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- Introduction to Recreation and Leisure
Introduction to Recreation and Leisure, Third Edition, gives students a broad view of the field, offering them a solid foundation for understanding the industry they plan to enter upon graduation.
Students learn from the perspectives of 52 leading professors, professionals, and emerging scholars from the United States, Canada, Brazil, China, and around the globe. Led by new editors, Tyler Tapps and Mary Sara Wells, these experts introduce recreation and leisure foundational concepts, delivery systems, and programming services. Students benefit from the diversity of perspectives and viewpoints from around the world as they learn about the similarities and differences in the industry from an international perspective.
The following are new to this edition:
• New editors and contributors from around the world, including emerging scholars
• Updated data throughout the book
• New chapter sections
• An expanded chapter on international perspectives on sustainability and ecotourism
• Real-world connections to recreation and leisure theories that help students consider career options
• A web study guide with On the Job learning activities, a glossary, chapter overviews, article summaries, and recommendations of websites to explore
A Strong Foundational Overview
Introduction to Recreation and Leisure grounds students in the historical, philosophical, and social aspects of the industry. The authors offer fresh insights into community parks and recreation departments, nonprofit organizations, and commercial recreation and ecotourism enterprises. Students learn about various enriching educational programs and services for people of all ages.
“The text encompasses a variety of services, including recreational sport management, outdoor and adventure recreation, health and wellness, and arts and culture," says Tapps. “It also exposes students to career options and supports them as they explore their interests and prepare for challenging careers in the industry."
Text Contents
The book is organized into three parts. In part I, students learn about the foundations of recreation and leisure, including the historical, philosophical, and social issues that have shaped the field. Part II explores various sectors of the field, including leisure service delivery systems, public recreation, the nonprofit sector, the for-profit sector (such as event and ecotourism enterprises), and therapeutic recreation, among others. Part III focuses on the programming of recreation and leisure services, including program delivery systems, recreational sport management, outdoor and adventure recreation, the nature of recreation and leisure as a profession, and more.
Each chapter includes learning objectives that highlight the chapter's important concepts, as well as an Outstanding Graduates feature that introduces former students who have gone on to successful careers in the field. A glossary of important terms is included in the web study guide and instructor guide, which are part of the ancillary package.
Ancillaries
The text is supported by an instructor guide, a test package, a PowerPoint presentaation package, and a web study guide that contains chapter summaries and learning experiences. These resources make it easier for instructors to prepare for and manage their courses, and they help students retain what they learn from the text.
Guidance for Students Making Career Choices
This fully updated text, with its insights and perspectives from top professionals and professors from around the globe, opens up the world of recreation and leisure for students, offering them vital information that will help them make informed choices as they move forward in pursuit of careers in this growing field. With its cutting-edge view of recreation and leisure services, Introduction to Recreation and Leisure prepares students for success in the field of recreation and leisure.
Part I. Foundations of Recreation and Leisure
Chapter 1. Power, Promise, Potential, and Possibilities of Recreation and Leisure
Ellen O’Sullivan
What If?
Welcome to the World of Recreation and Leisure
Definitions of Play, Recreation, Leisure, and Flow
Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Values and Benefits of Recreation and Leisure
Recreation and Leisure: The Less Desirable Side
Trends in Recreation and Leisure
Recreation and Leisure: A Passion, a Pursuit, a Profession
Moving On
Chapter 2. History of Recreation
M. Rebecca Genoe, Douglas Kennedy, Jerome F. Singleton, Tristan Hopper, and Jill Sturts
Tracing the Roots of Leisure
Development of Recreation in the United States and Canada
Current Trends Affecting Recreation and Leisure
Similarities Between Canada and the United States
Summary
Chapter 3. Philosophy and Leisure
Donald J. McLean
Why Does Philosophy Matter?
Metaphysics and Leisure
Epistemology and Leisure
Logic and Leisure
Aesthetics and Leisure
Ethics and Leisure
Contemporary Philosophy of Leisure
Solving Ethical Dilemmas in Leisure Services
Summary
Chapter 4. Leisure and Recreation for Individuals in Society
Juan Tortosa MartÌnez and Daniel G. Yoder
Leisure as a Complex Social Phenomenon
Similarity and Diversity in Recreation and Leisure
Leisure, Recreation, and Gender
Leisure, Recreation, and Sexual Orientation
Leisure, Recreation, and Ethnicity and Race
Leisure, Recreation, and Religion
Leisure, Recreation, and Socioeconomic Status
Benefits and Constraints of Leisure
Good and Bad Leisure and Recreation
Implications for Professionals
Summary
Part II. Leisure and Recreation as a Multifaceted Delivery System
Chapter 5. Leisure Service Delivery Systems
David N. Emanuelson
Private Sector
Private-Sector Leisure Service Delivery Systems
Nonprofit Sector
Nonprofit-Sector Leisure Service Delivery Systems
Public Sector
Municipal Public-Sector Leisure Service Delivery Systems
Professional Preparation for Leisure Service Delivery
Professional Accreditation
Summary
Chapter 6. Parks and Protected Areas in Canada and the United States
Paul F.J. Eagles and Jeffrey C. Hallo
History of Parks in Canada
Park Systems of Canada
History of Parks in the United States
Park Systems of the United States
International Treaties and Protected Area Designations and Parks
Comparing Canada and the United States
Career Opportunities
Challenges and Trends for the 21st Century
Summary
Chapter 7. Public Recreation
Public Parks and Recreation in the United States and Canada
Susan Markham-Starr and Mary Sara Wells
