describe health from a negative perspective, stating what they should avoiddoing in order to stay healthy (e.g., eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for long periods) rather than what they should do. These findings suggest that children tend to have a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on what it means to be healthy.
These studies also provide evidence of worrying gaps, and some confusion, in young people's knowledge and understanding of health, fitness and physical activity. For example, many young people
- think that fitness is about being thin and looking good,
- think that exercise must be hard in order to be good,
- fail to make informed links between exercise or energy expenditure and being overweight or obese and
- have only a superficial understanding of the relationship between health and exercise.
It has been suggested that young people's inadequate or inaccurate understandings of health, fitness and physical activity may result from how these subjects are taught in schools and addressed in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). This may be true, for instance, of approaches steeped in ‘healthism' discourse, which is based on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unproblematically through individual effort and discipline, directed mainly at regulating the size and shape of the body' (Crawford, cited in Kirk and Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may lead young people to develop reductive, limited and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows, Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover, young people's engagement with healthism discourses may be facilitated by well-meaning but inadequately prepared teachers who themselves hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result in schools falling well short of their potential to promote healthy, active lifestyles.
This danger implies an urgent need to increase the breadth, depth and relevance of young people's learning about health in schools. Specifically, a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching health would help young people connect learning across a range of subjects. In addition, we can adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate their learning to themselves and their everyday lives. In PE, in particular, learning should challenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and misconceptions that many young people hold concerning health, fitness and physical activity. Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop alternative approaches, both in initial teacher education and in professional development related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches that address pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this book. You can also visit the web resource for a printable handout titled Debunking Myths and Misconceptions About Children's Health, Activity and Fitness.
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Route 2 Good Health: Promoting Healthy Behaviours in Schools
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school.
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8 (i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school's personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by pupils and through information provided on the school's website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and walking or cycling to school).
- Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2 Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
- Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children's eating, drinking and activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school - for example, consuming or purchasing healthy meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions - were rewarded with a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure centres.
- Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping' these behaviours.
- Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the programme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing. Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be assessed through question-and-answer episodes (e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and through practical and active tasks (e.g., demonstrating a range of aerobic activities, performing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter includes two sample assessmentsthat you may use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly appropriate for health-related learning as they directly involve pupils in making judgements and decisions about their own learning and that of their peers, which helps them take ownership of their health. Active assessment tasks are also encouraged, as they help increase pupils' activity levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of methods for assessing health-related learning:
Focused Questions
- How do you feel when you are active?
- What happens to your breathing when you exercise?
- Why does your heart rate change when you exercise?
- Which muscles are working hard when you run?
- What is one reason that being active is good for your health? What else can you say about that? What is another reason?(Continue prompting to ensure inclusion of physical, psychological and social health benefits.)
- Talk to a partner about how being active helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for volunteers to share their ideas with another group or with the whole class, or ask specific pairs or pupils for their responses.)
- Why is it important to stretch muscles after you have worked them hard?
- How much activity should young people do?
- Explain to a partner how stronger upper-body muscles help you throw further.
- What are some of the main reasons that some young people are not active?
Practical Tasks
- Show me an exercise that makes your heart pump faster.
- Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the back of your leg.
- Perform an exercise that strengthens your tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
- With a partner, design a warm-up for the long jump; include activities to mobilise joints in the legs and to warm your major leg muscles, followed by stretches of the main muscles used in jumping.
- Observe another group's cool-down for sprinting and decide how effective it is in reducing heart and breathing rates and stretching out the main muscles that are worked hard when sprinting.
- For next week's lesson, make a list of places in the local area where you can be active (other than at school).
- Keep an activity diary for one school day; include in it all activity that you do, such as walking, cycling or scooting to and from school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes; playing sport, exercising or dancing in school or outside of school; and performing any active jobs you do at home, such as cleaning, gardening or going to and from the shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you have done in one day. Does it amount to at least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Common Misconceptions about Children's Health, Activity and Fitness
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness.
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994; Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keating et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O'Shea & Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell & Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003). For example, children tend to consider health almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense (predominantly in terms of body shape and size) and view food and exercise as the main moderators of health. They also tend to describe health from a negative perspective, stating what they should avoiddoing in order to stay healthy (e.g., eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for long periods) rather than what they should do. These findings suggest that children tend to have a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on what it means to be healthy.
