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Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education
Meeting the National Standards & Grade-Level Outcomes
by Lynn Couturier MacDonald, Robert J. Doan and Stevie Chepko
Series: SHAPE America set the Standard
776 Pages
Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education provides standards-based, ready-to-use lesson plans that enhance student learning and help students become physically literate. Designed to complement the successful elementary and middle school books in the series, this book also provides guidance on how to plan effective lessons that align with SHAPE America’s National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education.
Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education is written by master teachers and edited by SHAPE America. In this book, you’ll find:
• More than 240 lesson plans that provide deliberate, progressive practice tasks and integrate appropriate assessments to evaluate and monitor student progress
• Innovative and unique modules on topics such as fly fishing, rock climbing, line dance, yoga and stress management, and more, as well as more traditional modules
• Introductory chapters that present the key points for the grade span, putting the lessons in context and providing teachers and PE majors and minors a clear roadmap for planning curricula, units, and lessons
• Lessons that reflect best practices in instruction, helping teachers enhance their effectiveness
• Expert guidance in delivering quality lessons that are designed to reach objectives and produce outcomes, and not just keep students occupied
The lessons correspond to each category in SHAPE America’s National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education, and are sequential and comprehensive—you get complete, ready-to-use units and not just individual lessons that don’t connect. The lessons include resource lists, references, equipment lists, and student assignments. The accompanying web resource offers easy access to printable PDF files of the lessons. Your administrator will be able to see at a glance that the lessons in the book are designed to meet the national standards and outcomes created by SHAPE America.
The lessons in Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education can be used as they are or modified to fit the needs of your students. They also are perfect models for teachers and college students to use in creating their own lessons. The text includes instructional strategies such as how to teach for transfer, utilize grids and small games, differentiate instruction for varying ability levels, integrate conceptual material, and more.
The book is organized into two parts. Part I explores issues pertinent to planning for high schoolers’ success, including how to plan lessons using SHAPE America’s Grade-Level Outcomes, meeting the National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes, developing an electives-based program for high school students, and the importance of teaching for student learning.
The lesson plans themselves are found in Part II, and each lesson aligns with SHAPE America’s National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education. Part II offers plans in these categories:
• Outdoor pursuits
• Individual-performance activities
• Net and wall games, such as badminton and tennis
• Target games
• Dannce and rhythms
• Fitness activities, such as Pilates, resistance training, and yoga
• Personal fitness assessment and planning
Each category contains modules of 15 or 16 lessons, each of which incorporates various National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes. For example, you can address Standard 4 outcomes—which are about personal and social responsibility—during lessons on net and wall games, lessons on dance and rhythms, and so on.
With the high-quality lesson content and the many tools and resources provided, Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education will help teachers foster their students’ physical literacy and help students develop physically active lifestyles that they can maintain throughout their adult lives.
Part I Planning for Student Success in High School
Chapter 1. The Importance of Teaching for Student Learning in High School
Lynn Couturier MacDonald, Robert J. Doan, and Stevie Chepko
Factors That Influence Student Learning
The Instructional Environment
How the Grade-Level Outcomes Are Coded
Understanding the Scope and Sequence for K-12 Physical Education
Chapter 2. Teaching to Standards: Planning Lessons Using the Grade-Level Outcomes
Lynn Couturier MacDonald, Stevie Chepko, and Robert J. Doan
Planning for the Module
Planning for Individual Lessons
Setting Up the Lesson
Planning for Embedded Outcomes
Optimizing Learning Through Embedded Outcomes
Summary
Chapter 3. Meeting the National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes in High School
Lynn Couturier MacDonald, Robert J. Doan, and Stevie Chepko
High School Is Different
The Progression From Middle School
High School Instructional Environment
Grade-Level Outcomes for High School Students (Grades 9-12)
Operational Definitions of Activity Categories
Chapter 4. Developing an Electives-Based Program for High School Students
Aaron Hart
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
Select a Design, Create a Plan, and Then Implement the Program
Personalized Curriculum Design
Take the First Step
Part II Lesson Plans for High School Physical Education
Chapter 5. Extending Students’ Skills and Knowledge to Outdoor Pursuits
Tracy Krause
Integrated Fly Fishing
Hiking
Rock Climbing