Historical Overview of Public Recreation in the United States
Historical Overview of Public Recreation in Canada
Delivery Systems in Public Recreation
Partnerships: Connections to the Community
Faces of Public Recreation
Chameleon Profession: Ever Changing Societal Issues and Needs
Political Realities: No Pain, No Gain
Benefits of Recreation
Summary
Inclusive Recreation
Terry Long
Building Blocks of Inclusion
Defining Inclusion
Specialized Programs
Chapter 8. Nonprofit Sector
Robert F. Ashcraft
Nonprofit Sector in the United States and Canada
Types of National and Community-Based Nonprofit Recreation Organizations
Professionals in Nonprofit Organizations
Challenges and Opportunities for the Future
Summary
Chapter 9. For-Profit Sector: Recreation, Event, and Tourism Enterprises
Robert E. Pfister and Patrick T. Tierney
Attributes of For-Profit Services
RET Industry Model
Considering an RET Career
Trends and Challenges
Summary
Chapter 10. Therapeutic Recreation
Frances Stavola Daly and Robin Kunstler
Defining Therapeutic Recreation
History of Therapeutic Recreation
Therapeutic Recreation Settings and Services
Therapeutic Recreation Practice Models
Therapeutic Recreation Process
Professionalism
Your Future in Therapeutic Recreation
Trends for the 21st Century
Summary
Chapter 11. Unique Groups
Campus Recreation
Amanda Deml and Tiffany Lundy
History of Campus Recreation
Organizational Structure
Benefits
Career Opportunities
Trends in Campus Recreation
Summary
Correctional Recreation
Timothy Baghurst and Tyler Tapps
Introduction to the Correctional System
Types of Correction
Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Correctional Recreation
Recreation Programming
Correctional Recreation Professionals
Trends and Issues
Summary
Faith-Based Recreation
John Byl and David Kahan
Differences Within Faith Traditions
Differences Among Faith Traditions
Judaism and Christianity and the National Recreation and Park Association Three Pillars Employment in Faith-Based Recreation
Summary
Worksite Recreation and Health Promotion
Janet M. Bartnik and Jeffrey Ferguson
Corporate Wellness and Health Promotion
History of Worksite Wellness
Community Health, Population Health, and Individual Health
Benefits of Corporate Wellness and Health Promotion Programs
Wellness and Health Promotion Program Planning and Operation
Wellness and Health Promotion: Other Program Types
Trends
Career Preparation
Summary
Recreation in the Armed Forces
Ryan Cane and Diane Blankenship
History
Military Versus Civilian Recreation
U.S. Armed Forces
Canadian Armed Forces
Military Recreation Program Areas
Employment Opportunities
Summary
Chapter 12. Leisure and Recreation Across the Life Span
Tyler Tapps and Timothy Baghurst
Leisure Functions Across the Life Span
Infancy
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Generation Effect
Summary
Part III. Delivering Recreation and Leisure Services
Chapter 13. Program Delivery System
Diane C. Blankenship
Program Delivery History
Mission and Outcomes
Leadership Within the Program Delivery System
Program Classification
Program Formats
Summary
Chapter 14. Recreational Sport Management
H. Joey Gray and Robert J. Barcelona
Examining Sport Management From a Recreational Perspective
Defining Recreational Sport
Five Programming Areas of Recreational Sport Management
Scope of Participation in Recreational Sport
Trends in Recreational Sport Management
International Participation in Recreational Sport
Career Opportunities
Summary
Chapter 15. Health, Wellness, and Quality of Life
Matthew Symonds, Rhonda Cross Beemer, and Terrance Robertson
Personal Health
The Wellness Perspective
Quality of Life, Health, and Healthy Communities
History in the Making: Healthy Communities
Career Opportunities
Summary
Chapter 16. Outdoor and Adventure Recreation
Bruce Martin, Garrett Hutson, and Marni Goldenberg
Definitions of Outdoor and Adventure Recreation Terms
History of Outdoor and Adventure Recreation in Canada and the United States
Settings and Delivery Systems
Contemporary Trends and Issues in Outdoor and Adventure Recreation
Summary
Chapter 17. Arts and Culture
Julie Voelker-Morris
Types of Arts and Cultural Experiences in Recreation and Leisure
Overview of Types of Organizations and Roles Available
Participation in Arts and Culture Activities
Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Contemporary Trends for Recreation Professionals Who Implement Arts and Culture Activities
Summary
Chapter 18. The Nature of Recreation and Leisure as a Profession
Denise M. Anderson and Tracy L. Mainieri
Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Nature of the Profession
Career Planning
Career Positioning: A Nine-Step Process
Changes in the Field: Taste the Excitement
Summary
Chapter 19. International Perspectives on Recreation and Leisure
International Perspectives: Sustainability and Ecotourism
Richard R. Jurin and Diane Gaede
Sustainability
International Overview
International Organizations
Ecotourism and Nature Travel
Recreation, Tourism, and Leisure Development and Advocacy
Summary
Recreation and Leisure in Brazil
Arianne C. Reis and Alcyane Marinho
Historical Development of Recreation and Leisure in Brazil
Types of Sectors, Segments, and Services
Demand and Future Growth
Trends and Issues
Summary
Recreation and Leisure in China
Jinyang Deng and Huimei Liu
A Brief History of China’s Leisure Development
Recreation Opportunities in China
Challenges and Trends for the Future
Summary
Recreation in Nigeria
Franz U. Atare and Felicia S. Ekpu
Historical Development of Recreation and Leisure in Nigeria
Settings, Organization, and Structures
Diverse Populations and Their Interests
Challenges, Issues, and Future Trends
Summary
Tyler Tapps, PhD, is an assistant professor at Northwest Missouri State University. He received his PhD in health, leisure, and human performance from Oklahoma State University in 2009. In 2015, he was certified as a park and recreation professional by the National Recreation and Park Association, from which he also received the Robert W. Crawford Young Professional Award. He also was awarded the Charles Adam Esslinger Outdoor Recreation Fellowship. Tapps is a military veteran with recreation programming experience in the military. He is a member of the Academy of Leisure Sciences board and is the president of the Leisure Educators section of Missouri Park and Recreation Association. He is also the chair of the Academy of Leisure Science’s Future Scholars program. Tapps enjoys running, working out, boating, and spending time with his wife and two sons.