These studies also provide evidence of worrying gaps, and some confusion, in young people's knowledge and understanding of health, fitness and physical activity. For example, many young people
- think that fitness is about being thin and looking good,
- think that exercise must be hard in order to be good,
- fail to make informed links between exercise or energy expenditure and being overweight or obese and
- have only a superficial understanding of the relationship between health and exercise.
It has been suggested that young people's inadequate or inaccurate understandings of health, fitness and physical activity may result from how these subjects are taught in schools and addressed in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). This may be true, for instance, of approaches steeped in ‘healthism' discourse, which is based on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unproblematically through individual effort and discipline, directed mainly at regulating the size and shape of the body' (Crawford, cited in Kirk and Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may lead young people to develop reductive, limited and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows, Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover, young people's engagement with healthism discourses may be facilitated by well-meaning but inadequately prepared teachers who themselves hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result in schools falling well short of their potential to promote healthy, active lifestyles.
This danger implies an urgent need to increase the breadth, depth and relevance of young people's learning about health in schools. Specifically, a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching health would help young people connect learning across a range of subjects. In addition, we can adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate their learning to themselves and their everyday lives. In PE, in particular, learning should challenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and misconceptions that many young people hold concerning health, fitness and physical activity. Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop alternative approaches, both in initial teacher education and in professional development related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches that address pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this book. You can also visit the web resource for a printable handout titled Debunking Myths and Misconceptions About Children's Health, Activity and Fitness.
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Route 2 Good Health: Promoting Healthy Behaviours in Schools
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school.
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8 (i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school's personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by pupils and through information provided on the school's website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and walking or cycling to school).
- Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2 Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
- Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children's eating, drinking and activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school - for example, consuming or purchasing healthy meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions - were rewarded with a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure centres.
- Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping' these behaviours.
- Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the programme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing. Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be assessed through question-and-answer episodes (e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and through practical and active tasks (e.g., demonstrating a range of aerobic activities, performing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter includes two sample assessmentsthat you may use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly appropriate for health-related learning as they directly involve pupils in making judgements and decisions about their own learning and that of their peers, which helps them take ownership of their health. Active assessment tasks are also encouraged, as they help increase pupils' activity levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of methods for assessing health-related learning:
Focused Questions
- How do you feel when you are active?
- What happens to your breathing when you exercise?
- Why does your heart rate change when you exercise?
- Which muscles are working hard when you run?
- What is one reason that being active is good for your health? What else can you say about that? What is another reason?(Continue prompting to ensure inclusion of physical, psychological and social health benefits.)
- Talk to a partner about how being active helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for volunteers to share their ideas with another group or with the whole class, or ask specific pairs or pupils for their responses.)
- Why is it important to stretch muscles after you have worked them hard?
- How much activity should young people do?
- Explain to a partner how stronger upper-body muscles help you throw further.
- What are some of the main reasons that some young people are not active?
Practical Tasks
- Show me an exercise that makes your heart pump faster.
- Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the back of your leg.
- Perform an exercise that strengthens your tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
- With a partner, design a warm-up for the long jump; include activities to mobilise joints in the legs and to warm your major leg muscles, followed by stretches of the main muscles used in jumping.
- Observe another group's cool-down for sprinting and decide how effective it is in reducing heart and breathing rates and stretching out the main muscles that are worked hard when sprinting.
- For next week's lesson, make a list of places in the local area where you can be active (other than at school).
- Keep an activity diary for one school day; include in it all activity that you do, such as walking, cycling or scooting to and from school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes; playing sport, exercising or dancing in school or outside of school; and performing any active jobs you do at home, such as cleaning, gardening or going to and from the shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you have done in one day. Does it amount to at least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Common Misconceptions about Children's Health, Activity and Fitness
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness.
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994; Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keating et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O'Shea & Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell & Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003). For example, children tend to consider health almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense (predominantly in terms of body shape and size) and view food and exercise as the main moderators of health. They also tend to describe health from a negative perspective, stating what they should avoiddoing in order to stay healthy (e.g., eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for long periods) rather than what they should do. These findings suggest that children tend to have a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on what it means to be healthy.