Chapter 6. Extending Students’ Skills and Knowledge to Individual-Performance Activities
Adrienne Koesterer and Mary Westkott
Aquatics
Multi-Sport Events
Chapter 7. Extending Students’ Skills and Knowledge to Net and Wall Games
Charla Tedder Krahnke, Melanie Perrault, and Charlie Rizzuto
Badminton
Tennis
Tennis Doubles
Chapter 8. Extending Students’ Skills and Knowledge to Target Games
Brandon Allen
Beginning Golf
Chapter 9. Extending Students’ Skills and Knowledge to Dance and Rhythms
Patrice Lovdahl and Lisa Jacob
Line Dance
Choreography
Chapter 10. Extending Students’ Skills and Knowledge to Fitness Activities
Ericka Fangiullo, Anthony Smith, and Joni M. Boyd
Yoga and Stress Management
Resistance Training
Pilates
Chapter 11. Extending Students’ Skills and Knowledge to Designing and Implementing Personal Fitness Plans
Rebecca Bryan
Fitness Assessment and Program Planning
Fitness Walking
Lynn Couturier MacDonald, DPE, is a professor and chair of the physical education department at State University of New York at Cortland and is a former president of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), now called SHAPE America (Society of Health and Physical Educators). Dr. MacDonald earned her BS and DPE degrees in physical education from Springfield College and her MS in biomechanics from the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana. Dr. MacDonald chaired the NASPE’s Curriculum Framework and K-12 Standards Revision Task Force, which spearheaded the 2013 revision of SHAPE America’s National Standards for K-12 Physical Education and the development of SHAPE America’s Grade-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education. She also served as one of the three principal writers of SHAPE America’s book National Standards & Grade-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education, published by Human Kinetics. She has presented at the national level on the National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes. She is a member of SHAPE America and the National Association for Kinesiology in Higher Education. Dr. MacDonald enjoys spending time with her family, being active outdoors (cycling, kayaking, gardening), and reading for pleasure.
Robert J. Doan, PhD, is an assistant professor of physical education in the University of Southern Mississippi’s school of kinesiology. He previously taught physical education in elementary school. Dr. Doan serves as a board member for the Mississippi Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (MAHPERD), a SHAPE America state affiliate organization. He also serves as a teacher-education program reviewer for SHAPE America and as an article reviewer for two of SHAPE America’s professional journals: Strategies and Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Dr. Doan has conducted research on a variety of physical education topics and has presented at multiple conferences at the state, regional, and national levels. Dr. Doan earned his undergraduate degree from Grand Valley State University, attended Winthrop University for his master’s degree, and completed his PhD in physical education with an emphasis in curriculum and assessment at the University of South Carolina.
Stevie Chepko, EdD, is assistant dean for accreditation at the University of Nebraska at Omaha and is former senior vice president of accreditation for the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP). Dr. Chepko earned her EdD in curriculum and instruction and sport history from Temple University. She is a respected authority on performance-based standards, teaching for mastery, and assessment in physical education. Dr. Chepko served on the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s Curriculum Framework and K-12 Standards Revision Task Force, which spearheaded the 2013 revision of SHAPE America’s National Standards for K-12 Physical Education and the development of SHAPE America’s Grade-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education. She also served as one of three principal writers of SHAPE America’s book National Standards & Grade-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education, published by Human Kinetics.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
Upper-Body Machines
Primary Outcomes - Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
Grade-Level Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
- Fitness activities: Demonstrates competency in 1 or more specialized skills in health-related fitness activities. (S1.H3.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Demonstrates appropriate technique on resistance-training machines and with free weights. (S3.H7.L1)
- Fitness knowledge: Designs and implements a strength and conditioning program that develops balance of opposing muscle groups (agonist/antagonist) and supports a healthy, active lifestyle. (S3.H7.L2)
- Safety: Applies best practices for participating safely in physical activity, exercise and dance (e.g., injury prevention, proper alignment, hydration, use of equipment, implementation of rules, sun protection). (S4.H5.L1)
Embedded Outcome
- Movement concepts, principles & knowledge: Uses movement concepts and principles (e.g., force, motion, rotation) to analyze and improve performance of self and/or others in a selected skill. (S2.H2.L1)
Lesson Objectives
The learner will:
- demonstrate proper form and technique for two different machines for the upper body.
- teach an upper-body machine exercise to a partner and evaluate the partner's movement after practice.
- calculate the 10-rep-max weight a peer should use.
- identify upper-body exercises in agonist/antagonist pairings.