Mary Sara Wells, PhD, is an associate professor in the University of Utah’s department of parks, recreation, and tourism. She teaches courses in youth development, community recreation, and sport management.
Since 2004, Wells has researched sportsmanship issues in youth sport. She has published her research in numerous journals, presented at several national and international conferences, and conducted trainings and evaluations for multiple municipal youth sport agencies across the country.
Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
Learn more about Introduction to Recreation and Leisure, Third Edition.
Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
Learn more about Introduction to Recreation and Leisure, Third Edition.
Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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Value of the Profession and Benefits to the Professional
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Recreation and leisure services have long provided many benefits to all sectors of society. Because it contributes to the quality of life and enhances communities, the field is identified as a core value within the United States, Canada, and other countries. Those who work in the field enjoy a career with numerous benefits.
Working within a profession that can provide an array of benefits to society can undoubtedly provide a great deal of satisfaction to the professional. But the benefits to the professional go beyond self-satisfaction. For many, the desire to work in the field stems from a love of recreation and leisure. Those professionals have chosen a career path that allows them to combine their passion with their paycheck. For the park ranger, a love of being outside and spending time in some of the most beautiful places on earth lends itself to working to protect those areas. A student with a passion for travel may end up using that knowledge and interest to help ensure that others develop the same passion. Whatever branch of the profession you choose to enter, you will have the opportunity to live your passion. Certainly, the workplace itself can be a benefit. State and national parks, sport arenas, cruise ships, golf courses, and other leisure spaces are settings that can be beautiful, exhilarating, and just plain fun.
Professionals in the field of parks and leisure services also find themselves drawn to the profession by their love of working with the public. When you are working with the public, no two days are the same. Boredom tends to be nonexistent because a job in the field provides constant challenges and opportunities for growth as well as interaction with a diverse set of people.
Characteristics of the Recreation and Leisure Services Profession
Remember that conversation you had with your parents or grandparents about your chosen career path? Part of their concern may have stemmed from the all-too-common confusion about working as a professional in the field. But a strong case can be made that recreation and leisure services is indeed a noble profession. The following six commonly accepted markers explain what makes a job not just a job but a profession, and recreation and leisure services appears to measure up (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Social Value and Purpose
The first criterion recognizes that a profession must have a social value and purpose. That is, the field in question must contribute to the greater good of society. With its emphasis on health, wellness, youth development, quality of life, community and economic development, the environment, and sustainability, recreation and leisure services easily meets this requirement (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Public Recognition
The second standard is that the field has public recognition. That is, the public acknowledges the importance of recreation and leisure and, perhaps more important, is willing to pay for it. Certainly, the acknowledgment differs among the various sectors of the field. Spending patterns related to travel and tourism and other forms of commercial recreation differ from those of government-sponsored (or public) recreation. Of course, the means of funding for each are also different. The private sector, or commercial recreation, depends entirely on the willingness of people to choose one product over another (e.g., Disney World versus Six Flags), whereas public-sector organizations such as local parks and recreation agencies get at least a portion of their funding through appropriated government funding such as property and hospitality taxes (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Specialized Professional Preparation
The third necessary component of a profession is specialized professional preparation, which refers to the degree to which the profession has requirements that those working in the field must meet before they can practice or the degree of professional authority that a practitioner must possess. In recreation and leisure services, three areas are related to this criterion: professional preparation in recreation and parks, a specialized body of knowledge, and accreditation in higher education (McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008).
Professional preparation refers to the college and university curricula that have been developed including two-year associate degrees, four-year bachelor's degrees, and master's and doctoral degrees. The four-year bachelor's degree is the most common requirement for entry into a full-time position within the field, although the degree specifications can vary from program to program depending on a student's specific area of interest. For example, in many recreation and leisure service university programs, students have a choice of concentration areas that might include community recreation management, sport management, camp management, travel and tourism, therapeutic recreation, recreation resource management, and professional golf management. Therefore, although most programs develop their core curricula around accreditation standards, which are discussed next, course requirements following completion of the core delve more specifically into the concentration area requirements.
The specialized body of knowledge refers to whether the field has a unique knowledge base that a practitioner must have to be effective. A cursory look at any recreation and leisure services curriculum might suggest that the field has simply absconded and claimed as its own knowledge from a variety of areas, including communications, management, marketing, and finance, and added a parks and recreation spin on the content. On closer look, however, it becomes apparent that this spin, as well as an increasingly specialized research base that contributes to the overall body of knowledge in the field, has assisted the recreation and leisure services field in developing its own specialized body of knowledge. In fact, an examination of our growing base of literature, exemplified by books about recreation and leisure services and journals focused on the field of leisure research, illustrates the advancements that have been made in understanding how the field is unique. Further enhancing this body of knowledge are practical, defined internship experiences that are required of recreation and leisure services students. These internships allow students to put this knowledge into action. This hands-on experience combined with our growing understanding of the nature of recreation and leisure services as a human services profession provides students and practitioners with the confidence to identify recreation and leisure services as a profession that has a specialized body of knowledge.
Finally, this specialized professional preparation is enhanced through a commitment to accreditation in higher education. Accreditation requires academic programs to meet standards set by a governing body that has identified the critical skills and knowledge needed to work in a profession. Although not all recreation and leisure programs are accredited, those that are have demonstrated to the governing body that their curriculum is designed to teach those skills and has also been successful in doing so, as verified by outcome measurement. Recreation and leisure services enhanced its standing as a legitimate area of scholarship concern through the development and approval of standards by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation in 1982. Today, the Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) is the accrediting body for recreation and leisure services curricula and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), which provides oversight to COAPRT.
Existence of a Professional Culture
The existence of a professional culture and related professional associations is the fourth indication that a field is recognized as a profession (McLean & Hurd, 2012). Professional associations are membership organizations that provide a variety of services related to the development and advancement of the field. Professional associations can serve as advocates for the goals of the profession and provide opportunities for networking and continuing education of their members to advance the profession. For instance, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has identified three pillars of focus: conservation, health and wellness, and social equity. NRPA serves as an advocate nationally and internationally through interaction with government officials and partnerships with public- and private-sector agencies. Eight primary activities of professional associations have been identified (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006):
- Advocacy for the profession's ideals
- Educational opportunities for members
- Written and electronic communication among members
- Face-to-face and electronic networking opportunities
- Promotion of standards of practice
- Recognition of best practices and exemplary performance by individuals and agencies
- Research and fact finding that will advance the profession
- Provision of liability, health, or retirement benefits
All these activities contribute to the growth of individual members and the profession as a whole. See the web study guide for a partial list of professional associations in the field.
Credentialing and Standards
Fifth, true professions will recognize credentialing, certification, and agency accreditation as key indicators of quality within the field. Credentialing refers to qualifications that professionals must meet before they can practice in a field. Although recreation and leisure services, as a diverse field, has no unified credentialing system, various arms of the field have certification processes designed to set standards for practice. Numerous certifications exist for a variety of specific areas ranging from tourism (e.g., event planning) to sport management (e.g., coaching certifications) to park services (e.g., interpretive guides). Two of the most well-known certifications are the certified park and recreation professional (CPRP) and the certified therapeutic recreation specialist (CTRS). Certification ensures that a practitioner in the field has attained a certain level of skill and knowledge as measured by a standardized exam. Practitioners must meet certain education or experience guidelines to sit for the certification exam and, upon successful completion of the exam, earn a predetermined number of continuing education units over a specified time to retain certification, thereby ensuring that their knowledge remains current. Detailed information on the certification processes can be found for the CPRP at www.nrpa.org/cprp and for the CTRS at www.nctrc.org. Like academic programs, public parks and recreation agencies can also undergo an accreditation process through the Commission for Accreditation of Parks and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA) to ensure that they are practicing at a high level with respect to the services they offer. This type of accreditation process also ensures higher levels of professionalism in the recreation and leisure services field (McLean & Hurd, 2012).
Code of Ethical Practice
The final criterion for a profession is that it has developed a code of ethical practice. This code outlines the responsibilities of the field to the public and the ways professionals will carry out services in the field. Although the recreation and leisure services profession does not have an overarching code of ethical practice such as that found in the medical field, individual agencies typically develop their own codes, or, more commonly, professional associations for the various sectors of the field develop codes of ethical practice that agencies then follow (McLean & Hurd, 2012). For instance, the Code of Ethics for the America Therapeutic Recreation Association addresses issues such as autonomy, justice, fairness, and confidentiality (www.atra-online.com). Figure 18.1 illustrates the code of ethics for Greenville County Parks, Recreation, and Tourism.
A well-defined code of ethics will facilitate the adherence to professional standards by organizational staff.
Reprinted, by permission, from Greenville South Carolina.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world.
Sustainability is a word that is often used but is poorly understood. Too often it is simply used as a synonym for being green or advanced environmentalism. In fact, it is a new vision of how we live within the world and how we connect with the natural world. A simple, yet all encompassing, definition is to live within the limits of nature's ecosystem services and to live together in communities that are equitable, regenerative, resilient, and adaptive. To do that, we must live mindfully and consciously and think systemically - that is, about the whole system. The other major misnomer about sustainability is that it is somehow about giving things up or, worse, about sacrificing lifestyle. In fact, it is about enhancing our lives to make us happier, healthier, and more prosperous and improving our overall well-being through rebuilding community and using resources from our ecosystems that are renewable and in harmony with the natural world. It is a positive vision, but it is one we have to consciously choose. By not actively choosing this new vision, you complacently choose to accept the current, increasingly detrimental, business-as-usual model (Jurin, 2012). Sustainability means changing our worldview about ourselves and how we fit within the natural world.
The term nature-deficit disorder (NDD) was coined as a way of describing the apparent disconnect of modern thinking from the natural world (Louv, 2008). While it is true that natural systems are not front and center in most people's thinking, it is probably more accurate to say we are highly distracted by modern technology and lifestyles.To emphasize how people are really connected to the natural world, consider some of the obvious indications.If you find yourself stopped in a line of cars within a national park, it is inevitably because some large elk, moose, bison, or bears are close to the road, and people cannot help but stop to admire these magnificent animals. If you find a parking area with a spectacular view, it will inevitably be full of people who want to take in the grandeur from a perfectly situated, people-only viewing spot. This seems true worldwide. As renowned biologist E.O. Wilson points out in his book Biophilia (1984), people have an innate love of living things and a natural affinity with nature. Whenever we consider nature and scenic environments, we inevitably find that our feelings and emotions are much deeper than mere curiosity. We often use the words awe and reverence for what we are observing. This spiritual component is inherent in much of our interactions with the natural world, and it doesn't necessarily have to do with religion. When we are in a location in which we feel a deep connection (often referred to as a sense of place), research shows that things outside straight knowledge drive the feeling of being in place. The components that guide our responses to a sense of place in a location are attachment (emotion-related), aesthetics (senses-related), and ethics (mind-related). Spirituality (soul-related) is now accepted as an essential fourth component to the idea of being in place (Porteous, 1991). Notably, sense of place is often linked to communities where we grew up, places we have lived, or anywhere that we have had profound experiences that indicate that the place is special and even sacred - these prior experiences of place are transferable to new locations.
In many less-developed countries (LDCs), community social and cultural systems are still relatively intact. In more-developed countries (MDCs), technological development has exceeded the ecosystem's limits with high amounts of pollution. In addition, community living has been decimated by a hyper-individualized consumer mind-set that simply treats nature as a commodity to be used. The good news is that LDCs can find balance as they raise their standard of living while still living harmoniously within nature. Meanwhile, MDCs are finding out about different ways of living (often through travel) that are appealing (especially holistic community), and they are becoming aware of how the consumer mentality is eroding the joy of living. Typical of this is a growing understanding of the immense benefits of organic farming, small-scale agriculture, and slow food compared to the detrimental fast food system and its accompanying industrialized agriculture.
In many European countries, sustainability is being slowly implemented in terms of greener technology and also a return to family-based gardens. This is creating a shift in community-based living where the food is now a responsibility of the whole community and not just farmers. In Switzerland, many homeowners grow food in their gardens and maintain some animals. Homeowners will then barter with others to obtain various foods. Todmorden, England, has created an Incredible Edible project in which the whole community grows food all over the village to boost healthy eating and community building and to educate others about how urban gardening should be the way of the future. Tourists come from far and wide to see how this has transformed this quiet town nestled within the Pennine hills of Britain. In northeastern Scotland, Findhorn Ecovillage, with its renewable energy generation and world-class food gardens, is a destination for people from all over the world who come to see a sustainable community project come to life in which the human built environment is as close to harmonious with the natural world as can be at this time, yet the inhabitants enjoy a modern, community-based lifestyle. Almost weekly, people from all over the world come to Findhorn Ecovillage to attend various conferences and to explore the uniqueness of this intentional community.
There is now increased interest in Cuba as a tourist destination. When the Soviet Union dissolved and Cuba found itself embargoed and without any outside support, the people were immediately forced into finding ways to be self-sufficient and sustainable. Cuba is also home to the Caribbean's largest and best-preserved wetland area, the Cienaga de Zapata Biosphere Reserve, and overall its protected natural areas have grown more than 43 percent since 1986.
Projects do not have to be big to attract people. Everywhere in the world there are agricultural and ecosystem-sensitive projects that have spawned whole industries with a responsible travel ethic: ecotourism, agricultural tourism,and natural tourism and travel.
Recreation, tourism, and leisure (RTL) is big business in the global economy, and it is continuously expanding. One of the fastest growing sectors of tourism is that of sustainable tourism and nature-based tourism specifically. It was in 1995 that the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council joined forces with the Earth Council to promote an action plan to improve the environment and make the tourism industry more sustainable. Then, 20 years later, in September 2015, 154 heads of state gathered at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit to formally adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, n.d.) along with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The tourism industry was included in the plan for the first time as a means to end extreme poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The definition of sustainable tourism that we use is "achieving growth in a manner that does not deplete the natural and built environment and preserves the culture, history, heritage, and the arts of the local community" (Edgell, 2006, pg. 4). The relationship between tourists, the host community, local businesses and recreational activities, and the environment is interactive, complex, and very interdependent. As mentioned earlier, maintaining sustainable systems now attracts tourists worldwide. Communities that are using sustainable food systems are now destinations in themselves whether they are in exotic locations or simply in tourists' own backyards. A future with localized sustainable systems of food and energy production is now becoming a focus for people hopeful about new ways of living sustainably (Jurin, 2012).
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Benefits of Arts and Cultural Recreation Opportunities
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection.
Arts and cultural activities may initially appear to be in competition with social service providers and programs. However, individual and group-based arts and cultural activities provide benefits in their own right and offer additional support for health and human service programs and the social needs of mental, physical, and occupational support by providing skill development and social connection. Studies have shown multiple benefits associated with personal, social, economic, and environmental leisure (Arts Midwest & Metropolitan Group, 2015; Canadian Parks Council, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation, 1992). For individuals, such rewards may be the personal pleasure of the immediate experience, individual growth, social connection, or skill building through involvement in focused learning. For communities, we find increases in economic strength, social identity, and shared values.
Individual Benefits of Arts and Culture
Examining how people in a democratic society choose to spend their discretionary time has been of interest to recreation professionals and arts managers whose jobs are to develop and produce arts and cultural programs. It is important to understand the expected benefits that people realize during leisure engagement. Feelings of individual freedom and choice characterize leisure and are central to the nature of creative activity (Carpenter, 2013; Kelly & Freysinger, 2000). Further, the arts add excitement and joy to life, and arts-related experiences can create an understanding and appreciation of the arts throughout one's life (Orend, 1989). By offering programs in crafts and culinary arts, music and dance, poetry and weaving, hiking and tree climbing, parks and recreation professionals provide people with the best opportunities for enjoyment through creative endeavors, quiet contemplation, and adventuring.
Benefits realized from arts and cultural participation vary by individual and type of experience (Carpenter, 2013). Further, repeat participation in certain leisure activities is due, in part, to the unique benefits people receive from participation. Though many people might participate in the same experience, such as playing in a community jazz band, it produces different benefits for different people. One person might relish the music while another might delight in the friendships that jamming with others facilitates.
Dr. Who cosplay fans. This family participated in a regionally sponsored cosplay contest. They designed and built the costumes and props because of their personal interest and fan practices around the televised series and character, Dr. Who. The intensive creative process and cleverness of the final products were rewarded through recognition on social media sites and at a special event. Most important, they were individually satisfied with the labor, time, and skill they applied in development of this work.
Photo courtesy of Michelle McKeon.
An example of joy in arts participation is cosplay (costume play), which can be seen at Comic-Cons (comic conventions), Harry Potter book releases, Star Wars nights at sport events, or live symphony performances of a film score while the film plays. Though anyone can cosplay anywhere, such specific events invite artists, fans, academics, and other interested participants to engage with contemporary and historic impacts of popular culture and related art forms (Comic-Con International: San Diego, 2016). Cosplayers design, create, and present their costumes because they enjoy it just as other individuals enjoy leisure activities such as sports, hobbies, or needlework. Events such as Comic-Con also host audiences who will very likely appreciate the skill, time, and attention taken to create such costumes and who will celebrate individual interests.
Social Benefits of Arts and Culture
Together with individual benefits of arts and culture in leisure settings, research shows us that there are important social benefits. For example, Driver and Burns (1999) suggested that social benefits of involvement in arts and cultural experiences include cultural and historical awareness and appreciation; social support; understanding and tolerance of others; community integration; social bonding, cohesion, and cooperation; and reciprocity and sharing. Additional social benefits that contribute to community building include reduction of alienation or antisocial behaviors for youth and adults, promotion of ethnic and cultural harmony, bonding for families and neighbors who participate in recreation together, community pride in the quality of the local leisure programs and facilities, and opportunities to increase civic engagement and shared management and ownership of local resources (Ontario Ministry of Tourism & Recreation 1992). Next, we discuss some ways that these social benefits are offered through organizations, groups, and communities.
Group Benefits of Arts and Culture
Professionals in recreation and leisure have recognized individuals' desires to participate in arts and cultural activities and other recreation and leisure activities with friends, family, and other community networks (Arnold, 1978). This notion has been further corroborated by national U.S. data suggesting that 73 percent of study participants identified the opportunity to "socialize with friends or family" as the top motivator for attending arts events and activities (National Endowment for the Arts, 2015, p. 10). Beyond attendance and participation with friends and family, volunteering in arts and cultural activities provides direct group benefits.
Volunteering is a serious leisure pursuit that has gained increased importance in arts and cultural agencies (Stebbins, 1992; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) found that serious leisure is the systematic and determined pursuit of an activity by an individual or group of amateurs, hobbyists, or volunteers. Volunteering affects arts and cultural organizations and participants because volunteers donate hours and expertise to advance an organization's mission and programs and volunteering serves as a leisure experience for the individual and for groups who volunteer together around a purpose or cause (Carpenter, 2013). In particular,Stebbins (2005) explored the concept of project-based leisure contributing an understanding of group behavior and benefits. Group project-based serious leisure provides clear purpose, drive, and social connections; an example of this can be found at Lotus World Music Festival in Bloomington, Indiana, which hosts more than 600 volunteers. The connections and sense of contribution to the larger Bloomington community maintain cohesive group behavior that then generates successful outcomes for the volunteers and for the festival. Without the support of these annually consistent project-based volunteers, Lotus would not hold the same strong national and international reputation or local and regional educational and economic collateral.
Community Benefits of Arts and Culture
Arts and cultural recreation experiences are socially significant beyond the friend, family, or volunteer group benefits previously described. Shared recreational pursuits are based on kinship, friendship, special interests, work, and neighborhood contexts (Gray, 1984) in which people build a sense of community with others. Community benefits of arts and culture in recreation and leisure abound. For example, researchers in Philadelphia found that local cultural activityhas a dramatic influence on neighborhoods (Stern & Seifert, 2002). Their findings showed that cultural activity creates positive social environments and results in greater civic participation and gradual residency growth; reduction of neighborhood, ethnic, and class divisions; and lower truancy, delinquency, and poverty rates. Stern and Seifert (2015) further found that sense of community values and connection, school effectiveness, and greater safety can arise with arts and cultural offerings in public settings. This can be seen when arts, recreation, and community come together around creative placemaking, which is when public, private, not-for-profit, and unincorporated community sector entities strategically partner and plan to shape the economic, physical, and social character of a neighborhood, town, city, or region around arts and cultural activities (Markusen & Gadwa, 2010).
A unique example that highlights the social and economic community benefits of creative placemaking is the Arts Foundation for Tucson and Southern Arizona (Arts Found Tucson), formerly known as the Tucson Pima Arts Council. This area in southern Arizona has a wide range of ethnic groups and is near the border with Mexico. Since 2008, Arts Found Tucson's people, land, arts, culture, and engagement (PLACE) initiative has sought to enhance the region's historical and contemporary assets as well as systemic problems of imbalanced cultural groups and geographic landscapes through creative expression opportunities, increased arts education, economic development in the creative sector, and changes in public cultural policy. This focus has ultimately built a strong identity and sense of place for the community (Stern & Seifert, 2009; Tucson Pima Arts Council, 2013b). Collaborating with artists and arts organizations, parks and recreation programs, government entities, private foundations and businesses, volunteers, and citizens in specific neighborhoods, PLACE has facilitated social cohesion, belonging, and distinct cultural and community identity based in a Mexican - American borderland and desert territory (Tucson-Pima Arts Council, 2013a, 2013b) that is continually shifting. The PLACE initiative has led to successful outcomes for employment and tourism, increased civic engagement, high rates of arts-related businesses and spending on arts and cultural endeavors, improved property values and public safety, and other positive economic effects for the region.
Festivals are another form of creative placemaking. Festivals bring a temporary sense of social connection, identity, and value to a specific geographic location or cultural group. Arts managers and parks and recreation agencies often produce large-scale public festivals, and many hold art fairs and festivals as part of significant promotional and fundraising efforts. Participants' beliefs about the social benefits of a festival may include an enhanced image of the community, a sense of community well-being, or the ability to have a variety of cultural experiences. These positive effects can be weighed against social costs such as reduced local community privacy, overcrowding, and increased noise levels during the festival (Delamere, 2001; Delamere & Rollins, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, n.d.). Whether at large-scale festivals such as Coachella or Burning Man or art fairs in local parks, socially responsible tourism must be practiced when developing festivals. The local host community's identity and values, economic operations and benefits, and social services must also be recognized and supported (International Labor Organization, 2013). Building relationships between festivals and their host communities brings health and well-being for individuals, the environment, and communities.
Children and adults interact with a pop-up chalk wall, which is a temporary interactive creative space for sharing ideas and artwork that was created by Youth Art Exchange members to inspire conversation with and creation by passersby and neighbors on a street corner in San Francisco.
Photo courtesy of Youth Art Exchange.
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Recreation and Leisure: Everywhere, Everyone, All the Time
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms.
Well-worn soccer balls skirt the streets of villages around the world whether the villages are wracked with strife or disaster or have manicured fields and youth and adult teams in matching uniforms. The five rings of the Olympic Games burn brightly every four years as tens of thousands of athletes representing hundreds of countries from around the world gather in the spirit of competition and unity. Street merchants in Bangkok play a checkers-like board game that is hastily constructed of cardboard and discarded bottle caps. Visitors from around the world marvel at the migration of wildlife across the plains of the Serengeti, and others admire the exceptional beauty and unique geological features of Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland. People travel great distances to snorkel in Belize, fish in New Zealand, explore the Louvre, or observe the changing of the guard in Ottawa or at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, DC. Historic sites and natural areas around the world are preserved and protected so people can engage firsthand in natural, cultural, or historic awareness and appreciation.
It's Everywhere
Parks, recreation, and leisure is everywhere - all the places and spaces in which people gather to play, enjoy, and relax. It is in the far reaches of the Sahara, the crowded seashores of California, the Broadway theaters and museums of New York City, the Hell's Gate Airtram, and the Classic Chinese Garden of Vancouver. Leisure pursuits take place in cities and towns, small villages, the countryside, and mega-urban centers. Leisure experiences occur inside buildings and in outdoor spaces. The array of places is extensive and includes auditoriums, zoos, churches, and casinos. There are health clubs and spas located in airports, rock-climbing walls in retail establishments, and play areas at some fast-food restaurants and retail stores.
Another dimension of the everywhere quality of parks and recreation is illustrated in the fact that all types of organizations and businesses provide parks, recreation, and leisure services. The delivery of services is not limited to only one type of organization. For example, one golf course might be under the governance of a city or state, another similar course might be a private country club for members only, and a third course might be managed by a corporation. Organizations that offer adventure pursuits can run the gamut from local nonprofits, such as a YMCA, that offer outdoor leadership training to travel companies that design and offer adventure experiences around the globe.
It's for Everyone
Consider the ways that parks, recreation, and leisure touches the lives of people of all ages, life stages, cultures, social classes, and genders. Think about personal experiences or observations, and identify the people who participate in a recreation activity or spend time in a natural setting. These might include the following:
- College students playing coed volleyball in the school's intramural league
- A 10-year-old taking beginning drawing lessons at the community center
- A parent and toddler enrolled in a movement class at the local YMCA
- Friends spending time together at a day spa
- Families picnicking while enjoying an outdoor band concert
- A 12-year-old going away to camp for the first time
- People playing pickup basketball at the local park
- An adolescent testing self-sufficiency on an Outward Bound trip
- Grandparents taking grandchildren on a trip to the Grand Canyon
- A teen group teaching retirees how to surf the net
- A stressed-out adult watching the sunset
- Employees attending the annual company outing to a theme park
- Special Olympics athletes crossing the finish line with elation that brings smiles to the faces of participants and spectators alike
- The over-60 softball team exhibiting a desire to win similar to that of the youth soccer league players
- Fledgling and gifted artists displaying work in the same community art show
An adage often used by parks and recreation professionals employed in the community sector is that parks and recreation takes people "from the cradle to the grave." Although that is not the most appealing description, it does reinforce the presence of parks and recreation in everyone's lives.
All the Time
Although the pursuits of open space, physical activity, and social outings happen all the time (any month of the year, any day of the week, and throughout all the life stages of human existence), some recreation activities are associated mainly with the summer or the winter, and holidays sometimes serve as an impetus. For example, the new year and its emphasis on resolutions motivates people to become more physically active or to seek out new experiences. Independence Day celebrations are commonly accompanied by picnics, concerts, fireworks, trips, and other outings, and Halloween brings out the childlike spirit in young and old alike with parties and parades.
The characteristics of different seasons provide opportunities for year-round activity. The first thaw finds people tending lawns and starting gardens. Summer draws people to mountains, lakes, streams, or seashores. Winter gives way to skiing, skating, curling, and snowboarding. People's passions for certain activities have influenced the all-the-time approach to parks and recreation. It used to be that tennis and soccer could only be played in warm weather, and ice-skating and hockey required cold weather. Indoor facilities, lit playing fields, and trails expand the opportunities to engage in parks and recreation services.
People also pursue recreation at all hours of the day. Ski areas that open at first light give would-be lift-ticket purchasers the chance to check out snow conditions. Health clubs that open at 4:30 a.m. enable early risers to work out before heading to work. Heavily industrialized communities offer adult leagues and activities to accommodate the traditional three shifts of factory work. The city of Las Vegas, with its "Beyond the Neon" slogan, offers unusual times for programs and activities because many residents work shifts in the casinos that operate around the clock. YMCAs and community centers offer sleepovers that provide not only fun and excitement for children but also leisure time for parents. Midnight basketball facilitates recreation participation late at night.
Recreation and leisure also occur throughout the life cycle. Play is essential for children, and from infancy and through adolescence they acquire important life skills through recreation and leisure activities and experiences. The peekaboo games so popular with babies and the duck, duck, goose game so common in early childhood teach important social connections and interactions. At the other end of the spectrum, recreation provides stress reduction for overworked adults and social support for older people who live alone.
Outstanding Graduate
Background Information
Name: Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Education: MS in parks, recreation, and tourism from the University of Utah
Credentials: AFO
Awards: Colorado Starburst Award (2016) for her Palisade Bike Skills Park
Affiliations: National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Colorado Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)
©Sarah Martsolf-Brooks
Career Information
Position: Palisade Parks and Recreation (Town of Palisade, Colorado)
Organization: Upon completing my master's degree at the University of Utah, I was hired by the town of Palisade in Colorado as the recreation director. Palisade is a small agricultural community of 3,000 people, known for abundant peach orchards, charming wineries, and plenty of outdoor recreation. Palisade also plays host to several special events, which draw in more than 40,000 tourists throughout the year. Town employees often find themselves navigating multiple jobs, with only 30 full-time employees spread out over five departments. The recreation department consists of one full-time employee, three seasonal college interns, and specialty instructors who are hired on as contractors.
Job description: Working in Palisade was most attractive because it gave me the opportunity to build a new recreation department from the ground up. The first programs I started in 2011 included basic fitness classes, DIY activities, family game nights, and outdoor activities such as day trips and hikes. My job is rarely the same from day to day, with job duties that include marketing, program and event planning, program facilitation, grant writing, park projects, supervising interns, aquatics, attending outreach committees, merchandising for events, and coordinating volunteers. What I like most are leading outdoor adventures, bringing my dogs to work, watching new friendships grow, planning park projects, and coaching the summer swim team. However, with limited staff time, it is difficult to expand program offerings without taking away from already-successful programs.
Career path: I got my start in parks and recreation as a lifeguard with the City of Fruita. Soon after, I progressed into pool management, worked on special events, and taught fitness classes. After completing a bachelor's degree in sports and exercise science, I worked as a personal trainer and coached rugby. I also have experience in campus recreation from both Northern Colorado and the University of Utah.
Advice for Undergraduates
The subject field of public parks and recreation offers a rewarding career because there are many opportunities to make an impact; through trails and open spaces, people of all economic levels can be encouraged to stay active, children can be inspired to become stewards of the environment through after-school programs, and older adults can challenge age stereotypes through outdoor adventure. My advice to students is to search for jobs of interest, not pick based on salary range; find something that you will love getting out of bed for each day - a career that will offer challenges and opportunities to achieve new goals.
"When given the choice to take a shorter path or one less traveled, the one less traveled may pose more challenges, but the views from the top are spectacular."
Recreation and Leisure Takes Up One-Third of Our Time
People sometimes discount the role and the importance of unobligated, discretionary time and the role it plays in quality of life. They focus on attending school, getting a good night's sleep, and going to work, but those activities don't take up all of their time.
If people living in industrialized nations sleep between six and eight hours every day and work or go to school for another eight hours a day during the week, how much unobligated time do they have? Although the number of hours consumed by sleep, work, and the requirements of daily living, such as housework, commuting, and so on, vary from person to person, one thing is certain: Unobligated time accounts for well over one-third of most people's lives. To see how this is true, consider the following:
- Life span. People born today in the United States or Canada can expect to live to approximately 80 years, and school attendance and work do not occur during all of those years.
- Sleep. Approximately one-third, or eight hours, of every day is spent sleeping.
- Play. Children from birth to 4 years old spend a minimum of six hours per day exploring, learning, and growing through play.
- School. The amount of time children and young adults spend in school varies based upon whether they pursue education beyond secondary school. The amount of time remaining for leisure is likely different based upon individual conditions. A sixth grader with three hours of homework every night probably doesn't get a full eight hours of leisure time just as a community college student working to pay for college expenses would not have the eight hours per day either.
- Work. Most people work full time for 40 hours per week for 30 to 50 years. Many people have at least two weeks of vacation per year and don't work on select holidays.
- Third age. Retirement, or third age, typically lasts at least five years and can be longer depending on longevity. Nearly 30 percent of people who have already reached the age of 65 (or will in the near future) will likely live even longer than 80 years. This suggests that there will be many years that are unencumbered by schooling and full-time employment.
Play around with the years and hours cited in the previous list to see how much time is available after you account for sleeping, eating, schooling, and working. The unobligated time remaining might surprise you.
Beyond Everywhere and Everyone
Although parks, recreation, and leisure facilities and services are everywhere and are available to everyone most of the time, their presence alone isn't enough to prove their value to individuals, families, work groups, neighborhoods, communities, and society. Just being everywhere all the time is not necessarily a valuable or positive attribute. For example, cable television operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, but that does not mean that the programs or offerings are positive or of value or interest to the viewer. We need to explore the depth of values and benefits that lie beneath the surface of parks and recreation. Consider the following values of parks and recreation to different individuals:
- A university student might choose to join the intramural coed volleyball team to be physically active, hang out with friends, meet new people, or have a change of pace from classes and study time (or a combination of these).
- A 12-year-old might look forward to attending a residential camp for one month to acquire new skills, practice being independent, make new friends, or exhibit self-reliance.
- A single mother with a very long day ahead of her might rise at 5:30 a.m. to sit with a cup of tea and watch the sun rise to help her relax, reflect, and regroup before the nonstop demands of her day.
The values and benefits that people derive from the park setting, recreation activity, or leisure experience imbue parks and recreation with its inherent value. The unusual list of questions titled "Guess Who I Am" (figure 1.1) from an issue of Parks & Recreation can serve as a springboard for the various ways parks and recreation can be viewed and the diverse roles it can play (Corwin, 2001).
This list of questions illustrates the diversity of parks and recreation.
Reprinted courtesy of Parks & Recreation, National Recreation and Park Association.
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