These studies also provide evidence of worrying gaps, and some confusion, in young people's knowledge and understanding of health, fitness and physical activity. For example, many young people
- think that fitness is about being thin and looking good,
- think that exercise must be hard in order to be good,
- fail to make informed links between exercise or energy expenditure and being overweight or obese and
- have only a superficial understanding of the relationship between health and exercise.
It has been suggested that young people's inadequate or inaccurate understandings of health, fitness and physical activity may result from how these subjects are taught in schools and addressed in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). This may be true, for instance, of approaches steeped in ‘healthism' discourse, which is based on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unproblematically through individual effort and discipline, directed mainly at regulating the size and shape of the body' (Crawford, cited in Kirk and Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may lead young people to develop reductive, limited and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows, Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover, young people's engagement with healthism discourses may be facilitated by well-meaning but inadequately prepared teachers who themselves hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result in schools falling well short of their potential to promote healthy, active lifestyles.
This danger implies an urgent need to increase the breadth, depth and relevance of young people's learning about health in schools. Specifically, a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching health would help young people connect learning across a range of subjects. In addition, we can adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate their learning to themselves and their everyday lives. In PE, in particular, learning should challenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and misconceptions that many young people hold concerning health, fitness and physical activity. Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop alternative approaches, both in initial teacher education and in professional development related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches that address pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this book. You can also visit the web resource for a printable handout titled Debunking Myths and Misconceptions About Children's Health, Activity and Fitness.
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Route 2 Good Health: Promoting Healthy Behaviours in Schools
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school.
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8 (i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school's personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by pupils and through information provided on the school's website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and walking or cycling to school).
- Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2 Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
- Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children's eating, drinking and activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school - for example, consuming or purchasing healthy meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions - were rewarded with a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure centres.
- Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping' these behaviours.
- Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the programme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing. Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be assessed through question-and-answer episodes (e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and through practical and active tasks (e.g., demonstrating a range of aerobic activities, performing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter includes two sample assessmentsthat you may use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly appropriate for health-related learning as they directly involve pupils in making judgements and decisions about their own learning and that of their peers, which helps them take ownership of their health. Active assessment tasks are also encouraged, as they help increase pupils' activity levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of methods for assessing health-related learning:
Focused Questions
- How do you feel when you are active?
- What happens to your breathing when you exercise?
- Why does your heart rate change when you exercise?
- Which muscles are working hard when you run?
- What is one reason that being active is good for your health? What else can you say about that? What is another reason?(Continue prompting to ensure inclusion of physical, psychological and social health benefits.)
- Talk to a partner about how being active helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for volunteers to share their ideas with another group or with the whole class, or ask specific pairs or pupils for their responses.)
- Why is it important to stretch muscles after you have worked them hard?
- How much activity should young people do?
- Explain to a partner how stronger upper-body muscles help you throw further.
- What are some of the main reasons that some young people are not active?
Practical Tasks
- Show me an exercise that makes your heart pump faster.
- Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the back of your leg.
- Perform an exercise that strengthens your tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
- With a partner, design a warm-up for the long jump; include activities to mobilise joints in the legs and to warm your major leg muscles, followed by stretches of the main muscles used in jumping.
- Observe another group's cool-down for sprinting and decide how effective it is in reducing heart and breathing rates and stretching out the main muscles that are worked hard when sprinting.
- For next week's lesson, make a list of places in the local area where you can be active (other than at school).
- Keep an activity diary for one school day; include in it all activity that you do, such as walking, cycling or scooting to and from school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes; playing sport, exercising or dancing in school or outside of school; and performing any active jobs you do at home, such as cleaning, gardening or going to and from the shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you have done in one day. Does it amount to at least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Common Misconceptions about Children's Health, Activity and Fitness
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness.