Equipment and Materials
- Upper-body exercise machines (identified by name)
- Peer assessment grading form and rubrics
- 10-rep-max progression worksheets
- Upper-body workout plan templates
- Lifting straps
- Lifting belts
Introduction
Before we start on today's assignment, turn in your workout logs from the lower-body machines workout. For today's activity, I will go over each of the machines for the upper body, providing directions on how to adjust the machines, giving cues for performing the activities correctly, and identifying common mistakes you may experience along the way. In addition, you will help determine the 10-rep max for the bench press machine. Once we have been through all the machines, you will take your partner through a total-body dynamic warm-up and then through an upper-body workout using the machines. Remember, you must describe the machine and what body parts it works, perform a demonstration, and provide instruction of what NOT to do, or what might be incorrect form. Once you feel comfortable, get my attention and I will assess your ability to teach and supervise during your partner's performance.
Instructional Task: Demonstration of Proper Technique
Practice Task
Demonstrate proper technique and adjustments on a variety of upper-body machines. The upper-body machines can include chest press and chest fly, lat pull-down, seated row, military press, deltoid flys, seated biceps curl, seated dips, and the hyperextension machine. Students make sure that all body parts are making contact with the pads and that each joint is located in line with the colored dots at each juncture.
Students practice techniques and safety on upper-body machines using light resistance.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students select the machines that they want to use.
- Students determine time for testing based on comfort level.
- Experienced students may use free weights in place of machines.
- Inexperienced students may perform body-weight exercises if they are uncomfortable on the machines.
What to Look For
- Students are using proper technique and reviewing the safety components of each exercise.
- Students are adjusting the machines when needed.
Instructional Task: Peer Assessment of Performance in Upper-Body Machines
Practice Task
Students perform their dynamic stretching routines. Partners work together to review the correct procedures for each exercise. Students evaluate the technique of a partner on at least one upper-body machine using a rubric.
Embedded outcome: S2.H2.L1. Partners provide feedback on technique to help improve performance on a selected exercise.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Student selects which exercise to assess.
What to Look For
- Students are providing supportive, corrective feedback.
- Students are critiquing technique accurately.
Instructional Task: Predicting Maximum Effort
Practice Task
Partners follow protocol for establishing a 10-max rep for the bench press. Students cool down with their static stretching routines.
Extension
Experienced students can use the bench press or machine chest press.
Refinement
Instruct students not to increase the weight too much from one set to the next. If the weight changes too much, it might become a safety issue for the lifter and result in injury.
Student Choices/Differentiation
Students choose their partners.
What to Look For
- Students supervise their peers and monitor for proper technique.
- Students use the protocol to proceed with the test.
- Students attempt to perform the exercise with maximum effort.
Instructional Task: Upper-Body Exercise Discussion
Practice Task
Review overload and the FITT principle. Have students work together to create a list of upper-body machine exercises by name and the muscles they work. Students then pair agonist/antagonist exercises.
Have pairs turn in a list of all the exercises they performed during class. Review the lists at the end of the day so students can add new exercises they haven't performed to their workout lists.
Extension
Have students find additional exercises for the upper body online and include them in their workout plans.
Student Choices/Differentiation
- Students choose their partners.
- Students find alternative exercises online.
What to Look For
- Exercises work just the upper body.
- Students are identifying the machines and exercises correctly.
Formal and Informal Assessments
- Student demonstration of appropriate technique for upper-body exercises
- Peer evaluation of movement technique using supervisor protocol
- Assessment of upper-body strength using the 10-rep-max protocol
- Exercise lists
Closure
- Today, we examined a variety of upper-body exercises using machines.
- You were able to demonstrate proper technique and the ability to effectively evaluate the technique of others.
- Finally, you learned how to estimate your maximum strength in a safe manner.
- Next time, you will learn how to use free weights for resistance training.
Reflection
- Did students follow the 10-rep-max protocol better than with the lower body?
- Are they able to determine opposing muscle groups and how to work them?
Homework
- Taking your assessment results into account, write down which exercises you would use to address upper-body weaknesses.
- Record your body-weight exercise repetitions and exercises in a log. Include your physical activity outside of class.
Resources
Bompa, T. (2015). Conditioning young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Internet keyword search: "resistance machines," "10 rep max protocol," "upper body conditioning"
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Factors That Influence Student Learning
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014).
Many factors influence student learning and the subsequent development of physical literacy, including elements such as student engagement, motor skills competency, gender differences, and instructional environment (SHAPE America, 2014). Student engagement refers to the level of personal involvement in the learning activity; in other words, the degree to which a student is engrossed physically, cognitively, and/or socially in the learning experience. A passive bystander in a soccer game is not necessarily "engaged," even though that student might technically be "participating" in the activity. The list that follows summarizes what researchers have determined will affect student engagement in any subject area. For more detail about each point, please review the studies under each topic area in the topic-area resources listed in the back of the book.
Students are more likely to engage in an activity if
- they believe that they have the skills to succeed in the activity,
- the learning activity is interesting, and
- the learning experience provides a socially supportive and inclusive climate.
Having the Skills to Succeed in an Activity
Skill competency and perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are more willing to put effort into the task. When students do not believe they have the skills to participate successfully in an activity, they are less willing to put themselves at risk of possible negative social comparisons with their peers and, accordingly, are less likely to engage in the activity (Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Ommundsen, 2006). Those social comparisons often occur in activities in which students perform individually while other students observe (e.g., batting in softball) or in competitive games.
Skill competency and perceived competency are just as important for students to continue participating in a physical activity and in fitness as they are for students to engage initially. Researchers have found that kindergarten children who are proficient in motor skills are more physically active than those children who are not as proficient (Kambas et al., 2012), that skillful children are more likely to be fit and physically active as adolescents than are less-skilled children (Barnett et al., 2008a; Barnett et al., 2008b), and that a positive relationship exists between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in young adults (Stodden, Langendorfer, & Robertson, 2009). In other studies, skillful middle school students were found to be more active and more effective during game play than less-skilled students (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011). The less-skilled students often were excluded from game play, resulting in their developing negative attitudes toward it. In general, game play led to fewer skill practice opportunities, lower levels of perceived competence, and a lack of engagement for less-skilled students. Similarly, high school students who lack skill are more likely than those with skill to disengage from physical activity and, thereby, avoid possible embarrassment or social comparisons (Garn, Ware, & Solmon, 2011; Portman, 2003). Stodden et al. (2008) hypothesized that as children mature, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity strengthens. In that model, those who are not skillful are less likely than skillful peers to participate and, therefore, they become less fit, leading to a "negative spiral of disengagement" (p. 296).
The development of competence, then, is a key strategy for promoting long-term physical activity and fitness. Indeed, "SHAPE America considers the development of motor skill competence to be the highest priority in the Grade-Level Outcomes" (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 9). The fundamental movement patterns form the foundation for physical activity, and those skills require instruction and practice from qualified teachers and coaches (Strong et al., 2005, p. 736). As a physical education teacher, you play a critical role in ensuring that all your students develop motor skill competence through the progressive and sequential development of learning experiences and high-quality lesson plans.
Offering Learning Activities That Are Interesting
Students' interest in any particular activity is influenced by their individual interests, situational interest, choice, and challenge. Individual interest is a relatively stable construct and depends on each student's personal characteristics and experiences. Situational interest is more variable and is influenced by the learning environment. As a teacher, you can increase students' situational interest by manipulating the level of cognitive demand or challenge (Chen & Darst, 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and by providing choices to students. It's essential, then, to design learning experiences that require exploration, problem solving, and/or higher levels of thinking (e.g., applying skills to a new situation, synthesizing knowledge from different areas) in order to increase the likelihood that the activities you present to your students will interest them and engage them in learning. If your lesson activities are too basic or are mindlessly repetitive, students will be bored and will check out mentally. An activity has to contain enough challenge to hold your students' attention and motivate them to apply effort to the practice tasks.
Providing choice in the instructional experiences is essential to attracting and maintaining student interest, as well as appealing to students' sense of autonomy (Bryan et al., 2013; Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Allowing students to make some choices leads them to invest a bit of themselves in the task at hand. This can be as simple as allowing students to pick their own partners or pieces of equipment. You also can offer students more complex choices, such as choosing between modified game play and additional practice tasks, or selecting a practice task from several of varying difficulty (differentiated instruction). A well-planned elective program could offer high school students choices of different activities. In each case, careful planning is necessary in order to offer meaningful instructional choices to students.
Providing a Socially Supportive and Inclusive Instructional Climate
Most students prefer to engage in physical education when the instructional environment is inclusive and feels supportive (relatedness) (Zhang et al., 2011). To be inclusive, the learning environment should offer learning experiences that are welcoming to students of all ability levels (differentiated instruction) and that accommodate a variety of student interests. Often - especially for less-skilled students - a curriculum that is oriented toward competitive team sports does not feel inclusive or supportive. A competitive instructional environment allows highly skilled students to dominate, reducing practice opportunities for other students and increasing their chances of being embarrassed (Bernstein, Phillips, & Silverman, 2011; Hill & Hannon, 2008). Less-skilled students prefer cooperative and noncompetitive activities that allow them to participate on more even footing.
Beginning with adolescence, gender preferences become an important consideration for inclusiveness. Substantial evidence suggests that adolescent girls are dissatisfied with the traditional physical education curriculum. With the exception of those who are highly skilled, most adolescent girls prefer activities such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to traditional team sports (Grieser et al., 2006; Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2005). In addition, girls are more likely than boys to perceive the physical education environment as a barrier to participation, indicating that sweating as well as showering and changing clothes in a locker room discourage their involvement in class (Couturier, Chepko, & Coughlin, 2007; Xu & Liu, 2013). Given that girls' physical activity levels are lower than boys' in general, and that those activity levels drop off further in adolescence, teachers must attend to gender differences and preferences in planning learning experiences for their students. The curriculum that you design must have the potential to engage all students, regardless of skill level, gender, or personal interest.
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Why Consider Electives-Based Physical Education?
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992).
As physical educators, we strive to instill within our students a sense of intrinsic motivation that will drive them to participate in physical education and activity because they find it interesting and enjoyable, and to embrace the curriculum because it offers opportunity for learning (Vallerand et al., 1992). It's also important that they possess a degree of self-regulation based on their internalized value of physical education participation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). That is, they participate because they understand the importance of physical literacy for their overall health and lifetime wellness (Ntoumanis, 2005).
What does this all mean for the practitioner? Stated simply, it means that we have to plan lessons and modules that students will enjoy, find challenging, and see as relevant to their overall health, wellness, and lifestyle. In 2014, high school physical educator Tracy Krause - who contributed the three outdoor pursuits modules in chapter 5 - described his school's student survey as a critical tool for developing a departmental vision and overall curriculum plan that aligned with the values and interests of both the students and the community (Krause, 2014). Further, Krause explains that these data exposed the importance of intentional and focused decision making. Honest teacher reflection, strategic re-thinking, intentional planning, and mindful assessment are all requirements for physical educators striving toward highly effective curriculum development and implementation. Fortunately, tools such as Google Forms make it easier than ever to use student surveys as a method for gathering critical information to help teachers make informed curriculum decisions.
Start With a Survey
To move forward with an intentional focus on student participation and motivation, programs can start with a student survey based on Standard 5 (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 60). Even when there are potential barriers to immediate change (e.g., funding, facilities, equipment, administrative support), starting the process with a short survey is an act that will begin to build an important bridge between you and your students.
Planning survey questions based on the Grade-Level Outcomes under Standard 5 helps ensure that you're using backward-design principles and are indeed starting with your learning goals in mind. Table 4.1 provides a series of sample survey questions that you can use as a starting point for your own customized student survey.
Examine Your Resources
Once you have a baseline understanding of what students want and need during their physical education experience, take an honest and creative look at the resources that are available to you.
Teachers are a program's greatest resource. Often, the physical activity options that physical education teachers value match the resources available within the community, but if that's not the case, teacher interest and passion can overcome many obstacles to new offerings. Although curriculum design and implementation should be a collaborative effort among teachers, each member of a department can take ownership of an activity category that interests him or her most. It's also likely that there will be an essential category (or categories) that no one is particularly passionate about. However, the fire and energy created in the process of planning a favorite module or category can carry over into the planning of important topics that may not be particularly favored.
Once your teaching team is excited about content possibilities, take a look at the equipment and facilities available. If fitness swimming rises to the top of the survey results and is a passion for one of the teachers, then take time to examine how the department can gain access to a pool. Community partnerships and grant programs may help make this option a real possibility. However, it's also important to spend time and effort on activity options that are realistic and sustainable. As you begin working toward an electives-based design, it's okay to provide relevant options that fit within program limitations while working to secure the resources for future activity options. You certainly will want to work closely with your school's administrators to secure their buy-in for community partnerships, grant applications, or changes in program direction.
The final resource to be considered is time, and this resource is affected both by school scheduling policy and by the number of teachers available in each period. Lay out a blank block plan before determining the type of design you will implement. It's possible that, because of scheduling parameters, you might choose one design for grades 9 and 10 and another design for grades 11 and 12. Scheduling can be frustrating. It's important to stay positive and be creative during this phase of the planning process.
Learn more about Lesson Planning for High School Physical Education With Web Resource.
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