Studies over a number of decades and from across the world have shown that children hold misconceptions and misunderstandings about health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994; Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keating et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O'Shea & Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell & Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003). For example, children tend to consider health almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense (predominantly in terms of body shape and size) and view food and exercise as the main moderators of health. They also tend to describe health from a negative perspective, stating what they should avoiddoing in order to stay healthy (e.g., eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for long periods) rather than what they should do. These findings suggest that children tend to have a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on what it means to be healthy.
These studies also provide evidence of worrying gaps, and some confusion, in young people's knowledge and understanding of health, fitness and physical activity. For example, many young people
- think that fitness is about being thin and looking good,
- think that exercise must be hard in order to be good,
- fail to make informed links between exercise or energy expenditure and being overweight or obese and
- have only a superficial understanding of the relationship between health and exercise.
It has been suggested that young people's inadequate or inaccurate understandings of health, fitness and physical activity may result from how these subjects are taught in schools and addressed in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). This may be true, for instance, of approaches steeped in ‘healthism' discourse, which is based on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unproblematically through individual effort and discipline, directed mainly at regulating the size and shape of the body' (Crawford, cited in Kirk and Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may lead young people to develop reductive, limited and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows, Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover, young people's engagement with healthism discourses may be facilitated by well-meaning but inadequately prepared teachers who themselves hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result in schools falling well short of their potential to promote healthy, active lifestyles.
This danger implies an urgent need to increase the breadth, depth and relevance of young people's learning about health in schools. Specifically, a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching health would help young people connect learning across a range of subjects. In addition, we can adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate their learning to themselves and their everyday lives. In PE, in particular, learning should challenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and misconceptions that many young people hold concerning health, fitness and physical activity. Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop alternative approaches, both in initial teacher education and in professional development related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches that address pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this book. You can also visit the web resource for a printable handout titled Debunking Myths and Misconceptions About Children's Health, Activity and Fitness.
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Route 2 Good Health: Promoting Healthy Behaviours in Schools
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school.
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils. In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8 (i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school's personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by pupils and through information provided on the school's website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and walking or cycling to school).
- Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2 Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
- Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children's eating, drinking and activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school - for example, consuming or purchasing healthy meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions - were rewarded with a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure centres.
- Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping' these behaviours.
- Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the programme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.
Assessment of Health-Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Health-related learning can be assessed through written, verbal and active responses to questions, tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means of teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons and extracurricular activities, and activity monitoring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing. Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be assessed through question-and-answer episodes (e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and through practical and active tasks (e.g., demonstrating a range of aerobic activities, performing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter includes two sample assessmentsthat you may use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly appropriate for health-related learning as they directly involve pupils in making judgements and decisions about their own learning and that of their peers, which helps them take ownership of their health. Active assessment tasks are also encouraged, as they help increase pupils' activity levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of methods for assessing health-related learning:
Focused Questions
- How do you feel when you are active?
- What happens to your breathing when you exercise?
- Why does your heart rate change when you exercise?
- Which muscles are working hard when you run?
- What is one reason that being active is good for your health? What else can you say about that? What is another reason?(Continue prompting to ensure inclusion of physical, psychological and social health benefits.)
- Talk to a partner about how being active helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for volunteers to share their ideas with another group or with the whole class, or ask specific pairs or pupils for their responses.)
- Why is it important to stretch muscles after you have worked them hard?
- How much activity should young people do?
- Explain to a partner how stronger upper-body muscles help you throw further.
- What are some of the main reasons that some young people are not active?
Practical Tasks
- Show me an exercise that makes your heart pump faster.
- Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the back of your leg.
- Perform an exercise that strengthens your tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
- With a partner, design a warm-up for the long jump; include activities to mobilise joints in the legs and to warm your major leg muscles, followed by stretches of the main muscles used in jumping.
- Observe another group's cool-down for sprinting and decide how effective it is in reducing heart and breathing rates and stretching out the main muscles that are worked hard when sprinting.
- For next week's lesson, make a list of places in the local area where you can be active (other than at school).
- Keep an activity diary for one school day; include in it all activity that you do, such as walking, cycling or scooting to and from school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes; playing sport, exercising or dancing in school or outside of school; and performing any active jobs you do at home, such as cleaning, gardening or going to and from the shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you have done in one day. Does it amount to at least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
Learn more about Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools.